17.1 Components of Nucleic Acids LEARNING GOAL Describe the bases and ribose sugars that make up the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, Nucleic acids are large molecules found in the nuclei of cells that store information and direct activities for cellular growth and reproduction. There are two closely related types of nucleic acids: deaxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Deoxyribonucleic acid, the genetic material in the nucleus of a cell, contains all the information needed for the development of a complete living organism. Ribonucleic acid interprets the genetic information in DNA for the synthesis of protein. Both DNA and RNA are composed of smaller units known as nucleotides, linked together in unbranched chains. Each nucleotide has three components: a base that conta nitrogen, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group (see FIGURE 17.1). A DNA molecule may contain several million nucleotides; smaller RNA molecules may contain up to several thousand, Bases The nitrogen-containing bases in nucleic acids are derivatives of the heterocyclic amines pyrimidine or purine. \ pyrimidine has a single ring with two nitrogen atoms, and a purine hhas two rings each with two nitrogen atoms. They are basic because the nitrogen atoms are H acceptors. In DNA, the pyrimidine bases with single rings are cytosine (C) and thymine (1), and the purine bases with double rings are adenine (A) and guanine (G). RNA cont the same bases, except thymine (5-methyluracil) is replaced by uracil (U) (see FIGURE 17.2). Pini nth NH> oO c e Ox, cH, LH Ao o | } H ini iti NH) em ay add vow oy H FIGURE 17.2 DNA contains the bases A, G, C, and T; RNA contains A, G, C, and U. @ Which bases are found in DNA? Pentose Sugars In RNA, the five-carbon sugar is ribose, which gives the letter R in the abbreviation RNA. ‘The atoms in the pentose sugars are numbered with primes (I', 2’, 3',4', and 5°) to di ferentiate them from the atoms in the bases. In DNA. the five-carbon sugar is deoxyribose, which is similar to ribose except that there is no hydroxyl group (— OH) on C2'. The deoxy prefix means “without oxygen” and provides the letter D in DNA. 17.1 Components of Nucleic Acids 615. eeu 17.4 Components of Nucleic Acids Primary Structure of Nucleic Acids DNA Double Helix and Replication RNA and Transcription ‘The Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis Genetic Mutations Recombinant DNA Viruses 172 173 74 75 176 77 178 FIGURE 17.1 The genera structure of a nucleotide includes a nitrogen containing base, a sugar, and a phosphate group. @ Inanuclectide, what types of ‘groups are bonded to a fve- carbon sugar? ‘Try Practice Problems 17.1 to 17.4 Pentose Sugars in Nucleic Acids HO— CH, OH OH OH Ribose in RNA s HO— CH) on ia an ‘on Deoxyribose in DNA to this carbon The five-carbon pentose sugar found in RNA is ribose and in DNA, deoxyribose.616 CHAPTER 17 Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis Nucleosides and Nucleotides ‘A nucleoside is composed of one of the nitrogen-containing bases and one of the sugars, either ribose or deoxyribose. A nitrogen atom of the base is connected by a B-N-glycosidic bond to the C1’ of the sugar. For example, the combination of adenine, a purine, and ribose forms the nucleoside adenosine. Sug + Base | + Nucleoside + HO NH mn OB ; Nib a HO—CH; ~ ——> Ho-cH, oe B-N-Glycosidic bond Gi i H H H H +10 OH OH OH OH Ribose Adenosine Abase forms a B-N-glycosidic bond with a pentose sugar to form a nucleoside and water. Nucleotides are produced when the C5’ hydroxyl group of ribose or deoxyribose in a nucleoside forms a phosphate ester. All the nucleotides in RNA and DNA are shown in FIGURE 17.3. Phosphate + ~—=Nucleoside = « > Nucleotile, = + HO Phosphoster bond NH, ° ° i I 5 ] 5 OPO OPO at NH o o H H H H OH OH CH) OH OH (H) Adenosine monophosphate (AMP) Guanosine monophosphate (GMP) DDeoxyadenosine monophosphate (@AMP) _Deoxyauinosine monephosphate (GMP) NH ° i] x “o—P—o—CH, ° ea H H OH OH (H) ytne monophosphate (CMP) Uridine monophosphate (UMP) ‘Deoxythymidine monophosphate (TMP) ‘Deoxyeytidine monophosphate (CMP) FIGURE 17.3 The nucleotides of RNA (shown in black) are similar to those of DNA (chown in magenta), except in DNA the sugar is deoxyrbose and deoxythymisine replaces uridine @ What are two diferences in the nucleotides of RNA and DNA?‘TABLE 17.1 summarizes the components in DNA and RNA. TABLE 17.1 Components in DNA and RNA Component DNA RNA Bases A,G,C, and T A,G,C, and U Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose Nucleoside Base + deoxyribose Base + ribose Nucleotide Base + deoxyribose + phosphate Base + ribose + phosphate Nucleic Acid Linear chain of deoxyribose nucleotides Linear chain of ribose nucleotides Naming Nucleosides and Nucleotides The name of a nucleoside that contains a purine ends with osine, whereas a nucleoside that contains a pyrimidine ends with idine. The names of nucleosides of DNA add deoxy to the beginning of their names. The corresponding nucleotides in RNA and DNA are named by adding monophosphate to the end of the nucleoside name. Although the letters A, G, C, U, and T represent the bases, they are often used in the abbreviations of the respective nucleo- sides and nucleotides. The names of the bases, nucleosides, and nucleotides in DNA and RNA and their abbreviations are listed in TABLE 17.2. TABLE 17.2 Nucleosides and Nucleotides in DNA and RNA Base Nucleosides Nucleotides DNA Adenine (A) Deoxyadenosine (A) ‘Deoxyadenosine monophosphate (JAMP) Guanine (G) Deoxyguanosine (G) Deoxyguanosine monophosphate (GMP) Cytosine (C) Deoxyeytidine (C) ‘Deoxycytidine monophosphate ((CMP) Thymine (T) Deoxythymidine (T) Deoxythymidine monophosphate (¢TMP) RNA Adenine (A) Adenosine (A) Adenosine monophosphate (AMP) Guanine (G) Guanosine (G) Guanosine monophosphate (GMP) Cytosine (C) Cytidine (C) Cytidine monophosphate (CMP) Uracil (U) Uridine (U) Uridine monophosphate (UMP) Is uridine menophosphate (UMP) found in DNA or RNA?17.2 Primary Structure of Nucleic Acids LEARNING GOAL Describe the primary structures of RNA and NA. ‘The nucleic acids are unbranched chains of many nucleotides in which the 3° hydroxyl group of the sugar in one nucleotide bonds to the phosphate group on the 5” carbon atom in the sugar of the next nucleotide. This connection between a phosphate and sugars in adjacent nucleotides is referred to as a phosphodiester linkage. As more nucleotides are added, a backbone forms that consists of alternating sugar and phos- phate groups. The bases, which ae attached to each sugar. extend out from the sugar phosphate backbone. ach nucleic acid has its own unique sequence of bases, which is known as its primary structure. It is this sequence of bases that carries the genetic information. In any nucleic faeid, the sugar atone end has an unreacted oF free S* phosphate terminal end, and the sugar atthe other end has a free 3° hydroxyl group. ‘A nucleic acid sequence is read from the sugar withthe free 8’ phosphate tothe sugar Fie end Inthe primary structure of nucleic withthe free 3° hydroxyl group. The order of nucleotides in a nucleic avid is often writen acids, each sugar ina sugar-phosphate using the letters of the bases. For example, the nucleotide sequence stating with adenine backbone is attached to a base (free 5” phosphate end) in the section of RNA shown in FIGURE 17.4 is A C GU. 172 Primary Structure of Nucleic Acids 619 Fie phosphite = 1 [A phosphodiester linkage forms between the 3" hydroxy group in the sugar of one nucleotide ‘and the phosphate group onthe 5 carbon atom in the sugar ofthe next nucleotide ° Li 1 5 Uracil) o=P—0-Git oO 4 ou on FIGURE 174 nthe pray structure of BNA, CG, nd Uae connected by phosphoseser inkagos [Giles abdniveri diem enitinientaras17.3 DNA Double Helix and Replication LEARNING GOAL Describe the double heli of DNA: describe the proces of ONA replication. During the 1940s, biologists determined that the bases in DNA from & variety of organ isms had a specific relationship: the amount of adenine (A) was equal to the amount of ‘thymine (1), and the amount of guanine (G) was equal tothe amount of eytosine (C) (see ‘TABLE 17.3. Evenualy, scientists determined that adenine is pire (I: 1) with thymine, and ‘guanine is paired (1:1) with eytosine. [Number of purine molecules ‘Adenine (A) Guanine (G) “Thymine (1) Cytosine (©) Number of pyrimidine molecules {In 1953, James Watson and Francs Crick proposed that DNA as a double helix that consisted of two polynucleotide strands winding about each other like a spiral staircase ‘The sugar-phosphate backbones are analogous tothe outside railings ofthe stair, withthe ‘bases arranged like steps along the inside, One strand goes from the 5" to 3" direction, and ‘the other strand goes in the 3°to 5 direction. 173 DNA Double Heli and Replcnion 621 TABLE 173 Percentages of Bases in the DNA of Selected Organisms roms a oa %6 % Haman 30 0 20 20 Chicken 8 28 2 2 Salmon 2 2 2 Cor mize) 2 2 ‘Complementary Base Pairs ‘Each ofthe buses along one polynucleotide strand forms hydrogen bonds to only one spe- cific base on the opposite DNA strand. Adenine forms hydrogen bonds t thymine only, ‘and guanine bonds to cytosine only (See FIGURE 17.5). The pairs AT and GC ate called ‘complementary base pairs. Because of siructral imitations, there are only two kinds of stable base pairs. The bases that bind utilizing two hydrogen bonds ae adenine and thymine, nd the bases that bind utilizing three hydrogen bonds ar cytosine and guanine. No other stable basepairs occur For exemple, adenine does not form hydrogen bonds with cytosine ‘or guanine: cytosine doesnot form hydrogen bonds with adenine of taymine. This explains why DNA has equal amounts of A and T bases and equal amounts of G and C ‘Adenine-Thymine Base Pair (two hydrogen bonds) ‘Guanine-Cytosine Base Pair (three hydrogen bonds) Gomis Ho Chimie [FIGURE 17.5 Inthe model shown, he sugar phosphate backbone it tepretnte by 3 eben wth hyerogen bonds between complementary base pars © Wy we GC bse pairs more stable than AT base pie? era Wy does it equie more eneray to soporte the strands of 9 NA uble helix containing GC pairs thon it does to separate the strands containing AT pars?Parent DNA Nucleotides > New phosphodiester linkages form Daughter DNA. FIGURE 17.6 In DNA replication, the separate strands of the parent DNA are the templates for the synthesis of complementary strands, which produces two exact copies of DNA. @ How many strands of the parent DNA are in each of the new copies of DNA? DNA Replication ‘The function of DNA in cells of animals and plants as well as in bacteria is to preserve genetic information. As cells divide, cop- ies of DNA are produced that transfer genetic information to the new cells. In DNA replication, the strands in the original or parent DNA molecule separate to allow the synthesis of complemen- tary DNA strands. The process begins when an enzyme called helicase catalyzes the unwinding of a portion of the double helix by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the complemen- tary bases. The resulting single strands act as templates for the synthesis of new complementary strands of DNA (sce FIGURE 17.6). As the complementary base pairs come together, DNA polymerase catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester linkages between the nucleotides. Eventually the entire double helix of the parent DNA is copied. In each new DNA molecule, one strand of the double helix is from the original DNA, and one is a newly synthesized strand. This process produces two new DNAs called daughter DNAs that are identical to each other and exact copies of the original parent DNA. In the process of DNA replication, complementary base pairing ensures the correct placement of bases in the new DNA. strands. Try Practice Problems 17.29 to 17.3217.4 RNA and Transcription LEARNING GOAL Identify the different types of RNA; describe the synthesis of mRNA. Ribonucleic acid, RNA, which makes up most of the nucleic acid found in the cell, is involved with transmitting the genetic information needed to operate the cell. Similar to DNA, RNA molecules are unbranched chains of nucleotides. However, RNA differs from DNA in several important ways: 1. The sugar in RNA is ribose rather than the deoxyribose found in DNA. 2. In RNA, the base uracil replaces thymine. 3. RNA molecules are single stranded, not double stranded. 4. RNA molecules are much smaller than DNA molecules. Types of RNA ‘There are three major types of RNA in the cells: messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), the most abundant type of RNA, is combined with proteins to form ribosomes. Ribosomes, which are the sites for protein synthesis, consist of two subunits: a large subunit and a small subunit (see FIGURE 17.7). Cells that synthesize large numbers of proteins have thousands of ribosomes. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries genetic information from the DNA, located in the nucleus of the cell, to the ribosomes, located in the cytosol, the liquid outside the nucleus. A gene is a segment of DNA that produces a separate mRNA used to synthesize a protein needed in the cell. Transfer RNA (tRNA), the smallest of the RNA molecules, interprets the genetic infor- mation in mRNA and brings specific amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis. Only tRNA can translate the genetic information in the mRNA into the amino acid sequence that makes a protein. There can be more than one tRNA for each of the 20 amino acids. The structures of all of the transfer RNAs are similar, consisting of 70 to 90 nucleotides. Hydrogen bonds between some complementary bases in the strand produce loops that give some double-stranded regions. The types of RNA molecules in humans are summarized in TABLE 17.4. oD. Small subunit Large subunit Ribosome FIGURE 17.7 A typical ribosome consists of a small subunit and a large subunit. The subunit shapes shown contain both protein and rRNA. @ why would there be many thousands of ribosomes in a cell?Try Practice Problems 17.33, 10 17.36 FIGURE 17.8 A typical RNA molecule as an acceptor ster at the 3" end that attactes to an amino Acid and an anticodon lop that Complements «codon on mRNA @ Why il ferent RNAS have dlferentbases inthe ati Siintnoge cnc How do the nucleotides found in the DNA template strand differ from the nucleotides found in a ‘transcribed mRNA strand? TABLE 17.4 Types of RNA Molecules in Humans Percentage Type Abbreviation _of Total RNA Function in the Cell Ribosomal RNA 1RNA 80 ‘Major component of the ribosomes: site of ‘protein synthesis Messenger RNA mRNA, 5 Carries information for protein synthesis, from the DNA to the ribosomes ‘Transfer RNA (RNA, 15 ‘Brings specific amino acids tothe site of protein synthesis Although the structure of tRNA in three dimensions is complex, we can draw NA as a two-dimensional cloverleaf (see FIGURE 17.68). In the three-dimensional model, the RNA chain has more twists that shows the L-shape of tRNA (see FIGURE 17.86). All (RNA molecules have a3’ end with the nucleotide sequence ACC. which is known asthe acceptor stem. An enzyme attaches an amino acid to the 3 end of the acceptor stem by forming an esterbond with the free OH group of the acceptor stem. Each 1RNA contains an anticodon, \which is a series ofthree bases that complements three bases on mRNA. — Acceptorstem Hydrogen bonds between: ‘complementary bases form ‘double-stranded sections iy Atco loop $$] @ RNA and Protein Synthesis ‘We now look at the overall processes involved in transferring genetic information encoded in the DNA to the production of proteins. n the nucleus, genetic information for the synthesis ‘ofa protein is copied from a gene in DNA to make mRNA, a process called transcription, ‘The mRNA molecules move out of the nucleus into the cytosol, where they bind with the ribosomes. Then in a process called translation, (RNA molecules convert the information in the mRNA into amino acids, which are placed in the proper sequence to synthesize protein (see FIGURE 17.9). Transcription: Synthesis of mRNA ‘Transcription begins when the section of a DNA molecule that contains the gene to be copied unwinds. Within this unwound section of DNA, called a transcription bubble, the enzyme RNA polymerase uses one of the strands as a template to synthesize mRNA, using RNA bases that are complementary to the DNA template: C and G form pairs,174 RNAand Transcristion 625 FIGURE 17.9 The genetic information in DNAs replicated in coll division and used to produce messenger RNA that codes for amino acids used in protein synthesis at the ribosomes. @ whats the dtference between transcription and translation? T (in DNA) pairs with A (in mRNA), and A (in DNA) pairs with U (in mRNA). When the RNA polymerase reaches the termination site (a sequence of nucleotides that is a stop signal), transcription ends, and the new mRNA is released. The unwound portion of the DNA returns to its double-helix structure (see FIGURE 17.10). Try Practice Problems 17.37 and 17.38 ‘Termination site FIGURE 17.10 ONA undergoes transcription when RNA pobmerate makes a complementary RNA copy of» gone sing bnly one ofthe DNA stands as the template. © Wry tharrnacarcianactancanny one ONA HRTry Practice Problems 17.41 to 17.46 17.5 The Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis LEARNING GOAL Use the genetic code to write the amino acid sequence for a segment of mRNA. The overall function of the different types of RNA in the cell is to facilitate the task of syn- thesizing proteins. After the genetic information encoded in DNA is transcribed, mRNA molecules move out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytosol. At the ribosomes, the genetic information in the mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids in protein, Genetic Code ‘The genetic code consists of a series of three nucleotides (triplets) in MRNA called codons that specify the amino acids and their sequence in a protein. Early work on protein synthesis showed that repeating triplets of uracil (UUU) produced a polypeptide that contained only phenylalanine, Therefore, a sequence of UUU UUU UUU codes for three phenylalanine. Codons in mRNA: uuu UUU UUU Amino acid sequence: Phe — Phe — Phe Codons have been determined for all 20 amino acids. A total of 64 codons are possible from the triplet combinations of A, G, C, and U. Three of these, UGA, UAA, and UAG, are stop signals that code for the termination of protein synthesis. All the other three-base codons shown in TABLE 17.5 specify amino acids. Thus, one amino acid can have several codons. For example, glycine has four codons: GGU, GGC, GGA, and GGG. The triplet AUG has two roles in protein synthesis, At the beginning of an mRNA, the codon AUG signals the start of protein synthesis. In the middle of a series of codons, the AUG codon specifies the amino acid methionine.LE 17.5 Codons in mRNA: The Genetic Code for Amino Acids re UUA Lew (L) uCcA UAA STOP" UGA STOP” A uUG ucG UAGSTOP? = UGGTp(W) SG cuu cu Exe prs cGU uv c Leu (L) o! CUA ‘Leu (L) CCA Pro (P) anc CGA Arg (R) is A AUA. ACA wale FR AGAL iy A AUG START ACG. AAG 0 AGG rg (R) GS ‘Met (M) Guu acu au Gu u 6 ‘al la Sly (G) Gua Val (V) GCA Ala (A) Om ce GGA Gly (G) a SSTART* codon signals the ination of a peptide chain SSTOP® codons signal the end of a peptide chain, Translation Once an mRNA is synthesized, it migrates out of the nucleus into the cytosol to the ribo- somes. In the translation process, RNA molecules, amino acids, and enzymes convert the mRNA codons into amino acids to build a protein, Activation of tRNA Each tRNA molecule contains a loop called the anticodon, which isa triplet of bases that complements a codon in mRNA. An amino acid is attached to the acceptor stem of each IRNA by an enzyme called aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase. Each amino acid has a differ- ent synthetase, Activation of (RNA occurs when aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase forms an ester bond between the carboxylate group of its amino acid and the hydroxyl group on the acceptor stem (see FIGURE 17.11), Each synthetase then checks the (RNA-amino acid combination and hydrolyzes any incorrect combinations. Initiation and Chain Elongation Protein synthesis begins when mRNA binds to a ribosome. The first codon in an mRNA is a start codon, AUG, which forms hydrogen bonds with methionine-tRNA. Another RNA hydrogen bonds to the next codon, placing a second amino acid adjacent to methionine. A peptide bond forms between the C terminus of methionine and the N terminus of the second amino acid (see FIGURE 17.12). The initial tRNA detaches from the ribosome, which shifts to the next available codon, a process ealled translocation. During chain elongation, the ribosome moves along the mRNA from codon to codon so that the {RNAS can attach new amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain. Sometimes, a group of several ribosomes, called a polysome, translate the same strand of mRNA to produce several copies of the polypeptide at the same time. Chain Termination Eventually, a ribosome encounters a codon—UAA, UGA, or UAG—that has no correspond- ing RNAS, These are stop codons, which signal the termination of polypeptide synthesis and the release of the polypeptide chain from the ribosome. The initial amino acid, methio- nine, is usually removed from the beginning of the polypeptide chain. The R groups on the amino acids in the new polypeptide chain form hydrogen bonds to give the secondary Writing the Amino Acid for an mRNA Codon —_______ia “Ty Practice Problems 17.47 and 17.48 Acceptor stern Anticodon Codon on miRNA FIGURE 17.11 An activated RNA with anticodon AGU bonds to serine at the acceptor stem. © what would be an anticodon ‘on a mathionine-tRNA?Cytosot (sit oftansiaion 8 = iw e v @%% ‘Amino acids mRNA tewes ° © cianruintin leu ataches soe todbesome and 3) earer amin | Sis atte Je toeach RNA Growing polypeptide chain QAs the sien ‘Activated tRNA. ‘moves along. hydrogen bonds to mRNA, a new amino ‘complementary ‘acid forms a peptide mRNA sequence bbond tothe growing (codon) protein chain AWWA reste te) proto ice ENA ey eae te A) ‘new amino acid FIGURE 17.12 In the translation process, the mRNA synthesized by transcription attaches to a ro Syria osc, ana MA pick bs heave ain tothe apron codon, and place the ete ae obien eee ee17.5 The Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis 629 structures of a helices and B-pleated sheets and form interactions such as salt bridges and disulfide bonds to produce tertiary and quaternary structures, which make it a biologically active protein. ‘TABLE 17.6 summarizes the steps in protein synthesis. ‘TABLE 17.6 Steps in Protein Synthesi Step ‘Site: Materials Process: 1. DNA Nucleus: nucleotides, RNA A DNA template is used to produce Transcription polymerase mRNA. 2. Activation of Cytosol: amino acids, (RNAs, Molecules of RNA pick up specific amino tRNA ‘aminoacyl-iRNA synthetase acids according to their anticodons. 3. Translation of | Ribosome: mRNA ‘mRNA binds to ribosomes where mRNA, ‘translation bezins.. 3a. and 3b. Ribosome: Met-tRNA, [A start codon binds the first NA. Initiation and ‘mRNA, carrying the amino acid methionine to Chain Elongation aminoacyl-tRNAs the mRNA. Successive tRNAs bind to and detach from the ribosome as they ‘add an amino acid to the polypeptide. 3c. Chain Ribosome: stop codon on ‘The protein i released from the “Termination ‘mRNA, ribosome. ‘TABLE 17,7 gives an example of corresponding nucleotide and amino acid sequences in protein synthesis. ‘TABLE 17.7 Complementary Sequences in DNA, mRNA, tRNA, and Peptides Nucleus DNA informational strand (GCG AGT GGA TAC DNA template strand CGC TCA CCT ATG Era pa What is one possible mRNA mRNA GCGAGU GGA UAC sequence that would code for {RNA anticoxions CGC UCA CCU AUG the peptide with the amino acid Polypeptide amino acids Ala —Ser— Gly —Tyr sequence Cys-Ala-Arg? oe CHEMISTRY LINK TO HEALTH Many Antibiotics Inhibit Protein Synthesis ‘Several antibiotics stop bacterial infec- TABLE 17.8 Antibiotics That Inhibit Protein Synthesis in Bacterial Cells tions by interfering withthe synthesis of pei ned iy he Dectea Sone _Atibiote Effect on Ribosomes to inhibit Protein Synthese ntbiotics act only on hacteral cells, Chloramphenicol Inhibits pepide bond formation and prevens the binding of RNA binding tothe ribosomes in bacteria but Erythromycin Inhibits peptide chain growth by preventing the translocation ofthe not those in human cells. A. description ribosome along the miRNA of some ofthese antibiotics is given in a Seacard a Sag RE RE TABLE 178 a eee ee Streptomycin Prevents the proper altachment of the inital RNA ‘Teracyeline Prevents the binding of (RNA.may result from X-rays, overexposure to sun (ultraviolet [UV] light), chemicals called mutagens, and possibly some viruses. If a mutation occurs in a somatic cell (a cell other than a reproductive cell), the altered DNA is limited to that cell and its daughter cells. If the mutation affects DNA that controls the growth of the cell, cancer could result. If a mutation occurs in a germ cell (egg or sperm), then all DNA produced will contain the same genetic change. When a mutation severely alters proteins or enzymes, the new cells may not survive or the person may exhibit a disease or condition that is a result of a genetic defect. Types of Mutations Consider a triplet of bases CCG in the template strand of DNA, which produces the codon GGC in mRNA. At the ribosome, tRNA would place the amino acid glycine in the peptide chain (see FIGURE 17.13a). Now, suppose that T replaces the first C in the DNA triplet, which gives TCG as the triplet. Then the codon produced in the mRNA is AGC, which brings the tRNA with the amino acid serine to add to the peptide chain. The replacement of one base in the template strand of DNA with another is called a point mutation. When there is a change of a nucleotide in the codon, a different amino acid may be inserted into the polypeptide. However, if a point mutation does not change the amino acid, it is a silent mutation. A point mutation is the most common way in which mutations occur (see FIGURE 17.13b). In a deletion mutation, a base is deleted from the normal order of bases in the template strand of DNA, Suppose that an A is deleted from the iplet AAA, giving a new triplet of AAC (see FIGURE 17.13c). The next triplet becomes CGA rather than CCG, and so on. All the triplets shift by one base, which changes all the codons that follow and leads to a differ- ent sequence of amino acids from that point. In an insertion mutation, a ba: inserted into the normal order of bases in the tem- plate strand of DNA. Suppose a T is inserted into the triplet AAA, which gives a new triplet of AAT (see FIGURE 17.13d). The next triplet becomes ACC rather than CCG, and so on. All the triplets shift by one base, which changes all the codons that follow and leads to a different sequence of amino acids from that point. 17.6 Genetic Mutations 631 Why does replacing the U in ‘CGU with an A not change the primary structure of a protein?632 CHAPTER 17 Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis FIGURE 17.13 An alteration in the NA template stan produces a change inthe sequence of amino acids nthe protern, which may result in a mtation (a) Anormal DNA leads to the correct amino acid order ina protein. (Ina point mutation, the change ofa base in ONA leads to‘ change in the mRNA codon and possibly a change in one amino acid (©) The deletion of a base causes a deletion mutation, which changes the mRNA codons that follow the mutation and produces diferent amino acid sequen. (4) Th insartion ofa bose causes an insertion mutation, ‘which changes the mRNA codons that Fellow the mutation and produces 2 differnt amino aid sequence. @ When would a point mutation cause protein synthesis to stop? (a) Normal DNA and protein synthesis ecnnm) WEP TERAREERREE debe Mg i rn coe ae oe oy Amino a (b) Point mutation Substitution of C by T i J tL 1 y (Chang tam ( apenas (ays te aca el tid mi A ‘Changes in amino ‘cd sequence Fnsuss a Changes in amino A