SIMULATION OF SWELLING PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS ON EXPANSIVE SOILS A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy inthe Department of Civil Engineering University of Saskatchewan ‘Saskatoon, Canada by Fangsheng Shuai 1996National Library of Canada du Canada uisitions and Bibliographic Services 395 Wetington Steet ‘Otawa ON KIA ONS Canada The author has granted a non- exclusive licence allowing the National Library of Canada to reproduce, loan, distribute or sell copies of this thesis in microform, paper or electronic formats. The author retains ownership of the copyright in this thesis. Neither the thesis nor substantial extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author’s permission. Bibliotheque nationale Acquisitions et services bibiographiques 295, rue Wellington ‘tana ON KIAON arada Our he tie L’auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive permettant a la Bibliotheque nationale du Canada de reproduire, préter, distribuer ou vendre des copies de cette thése sous la forme de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. L’auteur conserve Ja propriété du droit d'auteur qui protége cette thése. Nila thése ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci ne doivent étre imprimés ou autrement reproduits sans son autorisation. 0-612-24015-0UNIVERSITY OF SASKATCHEWAN College of Graduate Studies and Research SUMMARY OF DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY by FANGSHENG SHUAL Department of Civil Engineering University of Saskatchewan Summer 1996 Examining Committee: Or, Malcoln Reeves Deaw/AssauiateDexn/Dean's Designate, Chair College of Graduate Studies and Research Dr. D.E. Pufahl Chair of Advisory Committee, Department of Civil Engineering Dr. D.G. Fredlund ‘Supervisor, Department of Civil Engineering Dr. R. Balachandar Department of Civil Engineering Dr. G.W. Wilson Department of Civil Engineering Dr. D. Wulfsohn. Department of Agricultural and Bioresource Engineering External Examiner: Dr. R.C.K. Wong Department of Civil Engineering University of Calgary 2500 University Drive NW Calgary, Alberta TIN IN4SIMULATION OF SWELLING PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS. ON EXPANSIVE SOILS ‘Numerous methods have been proposed to predict the swelling pressure and the amount of swell of an expansive soil. These methods generally involve the use of a one- dimensional consolidation apparatus (i.e., odometer). A large amount of test results and experience involving these methods have been reported. In contrast, little attempt has been made to formulate a theoretical framework to simulate these testing procedures and to visualize the different stress paths used in the various methods. The primary objective of this research program is to formulate a theoretical framework which can embrace all swelling testing procedures. The formulations are to accommodate various boundary conditions and to simulate the stress paths that have been followed using various testing procedures. ‘The research program commenced with a literature review which provided a summary of the research which have been conducted on laboratory swelling pressure measurement and the theoretical simulation of swell testing methods. A theoretical model for describing the pore-water pressure and volume change behavior during various swelling oedometer tests is formulated. The theory is based on the equilibrium equation, the constitutive equations for unsaturated soils and the continuity equation for the pore fluids. A computer program, SWELL, based on the theoretical model is developed using finite element method. The presented theory is used to describe the behavior observed during the experimental program. Several types of laboratory tests (i.e, falling head permeability test, Free Swell cedometer test, pressure plate test, shrinkage test and constant suction consolidation test) were performed to identify the appropriate soil properties and variables which control the swelling behavior of an unsaturated soil during the swelling oedometer tests. Several empirical equations were proposed to describe the soil properties.In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department cr the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis. requests for permission to copy or to make other use of material in this thesis in whole or part should be addressed to: Head of the Department of Civil Engineering University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan STN OWOABSTRACT ‘Numerous methods have been proposed to predict the swelling pressure and the amount of swell of an expansive soil. These methods generally involve the use of a one- dimensional consolidation apparatus (ie., oedometer). A large amount of test results and experience involving these methods have been reported. In contrast, little attempt has been made to formulate a theoretical framework to simulate these testing procedures and to ualize the different stress paths used in the various methods. The primary objective of this research program is to formulate a theoretical framework which can embrace all swelling testing procedures. The formulations are to accommodate various boundary conditions and to simulate the stress paths that have been followed using various testing procedures. The research program commenced with a literature review which provided a summary of the research which have been conducted on laboratory swelling pressure measurement and the theoretical simulation of swell testing methods. A theoretical model for describing the pore-water pressure and volume change behavior during various swelling oedometer tests is formulated. The theory is based on the equilibrium equation, the constitutive equations for unsaturated soils and the continuity equation for the pore fluids. A computer program, SWELL, based on the theoretical model is developed using finite element method. The presented theory is used to describe the behavi r observed during the experimental program. ., falling head permeability test, Free Swell Several types of laboratory tests (i. ‘oedometer test, pressure plate test, shrinkage test and constant suction consolidation test) were performed to identify the appropriate soil properties and variables which control the swelling behavior of an unsaturated soil during the swelling oedometer tests. Several empirical equations were proposed to describe the soil properties.‘The proposed theory was used to simulate the results from the Free Swell cedometer tests, the Constant Volume oedometer tests, constant water content (ie., undrainage loading) odometer test and the Loaded Swell oedometer tests. In general, good agreement was found among the computed and measure values of volume change, vertical total stress and pore-water pressure. Additional analyses were conducted using various values fer the saturated coefficient of permeability and the imposed boundary conditions. The computed rate of swelling were found to be quite sensitive to the coefficient of permeability of the soil and the length of the drainage path. The final stress state and surface evaporation were also found to influence the rate of swelling, the percent swell, and the swelling pressure.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to acknowledge the contribution of many friends, colleagues and institutions for the completion of this thesis The author is grateful to the College of Graduate Studies and Research of the University of Saskatchewan for providing financial assistance in the form of postgraduate scholarship throughout this study. Without the scholarship, I would not have been able to continue my study. The support and cooperation from the faculty and staff in the Department of Civil Engineering are greatly appreciated. Special thanks are extended to Dr. Lee Barbour for his helpful suggestions in the development of the finite element formulation. The excellent assistance from the engineering shop of the University of ‘Saskatchewan should be acknowledged. I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my friend and colleagues for the friendship and encouragement throughout my study at the University of Saskatchewan. In particular, I would like to thank Alex Kozlow, Julian Gan and Jose Pereira for their assistance during the laboratory work. 1 will always feel indebted to my supervisors Dr. D. G. Fredlund for his invaluable guidance and enthusiasm throughout the research program. His guidance and support did not only cover the research program but influence many aspects of my life. He is a faithful friend and an excellent teacher whom I shall ever remember and respect. T want to thank my parents, my wife and child for their love and encouragement throughout my study. The completion of my study would not have been possible without the supporting and understating from my wife Minzhen and the joy from Yang.TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER | INTRODUCTION 1.1 Engineering Significance of the Research 1.2 Scope and Objective of the Study 1.3. Thesis Organization 14 Terminology LS Sign Convention CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Testing Procedures for the Measurement of Swelling Pressure in Expansive Soil 2.2.1 Constant Load Oedometer Test Free Swell Oedometer Test Method Double Oedometer Test Method Loaded Swell Oedometer Test Method 2.2.1.4 Direct Model Method 22.15 Chinese Method 2.2.2 Constant Volume Oedometer Test 2.2.2.1 Constant Volume Oedometer Test Method. 2.222. Correction for Sampling Disturbance 2.2.2.3. Sullivan and McLelland Method 2.2.24 Strain Controlled Test Method 2.2.3 Comparison of Various Methods 2.3 Theoretical Simulation of Swell Testing Procedures 2.4 Summary CHAPTER 3 THEORY 3.1 Introduction 3.2. General Theory 14 16 18 20 20 2 27 39 40 4 4 4233 34 3.2.1 Force Equilibrium 3.2.2 Constitutive Relationships 3.2.3. Continuity Requirement for Water Phase Derivation of the Governing Differential Equation for Swelling Test 3.3.1 Governing Differential Equation for Constant Load Oedometer Test 3.3.2 Goveming Differential Equation for Constant Volume Oedometer Test 3.3.2.1 Differential Equation for Water Flow 3.3.2.2 Differential Equation for Soil Volume Change 3.3.2.3 Simultaneous Equations for Constant Volume Oedometer Test Numerical Solution 3.4.1 Finite Element Formulation 34.1.1 Spatial Discretization 3. 3.4.2 Boundary Conditions 3.4.3. Computer Program Verification 2 Time Discretization CHAPTER 4 LABORATORY PROGRAM. 41 42 43 Introduction Soil 4.2.1 Soil Selection and Soil Properties 4.2.2. Selection of Initial Water Content and Initial Void Ratio 4.2.3. Specimen Preparation 4.2.4 Coefficient of Permeability Funct 4.2.4.1. Falling Head Permeability Test for Saturated Soil 4.2.42. Rigid Wall Triaxial Permeability Test 425 Volume Change Soil Parameters 42.5.1 Oedometer Test 42.5.2. Pressure Plate Test 42.5.3 Shrinkage Test 4.2.5.4 Constant Suction Consolidation Test Free Swell Oedometer Test with Matric Suction Measurement a a3 46 48 49 st st 54 35 55 56 8 65 69 Cc) 70 70 B 8 15 7 80 80 81 82 83 8543.1 Equipment 43.2 Testing Procedures 4.4 Constant Volume Oedometer Test with Matric Suction Measurement 44.1 Equipment 44.2 Testing Procedures 4.5. Measurement of the Swelling Pressure Using Different Methods 4.5.1 Conventional Free Swell Oedometer Test 4.5.2 Conventional Constant Volume Oedometer Test 4.5.3 Loaded Swell Oedometer Test CHAPTER 5 PRESENTATION OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA, 5.1 Introduction 5.2. Permeability Test Results 5.2.1 Falling Head Permeability Test 5.2.2 _ Rigid Wall Triaxial Permeability Test 5.3. Volume Change Parameter Test Results 5.3.1 Oedometer Test Results 5.3.2 Pressure Plate Test Results 5.3.3 Shrinkage Test Results 5.3.4 Constant Suction Consolidation Test Results 5.4 Free Swell Oedometer Test (with Suction Measurement) Results 5.5 Constant Volume Oedometer Test (with Suction Measurement) Results 5.6 Swelling Pressure Test Results 5.6.1 Free Swell Oedometer Test Results 5.6.2 Constant Volume Oedometer Test Results 5.6.3 Loaded Swell Oedometer Test Results CHAPTER 6 DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Hydraulic and Volume Change Properties of Compacted Regina Clay 6.2.1 Coefficient of Permeability Function 6.2.1.1 Saturated Coefficient of Permeability Function 1.2 Unsaturated Coefficient of Permeability Function 85 86 87 87 89 2£s8se 92. 92 93 96 7 7 101 102 106 us u7 19 122 124 129 133 133 133 134 134 1356.2.2 Compressive Index with Respect to Net Normal Stress 14 6.2.2.1 Compressive Index at Zero Matric Suction 143 6.2.2.2. Relationship Between Compressive Index and Matric Suction 143 6.2.3 Water Content Index with Respect to Matric Suction 147 6.2.3.1 Water Content Index at Zero Net Normal Stress 147 6.2.32. Relationship Between Water Content Index and ‘Net Normal Stress Ist 6.2.4 Compressive Index with Respect to Matric Suction 154 6.2.4.1 Compressive Index with Respect to Matric Suction 156 6.2.4.2 Pseudo-Coefficient of Volume Change with Respect to Matric Suction 156 6.2.5 Water Content Index with Respect to Net Normal Stress 162 626 Summary 165 6.3. Free Swell Oedometer Test m 6.3.1 General Observations im 6.3.2 Computer Simulations 175 6.32.1 Comparison Between the Computed and Measured Values 175 6.3.2.2 Effect of Permeability, Drainage Distance, Final ‘Suction and Evaporat 181 64 Constant Volume Oedometer Test 186 6.4.1 General Observations 189 64.2 Computer Simulations 192 6.4.2.1 Comparison Between the Computed and Measured Values 192 6.4.2.2 Stress Path for Constant Volume Oedomerer Test 198 6.4.2.3 Effect of Permeability, Drainage Distance and Final Suction 199 6.5 Loaded Swell Oedometer Test 203 6.5.1 General Observations 205 65.2 Computed Simulations 205 6.5.2.1 Simulation of Constant Water Content Test 206 6.5.2.1 Simulation of Loaded Swell Oedometer Test 208 vilCHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 7.1. Conclusions 7.2. Recommendations REFERENCES, APPENDIX A SOURCE CODE LISTING FOR ‘SWELL' PROGRAM APPENDIXB RESULTS OF INDEX PROPERTIES TESTS ON COMPACTED REGINA CLAY Atterberg Test ‘Standard Compaction Test APPENDIXC PERMEABILITY AND VOLUME CHANGE PARAMETER TEST RESULTS ON COMPACTED REGINA CLAY Falling Head Permeability Test id Wall Permeability Test Ocdometer Test Pressure Plate Test Shrinkage Test Constant Suction Consolidation Test APPENDIX D FREE SWELL WITH SUCTION MEASUREMENT TEST RESULTS ON COMPACTED REGINA CLAY APPENDIXE CONSTANT VOLUME WITH SUCTION MEASUREMENT TEST RESULTS ON COMPACTED REGINA CLAY APPENDIXF FREE SWELL OEDOMETER TEST RESULTS ON COMPACTED REGINA CLAY 216 216 219 221 230 244 245 246 247 248 250 252 254 258 259 264 267 269APPENDIX G APPENDIX H APPENDIX CONSTANT VOLUME OEDOMETER TEST RESULTS ON COMPACTED REGINA CLAY 298 LOADED SWELL OEDOMETER TEST RESULTS ON COMPACTED REGINA CLAY 304 COMPARISON BETWEEN THEORETICAL ANALYSES AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR COMPACTED REGINA CLAY 310Figure 1.1 Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7 Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9 Figure 2.10 Figure 2.11 LIST OF FIGURES ‘The swelling pressure defined using different oedometer swelling test procedures. Stress path representation for the "Free Swell” oedometer test (from Fredlund, 1995), ‘Stress paths followed when using the Double Oedometer ‘method (from Jennings and Knight, 1957). Stress path followed in the Loaded Swell test. Stress path followed in the direct mode! method (from Fredlund et al., 1980). Stress path followed in the Chinese Code method. ‘Swelling pressure versus pre-determined pressure curve obtained using Chinese Method for undisturbed Regina Clay. Stress path followed in the "Constant Volume" oedometer test (from Fredlund, 1995). Construction procedure to correct for the effect of sampling disturbance (from Fredlund et al., 1980). (Change in swelling pressure due to applying the correction for sampling disturbance (from Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993). Stress path followed in the Sullivan and McClelland method (from Fredlund et al., 1980). ‘Stress path followed in the Strain Controlled test method. 12 15 7 18 19 20 23 25 26Figure 2.12 Figure 2.13 Figure 2.14 Figure 2.15 Figure 2.16 Figure 2.17 Figure 2.18 Figure 2.19 Figure 2.20 Figure 2.21 Figure 2.22 Figure 2.23 The relationship of void ratio and swelling pressure determined by three methods for compacted Regina Clay (from Gilchrist, 1963). ‘Swelling pressure as a function of initial water content for compacted Regina Clay (from Noble, 1966). ‘Swelling pressure versus initial water content for Regina Clay (from Lu, 1969). ‘Swelling pressure and heave measured by different methods for the Onderstepoort soil (from Brackley, 1975). ‘Swelling tests on compacted specimens of El Arahal (from Justo et al., 1984). Plot of the two testing methods (from Ali and Elturabi, 1984). Typical volume change behavior of the shale (from Erol et al., 1987). Comparison of swell pressure (from Erol et al.. 1987). Comparison of measured and predicted swell (from Erol et al., 1987). Comparison of measured and predicted swell at site 2 (from Osman and El Sharief, 1987). Void Ratio versus swelling pressure for compacted Regina Clay (from Frediund et al., 1980). Vertical deformation profiles at various times in a swelling pressure test (from Lloret et al, 1986). 28 28 29 30 31 32 34 35 36 38 39Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 3.6 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 ‘Three-dimensional constitutive surface for the soil structure of an unsaturated soil (from Fredlund, 1981). ‘Three-dimensional constitutive surface for the water phase of an unsaturated soil (from Fredlund, 1981). Unsteady state water flow during one-dimensional swelling. A typical soil column divided into one-dimensional finite elements. (One-dimensional double drainage consolidation process. ‘Comparisons of results from SWELL program and Terzaghi’s theory. Particle size distribution curve for the testing soil used in the testing program. Water content versus suction for specimens of compacted Regina Clay tested on previous research programs (From Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993). ‘Swelling pressure as a function of initial water content for Regina Clay (from Noble, 1966). General assembly of the triaxial permeameter cell (from Huang, 1994), ‘Modified direct shear apparatus for the constant suction consolidation tests (from Gan and Fredlund, 1988). Ocdometer cell used in the Free Swell tests. Oedometer cell used in the Constant Volume tests (all dimensions in mm.). 45 56 67 68 n 3 4 8 83 85 88Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4 Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7 Figure 5.8 Figure 5.9 Figure 5.10 Figure 5.11 Figure 5.12 Figure 5.13 Saturated coefficient of permeability versus void ratio for the falling head permeability tests. Coefficient of permeability versus matric suction curves for the rigid wall permeability tests. Results from odometer tests on Regina Clay Soil-water characteristic curves obtained from the pressure plate tests. ‘The swelling water content versus void ratio relationships for Regina Clay. Stress path followed in the constant suction consolidation test. Results for the constant suction consolidation loading and unloading tests. Measured soil structure constitutive surface for compacted Regina Clay. Measured degree of saturation versus net normal stress curves for the constant suction consolidation tests. Constitutive surface for degree of saturation of compacted Regina Clay. Pore-water volume change obtained from the constant, suction consolidation tests. Measured water phase constitutive surface for compacted Regina Clay. Heave versus time curves for Free Swell oedometer tests on 100 mm specimens. 9s 98 99 103 105 106 109 110 1 112 113, M4 116 xiiiFigure 5.14 Figure 5.15 Figure 5.16 Figure 5.17 Figure 5.18 Figure 5.19 Figure 5.20 Figure 5.21 Figure 5.22 Figure 5.23 Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3, Deformation profiles at different times for the Free Swell cedometer test on 100 mm specimens. Vertical pressure versus time curves for Constant Volume cedometer tests on 100 mm specimens. Deformation profiles at different times for the Constant, ‘Volume oedometer tests on 100 mm specimens. ‘Stress paths followed in Free Swell oedometer test and Constant Volume oedometer test. Time-heave relationship for Free Swell oedometer tests. Free Swell oedometer test results for compacted Regina Clay. ‘Net normal stress versus time curves for Constant Volume oedometer tests. Void ratio versus log net normal stress relationships for Constant Volume tests. Stress path followed in the Loaded Swell oedometer tests. Test results for Loaded Swell oedometer tests. Saturated coefficient of permeability used for the theoretical simulations. Unsaturated coefficient of permeability function for compacted Regina Clay. Unsaturated coefficient of permeability function used in theoretical simulation, 118 120 121 123, las 126 127 128 130 131 136 139 142Figure 6.4 Figure 6.5 Figure 6.6 Figure 6.7 Figure 6.8 Figure. 6.9 Figure 6.10 Figure 6.11 Figure 6.12 Figure 6.13 Figure 6.14 Figure 6.15 Figure 6.16 ‘Compressive curves with respect to a change in net normal stress for compacted Regina Clay. Calculation of empirical coefficient of cq. ‘The coefficient of volume change, mls, versus matric suction, (Ug ~ ty), elationship for compacted Regina Clay. Soil-water characteristic curves for compacted Regina Clay. ‘Water content index with respect to matric suction for compacted Regina Clay. ‘The effect of applied load on the suction versus water content relationship for an expansive clay (from Compton, 1970). Soil-water characteristic curves for compacted Regina Clay under various net normal stresses. Soil-water characteristic curves for compacted Regina Clay under various net normal stress on a semi-logarithmic scale. Water content index, Dm, versus net normal stress, (6 - tq), relationship for compacted Regina Clay. Compressive index with respect to matric suction for compacted Regina Clay. Volumetric strain due to increasing compressibility caused by decreasing matric suction. Calculation of empirical coefficient of cp. ‘The empirical coefficient, cp, versus net normal stress, (6 - ug), relationship for compacted Regina Clay. 144 146 148 149 150 Ist 152 153 155 157 158 161 163Figure 6.17 Figure 6.18 Figure 6.19 Figure 6.20 Figure 6.21 Figure 6.22 Figure 6.23 Figure 6.24 Figure 6.25 Figure 6.26 Figure 6.27 Figure 6.28 Total and water volume change during constant suction consolidation test. Total and water volume change during constant suction consolidation test. Total and water volume change during constant suction consolidation test. Ratio of the coefficient of water volume change, mlw, to the coefficient of volume change, mis, for compacted Regina Clay. Measured deflection versus time curves for Free Swell cedometer tests, Measured matric suction profiles for Free Swell oedometer test with suction measured ‘Computed and measured deflection versus time curves for Free Swell oedometer tests. Measured void ratio versus net normal stress curves for Free ‘Swell oedometer tests. Computed and measured matric suction profiles for Free Swell coedometer test with suction measurement. Computed and measured deformation profiles for Free Swell cedometer test with suction measurement. ‘Computed swelling rates using different saturated coefficients of permeability. ‘Swelling rate as a function of drainage distance. 166 167 168 172 174, 176 18 179 180 182 183 xviFigure 6.29 Figure 6.30 Figure 6.31 Figure 6.32 Figure 6.33 Figure 6.34 Figure 6.35 Figure 6.36 Figure 6.37 Figure 6.38 Figure 6.39 Figure 6.40 ‘Computed deflection versus time curves for different final matric suctions. ‘The swelling versus time curves for the Free Swell test under different osmatic suction (from Kassiff et al., 1973). The computed deflection versus time curves for the Free Swell cedometer test with evaporation from surface. ‘The computed matric suction profiles for the Free Swell ‘oedometer test with evaporation from surface. ‘The computed deformation profiles for the Free Swell cedometer test with evaporation from surface. Measured vertical pressure versus time curves for Constant Volume oedometer tests. ‘Measured matric suction profiles for Constant Volume oedometer test with suction measurement. Computed and measured vertical net normal stress versus time curves for Constant Volume oedometer test. ‘Computed and measured matric suction profiles for Constant ‘Volume oedometer test with suction measurement. Computed and measured deformation profiles for Constant Volume oedometer test with suction measurement. ‘Computed vertical strain profiles at various time during Constant Volume oedometer test. Computed stress paths followed by points at various elevations during Constant Volume oedometer test. 184 186 185 187 188 190 191 193, 195 196 197 200 xviiFigure 6.41 Figure 6.42 Figure 6.43 Figure 6.44 Figure 6.45 Figure 6.46 Figure 6.47 Figure 6.48 Figure 6.49 Figure 6.50 Figure 6.51 Computed swelling pressure rate using different saturated coefficients of permeability. 201 Time-rate of swelling pressure development as a function of drainage distance. 202 Time-rate of swelling pressure development as a function of drainage distance (from Mesri et al., 1994). 203 ‘Computed vertical total stress versus time curves for different final matric suctions. 204 (Computed pore-water pressure versus total vertical pressure curves for constant water content (undrained ) test. 207 Pore pressure versus total major principal stress (from Bishop, 1954). 206 ‘Computed and measured void ratio versus net normal stress curves for constant water content tests. 209 ‘Computed and measured time-heave relationship for Loaded ‘Swell oedometer tests. 210 Computed and measured deflection versus time curves for Loaded Swell oedometer test with a load of 800 kPa. 213 ‘Computed and measured deflection versus time curves for Loaded Swell oedometer test with a load of 400 kPa. 214 Computed and measured void ratio versus net normal stress curves for Loaded Swell oedometer test. 2sTable 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4 Table 3.1 Table 4.1 Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 5.4 Table 5.5 Table 5.6 Table 5.7 LIST OF TABLES ‘Swelling pressures measured using various testing methods but “identical” specimens (Rabbaa, 1975) Comparative values of the swelling pressure, Ps, when using different methods of testing (from Sridharan et al., 1986) Swelling Pressure obtained by different methods (from Sorochan, 1989) ‘Swelling pressure for Flandres clay (from Khaddaj et al., 1992) Boundary condition for swelling tests Index properties of the testing soil Results of the saturated coefficient of permeability measurements for the falling head permeability tests Results of the coefficient of permeability measurements for the rigid wall triaxial permeability tests Results of the oedometer test on specimen OTL Results of the oedometer test on specimen OT2 ‘Summary of the pressure plate test results Summary of the pressure plate test results ‘Summary of the volume-mass properties for the constant suction consolidation tests 32 33 37 cv 66 94 97 100 101 102 104 107Table 5.8 Table 5.9 Table 5.10 Table 5.11 Table 5.12 Table 5.13, Table 5.14 Table 5.15 Table 5.16 Table 5.17 Table 5.18 Table 5.19 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Results of the constant suction consolidation test on specimens SCT! and CSCT3 Results of the constant suction consolidation test on specimens CSCT2, CSCT4, CSCTS and CSCT6 Summary of measured water content and thickness for each layer at end of tests ‘Summary of measured water content of filter papers at end of tests ‘Summary of measured water content and thickness for each layer at end of tests ‘Summary of measured water content for filter papers ‘Summary of the volume-mass properties for the Free Swell ‘oedometer tests Summary of Free Swell oedometer test results ‘Summary of the volume-mass properties for the Constant Volume oedometer tests Summary of Constant Volume oedometer test results, ‘Summary of the volume-mass properties for the Loaded ‘Swell oedometer tests Summary of Loaded Swell oedometer test results Calculation of parameter cg Water content results from constant suction consolidation test, 107 108 1S, 117 119 119 122 123 130 132 145 154 ~Table 6.3, Table 6.4 Table 6.5 Table 6.6 Volume change caused by increasing compressibility Calculation of cp ‘A summary of the coefficients to be used in theoretical simulations Initial conditions for simulation of Loaded Swell oedometer test 159 162 170 208CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Engineering Significance of the Research Expansive soils are found in many parts of the world, particularly in semi-arid regions. Expansive soils are generally unsaturated and contain clay minerals that exhibit high volume change upon wetting. If the soil is confined and wetted, it will apply a considerable swelling pressure against structure which can result in serious damage to buildings. Lightly loaded structures, such as roadways, airport runways or small buildings, built on expansive soil are often subjected to serious cracking and distress, even distortion of the frame structure subsequent to construction due to changes in the surrounding environment. Krohn and Slosson (1980) estimated that, in the United States alone, the costs associated with damage caused by the expansive soil amounts to about $7 billion per year. Jones and Holtz (1973) pointed out that the damage due to swelling soils is more than twice as much the combined damages from natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes, earthquakes, and tomadoes. Therefore, the problems related to expansive soils have attracted wide attention throughout the world. Numerous methods have been proposed to predict the swelling pressure or the amount of heave in different parts of the world and have been used in those specific regions. These methods generally involve the use of the one-dimensional consolidationapparatus (j.e., oedometer). The Free Swell test, Constant Volume test and Loaded Swell test are among tke most commonly used procedures. A large amount of test results and experience involving these methods have been reported. In contrast, little attempt has been made to formulate a theoretical framework to simulate these testing procedures and to visualize the different stress paths used in the various methods. 1.2 Scope and Objectives of the Study ‘The primary objective of this research program is to formulate a theoretical framework which can embrace all swelling testing procedures. The formulations are to accommodate various boundary conditions and to simulate the stress paths that have been followed by various procedures. The specific objectives of this study are as follows: (1) To formulate a theoretical framework for describing the pore-water pressure and volume change behavior during various swelling oedometer tests, (2) To identify the appropriate soil properties and variables which control the swelling behavior of an unsaturated soil during the swelling cedometer tests, (3) To camry out laboratory tests to verify the proposed theoretical model, and (4) To measure the swelling pressure using different testing techniques so that a ‘comparison of the methods can be made. In this study, the necessary formulations will be derived to describe the pore pressure and volume change behavior during swelling oedometer tests. The experimental results will be used to verify the theoretical approach and to visualize the different stress paths that are used in the various methods. Comparison of the various test procedures will also be made. The scope of this study is mainly limited to one-dimensional swelling under various oedometer testing conditions. Because of experimental difficulties and the limitation of theone-dimensional model, the influence of the lateral stress on the swelling pressure has not been investigated. 1.3 Thesis Organization The thesis is divided into seven chapters. In the first chapter, “Introduction”, the objectives of the thesis are given and the research program required to eccomplish the objectives is briefly outlined. The second chapter, "Literature Review", provides a summary of the research which has been conducted on laboratory swelling pressure measurement and the theoretical simulation of swell testing methods. The available information is used as the stage for further theoretical and experimental developments in this research program. ‘The third chapter, "Theory", summarizes the relevant concepts and the derivations overning differential equations for describing the pore-water pressure and volume change behavior during various swelling oedometer tests. The presented theory is later used to describe the behavior observed during the experimental program. The implementation of the equations into a finite element formulation is also presented in this chapter as well as the verification of a computer program developed based on the formulation. The fourth chapter, “Laboratory Program”, outlines in detail the experimental program for achieving the designated objectives. The soil used in the test program, the laboratory equipment used in preparing and testing the specimens, and the test procedures which were run are also outlined in this chapter. In the fifth chapter, "Presentation of Experimental Data", typical results of the swelling tests are presented along with comments on the success of the tests. The remainder of the data is presented in the Appendices.The sixth chapter, "Discussion and Analysis of Results”, provides the interpretation of the data presented in the fifth chapter. The results of the data analyses using the theory given in the third chapter are discussed in detail. Comparisons between the theoretical predictions and the experimental results are also presented. The seventh chapter, “Conclusions and Recommendation”, summarizes the findings from this research program and provides recommendations regarding the direction for future work in this area of research. 1.4 Terminology In order to clarify the presentation of information, some of the terms used to describe the expansive behavior of a soil are discussed in following section. Swelling Potential Not all soils create problems due to swelling when brought into contacted with water source. Only soils with high swelling potential will cause damage to buildings. An accurate estimation of the swelling potential of a soil is an essential step for the selection of effective treatment altematives or preparation of adequate designs. The swelling potential of a soil is a measure of its ability to swell. Many research ‘workers have used different techniques to define the swelling potential of a soil. Holtz and Gibbs (1956) defined the swelling potential of the soil as the total volume change of a soil from its air dry state to its saturated condition under a surcharge load of 7 kPa (i.e., | psi). Seed et al. (1962) defined swelling potential as the percentage of swell of a laterally confined specimen after soaking in water under a confining pressure of 7 kPa (i.e.. | psi), after being compacted to maximum density at optimum water content in the standard AASHTO compaction test. However, in most cases, the two components of the swelling potential; namely the percent swell and the swelling pressure, are used to estimate the swelling potential of a soil(© Loaded Swot test (© Constant Volume test Free swelltest z etaecer we Bh | 8 start 5 | & cma 2 | |, cee swe 30 1 0 100 1000 Vertical pressure (kPa) Figure 1.1 The swelling pressure defined using different oedometer swelling test procedures. Swelling Pressure There is general agreement on the definition of the swelling pressure. The swelling pressure is the pressure required to hold the soil, or restore the soil to, its initial void ratio when given access to water. This definition is broad and embraces specific definition for swelling pressure which have been defined for various test methods. In the Free Swell oedometer test, the specimen is allowed to change volume freely ‘until equilibrium is reached. The specimen is then loaded in the conventional manner. The pressure required to consolidate the specimen back to its original volume is defined as the swelling pressure of the soil .e., Ps, in Fig. 1.1) (Hardy, 1965; Sridharan, Rao and Sivapullaiah, 1986). In the Constant Volume oedometer test, the total stress on the specimen is increased after flooding in order to keep the specimen at a constant volume. In this case, the swelling pressure is defined as the pressure at which there is neither a tendency for volume increase or decrease (i¢., Psy in Fig. 1.1). In order to eliminate samplingdisturbance, ASTM D4546-95 defines how a correction can be applied to the data to give a corrected swelling pressure. In the Loaded Swell oedometer test, a number of “identical” specimens are subjected to different surcharge loads and brought into contact with water. The resulting volume changes are then plotted against the corresponding stresses and the stress corresponding to zero volume change is defined as the swelling pressure (1e., Ps3 in Fig. 11) (Skempton, 1961; Gizienski and Lee, 1965; Nobel, 1966; Matyas, 1969). Percent Swell The swelling percent swell is the increase in the volume of the specimen expressed as a percentage of its initial volume. It can be expressed as: A= Mo 5 100% Ly & = the swelling percent, Hy, = specimen height after swelling, Hp = initial specimen height. 1.5 Sign Convention ‘The sign convention for stresses and strains used in the thesis is as follows: 1. As many soil mechanics textbooks, a positive normal stress is used to indicate compression in the soil. Opposite direction indicates a negative normal stress or tensile stress, 2. Normal strains are positive for a increase in length, and negative strains represent a decrease in length.CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Expansive soils exhibit significant volumetric expansion upon wetting due to a decrease in the matric suction. A pressure will develop if an attempt is made to stop the swelling, Such pressures are sometimes sufficiently large to cause serious damage to structures. In Texas typical swelling pressures of about 290 kPa. have been reported (Porter, 1941). In another case in Nigeria, a swell pressure of 1100 kPa has been recorded (Wooltorton, 1954). In order to predicate the pressure, numerous laboratory testing procedures have been proposed. These procedures generally involve the use of a one- dimensional consolidation apparatus (i.e., oedometer). These testing procedures have been widely used in practice. However, little attempt has been made to theoretically and analytically simulate the testing procedures. 22 Testing Procedures for the Measurement of Swelling Pressure in Expansive Soil ‘The one-dimensional consolidation apparatus (j.e., oedometer) has become widely uused for testing swelling soils. Holtz and Gibbs (1956), Jennings and Knight (1957) and Lambe and Whitman (1959) were among the first to report the use of cedometer tests for predicting heave in swelling soils. The more commonly used testing procedures fordetermining the swelling pressure of a soil can be described as: (i) free swell under a token load followed by compression (i.e., Free Swell oedometer test), (ii) different surcharge loadings followed by inundation (ic., Loaded Swell oedometer test) and (iii) constant volume loading followed by rebound (i., Constant Volume oedometer test). These commonly used oedometer test procedures can be further subdivided into two categories; namely, swell under constant load (Constant Load oedometer test) and swell under constant volume (Constant Volume oedometer test). The first category involves tests where a constant applied load is maintained during inundation (i.e., Free Swell oedometer test or Loaded Swell oedometer test). The second category involves tests which permit a change in the applied load (ie., Constant Volume oedometer test or Strain Controlled oedometer test). In the following section some commonly used methods will be discussed. Emphasis is given to the standard methods mentioned above. 2.2.1 Constant Load Oedometer Test Testing procedures belong to this category keep a constant applied load during the test 2.2.1.1 Free Swell Oedometer Test Method (ASTM D4546-95) In the Free Swell oedometer test, the soil specimen is brought in contact with water and allowed to swell freely with a token load applied. Then the soil is gradually consolidated back to its original volume in the conventional manner (Fig. 2.1a). The swelling pressure is defined as the stress necessary to consolidate the specimen back to its original volume (Hardy, 1965; Sridharan, Rao and Sivapullaiah, 1986). The stress paths adhered to can be more clearly understood using a three-dimensional plot with the stress state variable forming the abscissas (Fig. 2.16).Presure Pa) 4) Conventional Free Swell” data plot 44) a) ) Three-cimensional stress path plot Figure 2.1 Stress path representation for the "Free Swell” oedometer test (from Fredlund, 1995), ‘A modified form of the Free Swell method is described in ASTM D4546. This method was first proposed by Jennings et al. (1973) as the Simple Oedometer test. In this testing procedure, the specimen is first loaded to the insitu vertical overburden pressure andthen unloaded to the token load and inundated. When swelling has ceased, the specimen is ‘gradually consolidated back to its original volume in the conventional manner. The stress necessary to consolidate the specimen back to the void ratio corresponding to the situation before inundation is defined as the swelling pressure. This modification provides a correction to the initial reading at the token load in an effort to more closely duplicate the insitu void ratio of the soil. Another modified form of the Free Swell method is described in ASTM D4546 as method B. In this testing procedure, the specimen is subjected to a vertical pressure exceeding the token load and then saturated. The magnitude of the vertical pressure is usually equivalent to the insitu vertical overburden pressure or the structural loading, or both. After swell has occurred the specimen is loaded in increments until its initial void ratio or height is obtained. The load required to bring the specimen back to its original void ratio or height is termed the swelling pressure. Another procedure similar to the Free Swell method is the swell-consolidation test procedure. This procedure is used extensively in the Rocky Mountain regions in United States to determine the insitu swell potential (Chen, 1975; Porter and Nelson, 1980; Kumar, 1984). In this case, the specimens are subjected to a vertical stress generally in the range from 25 kPa to 100 kPa. The applied stresses are dependent upon the anticipated field conditions. After about 24 hours, distilled water is added to the specimen. When swelling has ceased, the applied load is increased in increments until the specimen has been ‘compressed to its original height. The stress required to compress the specimen to its original height before inundation is termed the swelling pressure. Shanker, Rao and Swamy (1982) carried out swelling pressure measurements on disturbed and remolded black Cotton Clays using a modified form of the Free Swell method. The specimens were allowed to swell freely under various surcharge loads and then consolidated the specimen to their original volume. The load required to bring the specimen back to its original volume is termed the swelling pressure. It was found that the to‘magnitude of surcharge load does not have any effect on the magnitude of the measured swelling pressure. The similar observations were also reported by Chen (1975). In this case the swelling pressure is defined as the stress required to compress the specimen back to its original height before inundation. These results contradict the assertions of Justo et al (1984) who found that when surcharge load becomes smaller than 5 kPa the predicted swelling pressure will increase (Fig. 2.15). There have been a number of controversies regarding the results of Free Swell ‘oedometer tests. The most serious criticism of this method is that it does not represent the normal sequence of loadings experienced by the soil in the field. The soil in the field will not absorb water and swell with the structural loads applied later, but rather vice versa (Brackley, 1975; Justo et al., 1984; El Sayed and Rabbaa, 1986). This method has another limitation in that it involves both a volume increase and decrease, and therefore incorporates hysteresis into the estimation of the insitu stress state (j.e., swelling pressure). However, the advantage of this procedure is that it appears to somewhat compensate for the effects of sampling disturbance. As a result, the measured swelling pressure is greater than the “uncorrected” swelling pressure measured using the Constant Volume test (Fredlund, 1995). Jennings et al. (1973) showed that Free Swell test method successfully predicted the observed insitu swelling behavior on two sites in South Africa. 2.2.1.2 Double Oedometer Test Method (Jennings and Knight, 1957) The Double Oedometer test procedure was first described by Jennings and Knight (1957), primarily for use in the study of collapsing soils. It has now become widely accepted for testing swelling soil and has been modified over the years. The most recent testing procedure was described by Jennings etal. in 1973. In the Double Oedometer test, two specimens are tested with one test following the Free Swell test procedure. The second test is conducted on a soil specimen tested at natural water content. The specimens are initially subjected to a token load of I kPa. No water is uadded to the cedometer pot during the “natural water content " test. The stress paths followed by the two tests are shown in Fig. 2.2. x Starting stress, in laboratory Free Swell test Natural water | content test (y- Ua) Figure 2.2 Stress paths followed when using the Double Oedometer method (from Jennings and Knight, 1957). The data from both tests can be plotted on a conventional, two-dimensional, void ratio versus log applied pressure plot. The “natural water content” oedometer test data must be adjusted vertically to match the free swell test results at high applied loads. The vertical difference between the two curves gives the total heave to be expected upon inundation. Many Double Oedometer tests show a cross-over of the two curves at high pressures. The applied pressure at this cross-over point is referred to as the swelling pressure. In other words, it isthe pressure at which no swell will occur upon inundation. 2This method usually results in higher swelling pressure measurements than from the Free Swell method. The higher swelling pressure occurs because the swelling pressure is not that magnitude required to bring the specimen to its initial volume. Rather, the swelling Pressure corresponds to the volume of the specimen after it has been compressed at the natural water content by a pressure equal to the swelling pressure. Justo et al. (1984) found that when the initial degree of saturation of the specimen is high, the two curves of the Double Oedometer test become asymptotic or overlap at high pressures. On the other hand, when the specimen is dry, the two curves cross-over at the swelling pressure. For this reason, Justo et al. (1984) suggested that the adjustment of the test results indicated by Jennings et al. (1973) might be correct for very wet clays, but not for dry soils. This was earlier suggested by Jennings (1973). The Double Oedometer method suffers from the same limitations as the Free Swell method. The basic assumption for the Double Oedometer method is that the swell is independent of stress path. Burland (1975), Brackley (1975) and Justo et al. (1984) stated that this is not so and recommended that Double Oedometer tests should be carried out following the anticipated stress path. Justo and Saetersdal (1981) found that the Double Ocdometer test over-estimates measured insitu heave. Weston (1980) indicated that the Double Oedometer method gives a swell prediction about one and one half to two times the swell which occurs under field stress conditions. On the other hand, Jennings (1961) showed that even if the procedure slightly over-estimate the actual heave, the over- estimation is of the same order as the best settlement estimates. However, later, Jennings et al, (1973) suggested that the method could over-estimate insitu heave for very dry soil and sandy clay and suggested that it is better to use the Simple Oedometer test under those conditions. Fredlund et al. (1980) suggested that the predicted swelling pressure using Double Oedometer test is generally satisfactory since the method of analyzing the data ‘appears to compensate for the effects of sampling disturbance. In other word, the natural water content curve demonstrates the effect of sampling disturbance.2.2.1.3 Loaded Swell Oedometer Test Method In the Leaded Swell oedometer test, a number of "identical" specimens are subjected to different initial applied loads and allowed to swell freely. The resulting final volume changes are then plotted against the corresponding applied load or stresses. The stress corresponding to zero volume change is termed the swelling pressure (Skempton, 1961; Gizienski and Lee, 1965; Nobel, 1966; Matyas, 1969). The stress path followed is shown in Fig. 2.3. In China, a modification of the "Loaded Free Swell" test method is widely used in practice to obtain reference information for swelling soils. In this procedure, several specimens are prepared and subjected to different initial applied loads and then saturated. ‘The swell ratio for each load is then calculated as follows: H,-H, Hy oe where: 8 = swell ratio, Hy = specimen height after swelling, Ho = initial specimen height. The various swell ratios, 5, are plotted versus the applied loads, and the intersection of the curve with the zero percent swell ratio axis is called the swelling pressure. A series of "Loaded Swell” tests were performed by Gilchrist (1963) and Noble (1966) on Regina Clay. Results showed that there is a linear relationship between swell and the logarithm of load for Regina clay for a fixed initial water content and void ratio. It was suggested that it is possible to extrapolate the swell versus logarithmic applied load curves to a point of zero volume change to obtain values of the swelling pressure for different conditions of initial void ratio. The same results was also found by Yevnin and Zaslavsky (1970) and Brackley (1975) for Onderstepoort soil. 4ost Void ratio, © 0 et os opt Pressure (KPa) (@) Two-dimensional plot, (gu) (o-u) (b) Three-dimensional plot Figure 2.3 Stress path followed in the Loaded Swell test. Pidgeon (1987) suggested that the linear relationship between the amount of swell and the logarithm of the applied stress could be accepted as a universal soil property. A. number of research workers in various parts of the world have found above relationship to Isapply to tests carried out on undisturbed or remolded specimens of both transported and residual soils. These soils contained both calcium and sodium montmorillonite clay minerals. ‘The Loaded Swell method has an important advantage over other methods in that the loading-wetting procedure in this method follows the same sequence as in the field. In ‘other words, the loads are first applied to the soil and the soil undergoes compression as a result of these loads. Then the soil comes into contact with water and swells. The Loaded ‘Swell method is frequently used as a result of its similarity of typical insitu stress paths (Brackley, 1975; El Sayed and Rabbaa, 1986) However, the Loaded Swell method suffers from the limtation that sampling disturbance has not been taken into account. As well, this method requires a number of (ie., three or more) "identical", undisturbed specimens, which sometimes may be difficult to obtain. 2.2.1.4 Direct Model Method (Texas) (Jennings, 1969) ‘The Direct Model method was first described in the Texas Highway Department Manual of Testing Procedures (TEX-124-E page 6) and primarily used for estimating heave in undisturbed soils. The Direct Model method is essentially a series of Loaded Swell oedometer tests. The specimens are subjected to their field overburden pressure (or the load that will exist at the end of construction) and then saturated. The stress path followed during the test procedure is shown in Fig. 2.4b. The conventional two-dimensional manner for plotting the test data is shown in Fig. 2.4a. The resulting final volume changes are plotted versus the applied loads and the applied load corresponding to zero volume change is called the swelling pressure. ‘The swelling pressure and heave predicted is generally significantly below the actual swelling pressure and heave experienced in the field. Jennings and Kantey (Jennings, 1969) used the method to back-analyze a known and recorded heave on an existing building andfound that the resulting prediction was only about 50% of the observed heave. Fredlund et al. (1980) indicated that the under-estimation appears to be primarily due to not taking into account the disturbance which has been experienced by the soil during sampling. _ Init soi SADR ~t Ub Sarrped oi ‘Applied toad (a) Two-dimensional plot ae Feload (at) () Tree-dimensional piot Figure 2.4 Stress path followed in the direct model method (from Fredlund et al., 1980).2.2.1.5 Chinese Method (The Chinese Technical Code for Construction in Expansive Soil Regions, GBJ112-87) ‘Void ratio, © Pressure (KPa) (@) Two-dimensional plot 4 Velde, 6 ‘ou (b) Three-dimensional plot Figure 2.5 Stress path followed in the Chinese Code method. ‘The Chinese Method testing procedure is conducted to obtain reference information for analyzing foundation deformations in expansive soils. The procedure is performed on a single soil specimen which is subjected to a pre-determined pressure and then saturated.The pre-determined pressure is determined in accordance with :he site construction requirements and should be slightly larger than the anticipated swelling pressure. After equilibrium condition is reached, the soil specimen is then unloaded following the conventional oedometer test procedure. The pressure at the intersection of the rebound ‘curve with the initial void ratio line is referred to as the swelling pressure. Figure 2.5 shows the stress paths followed. The Chinese Method is widely used in engineering practice in China due to the advantage that only one specimen is required to define both the swelling pressure, Ps and the swelling index, C.. However, the swelling pressure obtained using this procedure decreases with increasing pre-determined pressure (Fig. 2.6) and is less than the swelling pressure obtained from other methods (Institute of Construction Sciences, 1982; Institute of Yangzi River Hydroelectric Power Research, 1986; Feng, 1995}. The low measured swelling pressure appears to be primarily due to the plastic deformation taking place during the test. 0 500 10001500» 2000-2500» «3000 Pre-determined pressure (KPa) Figure 2.6 Swelling pressure versus pre-determined pressure curve obtained using Chinese Method for undisturbed Regina Clay. 192.2.2 Constant Volume Oedometer Test Test procedures belonging to this category allow the applied load to change during the tests. 2.2.2.1 Constant Volume Oedometer Test Method (ASTM D4546-95) 10 105 1000 Pressure (a) a) Conventional “Constant Volume" data plo: reser 0s / LE oon — i we | ) Three-dimentional stress path plot Figure 2.7 Stress path followed in the "Constant Volume" oedometer test (from Fredlund, 1995). 20In the Constant Volume test procedure, a specimen is subjected to a token load and immersed in water. The specimen volume is maintained constant throughout the first part of the test by varying the load applied to the specimen, as required. This procedure is continued until there is no further tendency for swelling. The applied load at this point is refereed to as the “uncorrected” swelling pressure, Ps. The soil specimen is then further loaded and unloaded following the conventional oedometer test procedure. The test results are commonly plotted as shown in Fig. 2.7a. The actually stress paths followed during the test can be visualized using a three-dimensional plot of the stress state variables versus void ratio and water content (Fig. 2.7b) Maintaining a constant volume may be achieved in different way such as by using a proving ring or a null-type measuring system. Several attempts have been made to measure swelling pressure using proving rings (Palit, 1953; Alpan, 1957; Finn and Strom, 1958; Seed et al., 1962; Sing 1967). The apparatus used by Palit (1953) consisted of a cell 76.2 mm (3 inch) diameter and 101.6 mm (4 inch) height containing the soil specimen. Swelling of the soil was prevented using a piston and proving ring connected to the frame while the pressure was measured continuously. Seed et al. (1962) used a similar apparatus, except that a proving bar replaced the proving ring. Proving rings or bars have the advantage that required vertical load can be automatically applied to the specimen to maintain the specimen at a constant volume. However, the measurement of swelling pressure using a proving ring necessitates some deformation of the ring resulting in an equal amount of swelling in the soil which will cause the measured swelling pressure to decrease. Seed, Mitchell and Chan (1962) have illustrated this effect by measuring the swelling pressure of “identical” specimens using proving rings of different stiffness. The swelling pressure ‘measured using the stiffest measuring system yielded the highest swelling pressure. In order to more accurately measure swelling pressure by the Constant Volume procedure, attempts have been made to increase the stiffness of the measuring device (Seed et al., 1962; Kassiff aet al., 1965). However, even with the use of extremely stiff proving rings or load cell, some ‘swelling of the soil specimen would still occur due to the compression of the apparatus. In addition, the accuracy of the measurement of small loads may be lost if extremely stiff load measuring devices are used. This leads to the null-type measuring system wherein a very small (measurable) volume change is allowed and is then balanced by adjusting the applied load on the specimen. Therefore, a constant volume is maintained until there is no further tendency for swelling (Holtz and Gibbs, 1956; Salas and Serratosa, 1957; Iyer, 197: Agarwal and Sharma, 1973; Shanker, Rao and Swamy, 1982; Sridharan, Rao and Sivapullaiah, 1986). The null-type measuring system has the advantage that the effects of the compressibility of the oedometer apparatus can be compensated during the test. Fredlund (1969) suggested that, in order to obtaining the "corrected" swelling pressure from the Constant Volume procedure, the compressibility of oedometer apparatus should be determined prior to running the Constant Volume test and that corrections should be applied to the test data. The Constant Volume method has been recommended by many research workers (Frydman and Calabresi, 1987; Iyer, 1987 and ASTM D4546-95) due to the advantage that it does not involve volume change and does not incorporate hysteresis into the estimation of the insim stress state (ie., swelling pressure). However, the Constant Volume method suffers from a serious limitation that the sampling disturbance has not been taken into account. In order to eliminate this limitation, an empirical procedure to compensate for the effect of sampling disturbance was proposed by Fredlund et al. (1980). 2.2.2.2 Correction for Sampling Disturbance ‘Sampling disturbance increases the compressibility of the soil, and does not permit the laboratory specimen to return to its insitu stress state at its insitu void ratio. In the coedometer test, it is impossible for the soil specimen to return to an insitu stress state after sampling without displaying some curvature in the void ratio versus effective stress plot 2(ie. consolidation curve). Geotechnical engineers have long recognized the effect of sample disturbance when determining the preconsolidation pressure for a saturated soil. However, only recently has the significance of sampling disturbance been recognized in the measurement of swelling pressure (Fredlund et al., 1980). Void ratio, e log (o- us) Figure 2.8 Construction procedure to correct for the effect of sampling disturbance (from Fredlund et al., 1980). Sampling disturbance causes the conventionally determined swelling pressure, Ps, to fall below the “correct” swelling pressure. Fredlund et al. (1980) proposed an empirical procedure to compensate for the effect of sampling disturbance. In this testing procedure, a Constant Volume test is conducted. Once the uncorrected swelling pressure, P, is reached, the specimen is further loaded in compression up to a higher pressure and then unloaded. The void ratio, e, versus log pressure curve obtained is used to find a corrected swelling pressure, P's, by using a modified Casagrande type of geometrical construction as shown in Fig. 2.8, to compensate for sample disturbance. 2BFig. 2.9 shows a comparison of “corrected” and “uncorrected” swelling pressure (ie., Constant Volume oedometer tests) data from 2 soil types. The results indicate that it is possible for the “corrected” swelling pressures to be more than 3 times the “uncorrected” swelling pressure. ‘19000 I TT TTIrit T es TTT eee & t © Eston clay E c00 T 2 I é z Uncorrected sweling pressure, Ps (KPa) Figure 2.9 Change in swelling pressure due to applying the correction for sampling disturbance (from Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993). 22.2.3 Sullivan and McClelland Method (Sul The Sullivan and McClelland method is based on a Constant Volume oedometer an and McClelland, 1969) test performed on an undisturbed specimen initially subjected to the overburden pressure. Once the swelling pressure has been reached, the soil specimen is rebounded. The rebound curve is used to relate net normal stress and volume change. The stress path followed is stown in Fig. 2.10. Heave is predicted from rebound curve in a similar manner to the prediction of settlement from a consolidation curve. Only one test is required to evaluate all loading 4conditions under which swelling will occur. Additional tests must be run for each different initial density and water content condition. | — jm | ometean Cota vtme ‘epliedtoad (2) Two-dimensional plot Tokentoad | (©) Tree-dimensional plot Figure 2.10 Stress path followed in the Sullivan and McClelland method (from Fredlund et al., 1980). The availability of published case histories is limited, but it is anticipated that this method would under-estimate the amount of heave and the swelling pressure since sampling disturbance has not been taken into account.2.2.2.4 Strain Controlled Test Method (Porter and Nelson, 1980) Volune change (1) 1 10 100 000 Aepliedioad (kPa) (a) Two-dimensional plot (uae) (©) Three-dimensional plot Figure 2.11 Stress path followed in the Strain Controlled test method. The procedure for the strain controlled swell tests (Porter and Nelson, 1980) consists of initially confining the specimen in the loading frame such that no volume change can take place when water is added. After the soil specimen is immersed in water, the 26vertical pressure is allowed to develop to a maximum value. Once the maximum pressure (ic., the swelling pressure) has been reached, the specimen is allowed to swell by a prescribed amoun: and the resulting vertical pressure is again measured. This procedure is repeated in increments until the recorded vertical pressure is reduced to a low value. The specimen is then incrementally compressed to its original height. The stress path followed by the test procedure is shown in Fig. 2.11b. The conventional two-dimensional manner for plotting the test deta is shown in Fig. 2.11a. ‘The strain controlled swell test was recommended by some research workers (Porter and Nelson, 1980; Morgenstern and Balasubramonian, 1980; and Mesri et al., 1994) due to the advantage that only one specimen is required to define both the swelling pressure and the swelling index. However, this method suffers from the limitation that sampling disturbance has not been taken into account. 2.2.3 Comparison of Various Method The test methods discussed above have become widely accepted for testing swelling soils. However, the predicted swelling pressures will differ significantly depending on the testing procedure used (Brackley, 1975; Ali and Elturabi, 1984, Sridharan et al., 1986). Careful studies on the one-dimensional swelling behavior of compacted Regina Clay by Gilchrist (1963) revealed that the swelling pressures obtained when using the Constant Volume method and the Loaded Swell method are less than those obtained from the "Free Swelling" method (Fig. 2.12). The difference between the swelling pressures values, determined by means of the Free Swell method and the Constant Volume" method, increases with a decrease in initial void ratio (Fig. 2.12). Interparticle resistance has been Suggested as a reason for this difference, with the conclusion that swelling pressure cannot be determined from the results of a Free Swell test. 220 Ina void ratio, © on 10 100 1000 10000 ‘Swoling pressure (KPa) Figure 2.12 The relationship of void ratio and swelling pressure determined by three methods for compacted Regina Clay (from Gilchrist, 1953). Ey T | & Init water content (%) 8 10 1 10 100 1000 110000 ‘Sweling pressure (KPa) Figure 2.13 Swelling pressure as a function of initial water content for compacted Regina Clay (from Noble, 1966).Similar test results have been obtained by Noble (1966) and Lu (1969) for Regina Clay. Compacted specimens were used by Noble (1966) and specimens reconsolidated from a slurry were used by Lu (1969). The results are shown in Fig. 213 and Fig. 2.14. Lu (1969) contributed the difference between the values of swelling pressure measured by the Free Swell and Constant Volume methods to the swelling caused by osmotic suction. It was suggested that since the soil is allowed to freely take up water during the Free Swell test, a considerable amount of the swell is due to osmosis. This results in a higher swelling pressure. 40 ee eee | i L hy Constant Volume} | | YS mn | t i— — Free Swell | N - THT a K TI = 0 j 7 i : z | | \| z | | a7 il ‘| 1! | a =| | || 3 \ | a Lt 4 LEE 3 | eee ay T T 2 Tritt Nyt tiie | 1 N |i | ING] TT | | \ N | | | | | 1] | | “| i I} 100 1000 10000 ‘Swelling pressure (kPa) Figure 2.14 Swelling pressure versus initial water content for Regina Clay (from Lu, 1969). ‘The swelling response of the Onderstepoort soil under four different procedures has been nicely summarized in Fig. 2.15 by Brackley (1975). The swelling pressures obtained by the commonly used methods in practice are presented. These pressures are representedby P1, Psa, Ps3 and Ps4, respectively. There are four testing procedures used which give an indication of different predictions of the swelling pressure. Cigna! void ratio 0.85-0.90 Di swe under oad Original water content 22-25% }© wet at constant volume then unoad © Natal water corte consoicaon Im Free swell x (Constant Volume) (Loaded swat) 10 Volume change (%) Vertical pressure (kPa) Figure 2.15 Swelling pressure and heave measured by different methods for the ‘Onderstepoort soil (from Brackley, 1975). Similar observations were reported by Justo et al. (1984) as illustrated in Fig. 2.16 In this case, clay from El Arahal, Camas and Puente Genil, Spain were compacted and tested. The results in Fig. 2.16 indicate that the swelling pressure obtained when using Constant Volume method is similar to the swelling pressure obtained from the Loaded ‘Swell method and is much lower than those obtained from the Free Swell and Double Ocdometer methods. Brackley (1975) and Justo et al. (1984) attributed the difference between the swelling pressures obtained from different methods to the different stress paths followed by different methods. It was suggested that oedometer tests should be carried out to follow the anticipated stress path. 30Rs (Loaded Swat) a (Constant S j Volume) 7 2 a. (Feoe Swat) 2 | Compression (%) O10 05 1 2 8 10 2 5» 100 20 500 100 Extamal sess (kPa) Figure 2.16 Swelling tests on compacted specimens of El Arahal (from Justo et al., 1984). In order to compare the swelling pressure values obtained from different methods, a testing program was conducted by Ali and Elturabi (1984). In this program, both undisturbed and compacted specimens were used. The undisturbed specimens were from the southwest of Sudan and the compacted specimens were from the central Sudan area. “identical” specimens were subjected to the two testing procedures; namely the Free Swell cedometer tests and the Constant Volume oedometer tests. The results obtained indicated that the Free Swell method usually gave higher swelling pressure values than those obtained from the Constant Volume method (Fig. 2.17). However, no interpretation was postulated regarding the difference. 31