HBEC1903 Pedagogy in ECE and Care - Ejan22

EDUCATION AND
SOCIAL SCIENCES
HBEC1903
Pedagogy in Early Childhood Education
and Care Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
HBEC1903
PEDAGOGY IN
EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION AND
CARE
Assoc Prof Dr Mazlina Che Mustafa
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Second edition 2022
First edition 2020
Developed by Centre for Instructional Design and Technology, OUM.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), HBEC1903
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President of Open University Malaysia (OUM).
www.oum.edu.my

Course Guide ix–xiv
Topic 1: Pedagogy in Early Childhood Education and Care 1
1.1 Definition 2
1.2 Landscape of Early Childhood Pedagogy 2
1.3 Philosophies and Approaches in Early Childhood Pedagogies 7
1.3.1 Teacher-directed Approach 11
1.3.2 Child-centred Approach 12
1.3.3 Open Framework Approach 14
1.4 Matching Pedagogies to Selected Approaches 14
1.5 Conclusion 16
Summary 16
Key Terms 17
References 17
Topic 2: Early Childhood Pedagogy: Principles and Practices 18
2.1 Definitions 19
2.2 Principles of Early Childhood Pedagogy 19
2.3 Practices in Early Childhood Pedagogy 23
2.4 Teaching and Pedagogy 28
2.5 Learning and Pedagogy 30
2.6 Conclusion 32
Summary 32
Key Terms 32
References 33
Topic 3: Constructivist Perspectives in ChildrenÊs Learning 34
3.1 Definition 35
3.2 Types Of Constructivism 35
3.2.1 Cognitive Constructivism 36
3.2.2 Social Constructivism 40
3.2.3 Co-constructivism 43
3.3 Constructivist Perspectives on Principles of Learning 44
3.4 Zone of Proximal Development 47
iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.5 Scaffolding 50
3.5.1 Concept of Scaffolding 50
3.5.2 Strategies for Scaffolding 50
3.6 Conclusion 52
Summary 53
Key Terms 53
References 53
Topic 4: Strategies, Approaches and Methods in Early Childhood Education 55
4.1 Definition 56
4.2 Strategies 56
4.3 Approaches 58
4.3.1 Types of Approaches 59
4.3.2 Children and Teachers on a Continuum 60
4.4 Methods 62
4.5 Differences between Approach and Method 64
4.6 Relationships between Strategy, Approach and Method 65
4.7 Conclusion 66
Summary 67
Key Terms 67
References 68
Topic 5: Lesson Planning 69
5.1 Definition 70
5.2 Importance of Lesson Plans 70
5.3 Elements of Daily Lesson Plan 71
5.4 Conclusion 78
Summary 79
Key Terms 79
References 79
Topic 6: Implementing Teaching and Learning 80
6.1 Definitions 81
6.2 Routines and Transitions 82
6.3 Environment, Resources and Technology 85
6.3.1 Teaching and Learning Environment 85
6.3.2 Resources and Materials 86
6.3.3 Wall Displays 87
6.3.4 Technology 88

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
6.4 Conclusion 89
Summary 90
Key Terms 90
References 91
Topic 7: Early Childhood Pedagogical Approaches 92
7.1 Definition 93
7.2 Play-Based Approach 93
7.2.1 Planning for Play-based Approach 95
7.3 Inquiry-Based Learning Approach 96
7.4 Project Approach 98
7.4.1 Structure of Project Approach 99
7.5 Thematic Approach 101
7.6 Problem-Based Approach 103
7.7 Integrated Approach 106
7.8 Conclusion 106
Summary 107
Key Terms 107
References 108
Topic 8: Approaches in Early Childhood Curriculum 109
8.1 Definition 110

8.2 Montessori Approach 111
8.2.1 Core Principles 112
8.2.2 Learning Areas 114
8.3 Reggio Emilia Approach 116
8.3.1 Reggio Emilia Principles 117
8.4 Developmentally Appropriate Practice 119
8.4.1 Three Fundamental Considerations 119
8.4.2 Principles of Child Development 120
8.4.3 Guidelines for Effective Teaching 121
8.5 Waldorf Approach 121
8.5.1 Characteristics of Waldorf Curriculum 122
8.6 Permata Negara 124
8.7 National Preschool Standard-Based Curriculum 125
8.8 Conclusion 128
Summary 128
Key Terms 129
References 129

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 9: Assessment of ChildrenÊs Learning and Development 130
9.1 Definition 131

9.2 Observation 132
9.2.1 Importance of Observation 132
9.2.2 Purpose of Observation 133
9.3 Documentation for Observations 134
9.4 Techniques for Observations 135
9.4.1 Anecdotal Records 135
9.4.2 Running Record 137
9.4.3 Checklist 139
9.4.4 Work Samples 141
9.5 Conclusion 142
Summary 142
Key Terms 143
References 143
Topic 10: Reflective Report 144
10.1 Definition of Reflective Report 145

10.2 Benefits of Reflective Report Writing 145
10.3 Guidelines for Reflective Report 146
10.4 Types of Reflective Daily Report 147
10.5 Steps in Writing Reflective Report 151
10.6 Categories of Reflective Responses 152
10.6.1 Reaction 152
10.6.2 Elaboration 152
10.6.3 Contemplation 153
10.6.4 Levels of Reflectivity 153
10.7 Conclusion 154
Summary 154
Key Terms 155
References 155

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the
course materials. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course materials as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBEC1903 Pedagogy in Early Childhood Education and Care is one of the courses
offered at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours
and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners pursuing the Bachelor of Early Childhood
Education programme. This module aims to impart the fundamentals of early
childhood pedagogies and form a sound understanding of their implementation,
which will be useful for subsequent courses.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please ensure that you have the correct course materials, understand
the course requirements, and know how the course is conducted.

x  COURSE GUIDE
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a 3 credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120 study
hours. Figure 1 shows the student learning time (SLT).
Figure 1: Student Learning Time
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, you should be able to do the following:
1. Explain the principles of pedagogy in early childhood education and care

from the global perspective.
2. Demonstrate effective pedagogical strategies for early childhood settings.
3. Design an integrated pedagogical approach and documentation which

aligns with the national curriculum.

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed
as follows (refer to Table 1):
Table 1: Synopsis for Each Topic
Topic Description
1 Discusses on the concept of early childhood pedagogy and its importance to
teaching and learning. This is followed by an explanation of philosophersÊ
views that influence early childhood pedagogy. The general approaches
regarding early childhood pedagogies are also discussed in this topic.
2 Focuses on the principles of early childhood pedagogy. This is followed by in-
depth discussion on the practices of early childhood pedagogy based on these
principles. The topic ends with a discussion on determining appropriate
practices for early years settings.
3 Discusses the fundamental concepts of constructivists on childrenÊs learning.
Emphasis is given on the concept of scaffolding followed by discussion on the
zone of proximal development in childrenÊs learning.
4 Begins with a discussion on the approaches, strategies and methods in early
childhood education. This is followed by a comparison of the approaches,
strategies and methods.
5 Examines the concept of lesson planning in early childhood education.
Emphasis is given on the elements of lesson plans in Malaysian early
childhood national curriculum and the implementation of lesson based on the
plans.
6 Describes the routines in early yearÊs settings. This is followed by discussion
on the environment and spaces for teaching and learning. Explanation on the
resources for teaching and learning in early childhood education follows.
7 Highlights the important early childhood pedagogical approaches and their
characteristics. This topic ends with a discussion on the implementation
of the early childhood pedagogical approaches in early years settings.
8 Discusses the main approaches in early childhood curriculum which are
Montessori, Reggio Emilia, DAP, Waldorf, PERMATA Negara, and National
Preschool Standard Curriculum. This is followed by a discussion on the
important characteristics of the approaches in early childhood curriculum and
its implementation.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
9 Describes various types of assessments for childrenÊs learning and

development. This is followed by a discussion on important characteristics of
assessment for learning and its implementation.
10 Discusses elements of the teacherÊs reflective reports. Emphasis is given to the
important characteristics of reflective reports. This topic ends with the
discussion on the implementation of the reflective reports.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
(a) Learning Outcomes

This section refers to what you should achieve after you have completely
covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently refer
to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your
understanding of the topic.
(b) Self-Check
This component of the module is included in strategic locations throughout
the module. It may be located after one subtopic or a few subtopics. It usually
comes in the form of a question. When you come across this component,
reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting to answer the
question, you should be able to gauge how well you have understood the
subtopic(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can be found
directly in the module itself.
(c) Activity
Similar to Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various
locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require
you to answer questions, explore short case studies or conduct an
observation or research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario.
When you come across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you
have gathered from the module and apply it to real situations. You should,
at the same time, engage in Higher Order Thinking skills (HOTs) i.e.
analysing, synthesising and evaluating instead of only recalling and
defining.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
(d) Summary
You will find this component at the end of each topic. It summarises various
important parts of each topic and helps you to recap the whole topic. By
going through the summary, you should be able to gauge your knowledge
retention level. Should you find points in the summary that you do not fully
understand, it would be a good idea for you to revisit the details in the
module.
(e) Key Terms

This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go through
this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
(f) References
A list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents
and sources can be found in this section. The list may appear in a few
locations such as in the Course Guide (in the References section), at the end
of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read or
refer to the suggested references to obtain additional information and
enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
There is no prior knowledge needed.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to .
REFERENCES
Dubiel, D. (2018). Responsible early childhood pedagogy. Early Years Educators
19(10), 6.
Eaude, T. (2011). Thinking through pedagogy for primary and early years.
Learning Matters.
Martin, M. J., & Loomis, K. S. (2013). Building teachers: A constructivist approach

to introducing education. Cengage Learning.
xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2010). A focus on pedagogy: Case studies of effective practice.

In K. Sylva, E. Melhuish, P. Sammons, I. Siraj-Blatchford, & B. Taggart (Eds.),
Early Childhood Matters: Evidence from the Effective Pre-school and
Primary Education Project (pp. 149–165). Routledge.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through the OUM
portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases and several of them are
shown in Figure 2. As an OUM learner, you are encouraged to make
full use of the resources available through this library.
Figure 2: Among the Online Databases Available at TSDAS Digital Library

Topic  Pedagogy
in Early
1 Childhood
Education
and Care
By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following:

1. Define the concept of early childhood pedagogy.
2. Compare philosophers' views influencing early childhood
pedagogy.
3. Discuss the main approaches that inform early childhood
pedagogy.
4. Select appropriate pedagogies that match early childhood
philosophies.
Are you aware that global investment in early childhood education has increased
rapidly over the decades? ChildrenÊs competencies are influenced by the quality
and range of their early experiences and interactions in both the home and early
childhood education centres. ChildrenÊs experiences in early childhood education
settings are determined by process quality. Process quality can be defined as

2  TOPIC 1 PEDAGOGY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE
interactions of pedagogies between children and their teachers, other children and
the environment. The culture, values and principles accumulated over hundreds
of years inform contemporary perspectives of early childhood pedagogy.
The realities of early childhood pedagogy are complex as they are dynamic and
multidimensional. The complexities which are formed through different lens are
due to various perceptions of early childhood provision; child care that allows
parents to work, education for preparing children for school or integrated care
and education for developing the child. Focus on early childhood pedagogy has
intensified in order to address young childrenÊs needs.
1.1 DEFINITION
The term „pedagogy‰ is derived from the Greek words for child (pais) and leader
(agogus). Early childhood pedagogy means leading young children. Pedagogy
relates to the „how‰ or practice of educating. It refers to „that set of instructional
techniques and strategies which enable learning to take place and provide
opportunities for the acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes and dispositions
within a particular social and material context. It refers to the interactive process
between teacher and learner and to the learning environment‰ (Siraj-Blatchford,
Muttock, Sylva, Gilden & Bell, 2002). It concerns the „how‰ of adult and child
interaction, whilst recognising that how children learn and develop at this stage is
not just subject to what is intended to be taught, but it is also of particular
importance how it is facilitated.
Contemporary perspectives of pedagogy can be defined as the art or science of

being an educator which involves teaching methods and techniques based on
two conceptions of pedagogy – the liberal emphasises the autonomy of the child
and the conservative focuses on the authority of the teacher (Loughran, 2010).
1.2 LANDSCAPE OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

PEDAGOGY
Early childhood pedagogy is mainly constructed from theories, research and
policy-making. Values and principles also contributed to the construction of
early childhood pedagogy. In particular, major early childhood pedagogy is
permeated by Western philosophersÊ beliefs and principles. Among the
prominent Western philosophers who influenced early childhood pedagogy
globally were Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762), Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1801)
and Friedrich Froebel (1826) (refer to Figures 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3).

TOPIC 1 PEDAGOGY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE  3
Figure 1.1: Rousseau
Source: http://www.eoht.info/page/Jean+Rousseau
Figure 1.2: Pestalozzi
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Pestalozzi

Figure 1.3: Froebel
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Fr%C3%B6bel
Islamic scholars such as Imam Al-Ghazali (refer to Figure 1.4) believed that God
entrusted parents with the responsibility of raising a child spiritually and mentally
to become a person of value.
Figure 1.4: Imam Al-Ghazali
Source: http://www.ghazali.org/works/port.htm

These philosophers advocated the following as a basis for early childhood

education:
• Child development needs to be holistic.
• Children learn through play and their experiences.
• The context of childrenÊs learning involves their family and community.
• The environment plays an important role in childrenÊs learning.
• Children are pure and unique individuals.
There is some difference between philosophersÊ perspectives on the role of adults in

childrenÊs learning. Pestalozzi (1801) believed that adults should provide a teaching
programme and Froebel (1826) felt that adults should encourage and guide while
Rousseau (1762) advocated that children only be taught by experience. This
disagreement on the role of adults was manifested in the views of early childhood
theorists such as Jean Piaget (1929), Lev Vygotsky (1978) and Maria Montessori
(1916). These theorists who shaped the principles of early childhood pedagogy
endorsed constructivism and play, and emphasised childrenÊs autonomy.
Contemporary early childhood pedagogy has taken on the theoristsÊ varying

positioning of adult and child within pedagogical engagements. Siraj-Blatchford
et al. (2002) highlight three main approaches of early years pedagogy:
• The teacher-directed approach.
• The child-centred approach where adults may provide an engaging

environment for children to learn.
• An open framework approach where children can access a range of

adult-supportive instructive learning environments.

Figure 1.5 shows these approaches.
Figure 1.5: Three Main Approaches of Early Years Pedagogy
Early childhood teachers are able to implement a range of approaches and

different pedagogies to support childrenÊs learning. Approaches to pedagogy are
rarely fixed and straightforward. Rather, these can be viewed as many points along
a continuum which teachers can use flexibly to guide their practices. In addition,
many approaches complement each other and although some may at first appear
to be familiar, they may have distinctive features. Many approaches have
something to offer. Working to achieve a balance is across approaches can be a
challenge for teachers. ChildrenÊs learning across the day also demands differing
emphasis at different times, therefore teachers are likely to use a range of
approaches as well as differing continuum points within different approaches at
different times.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Think of any pedagogy that you know is being practised at an early

childhood education centre.
Share your answer with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online
forum.

1.3 PHILOSOPHIES AND APPROACHES IN

EARLY CHILDHOOD PEDAGOGIES
The approaches to curriculum and aligned pedagogies that teachers select should
be consistent with the settingÊs philosophical perspectives and responsive to the
national educational policy. This means that approaches and pedagogies may
differ from one setting to another as teachers take into account a settingÊs
philosophy, theoretical perspectives and preferred ways of working.
Four major philosophies influence approaches and pedagogies in early childhood

education. These major philosophies are derived from developmental,
behaviourist, sociocultural and critical theories.
• Developmental Theories – Philosophies, Approaches and Pedagogies

Let us look at the philosophies, approaches and pedagogies of this theory.
− Philosophy on ChildrenÊs Learning

The philosophies of developmental theories focus on the image of children
becoming an adult as unique individual. It is important to acknowledge
that children learn by acting on their environment through play. Learning
areas are mainly identified and influenced by traditional developmental
theories.
− Approaches to Curriculum
The developmental theories emphasise that approach should focus on
individual development to support children to learn independently.
Nevertheless, the approach encourages children to take charge of their own
learning based on their own initiatives and decisions.
− Pedagogies
Pedagogies in the light of developmental perspectives highlight that
knowledge is created in relation to learnersÊ pre-existing experiences and
they build their own knowledge rather than passively accept information.
Teaching strategies are mostly non-interventionist such as facilitating,
modelling and supporting with individual and small group activities. The
developmental areas focus on observations, interpretations and
experiences. ChildrenÊs observations need to be planned systematically
and individual records are organised in developmental areas. Reward
systems and awards are used to motivate childrenÊs learning towards
teacher-identified outcomes.

• Behaviourist Theories – Philosophies, Approaches and Pedagogies


Behaviourist theories illustrates the image of children as needy. Therefore,
children need to learn a set body of knowledge and extrinsic motivation in
order to learn. ChildrenÊs learning are reflected in the behaviour.
The approach to behaviourist perspectives on learning is the traditional
method of teaching is used whereby teachers direct learners to learn
through memorisation. The approach focuses on teacher-centred as the
teacher determines the learning objectives and is actively involved in
teaching while learners are commonly passive. In view of intelligence, the
behaviourist theories perceive that intelligence can be defined by a single
factor and consists of one set of abilities.
− Pedagogies
Pedagogy-wise, teachers are considered experts, and therefore they
determine the goals and curriculum content. Curriculum areas are taught
separately to whole class/group teaching with some small group and
individual teaching. Teaching strategies focus on whole class
demonstrations. Documentation and analysis of individual children are
according to demonstrated discrete learning outcomes. Play activities are
allowed only when children have accomplished their tasks. Reward
systems and awards are used to motivate childrenÊs learning towards
teacher-identified outcomes.
• Sociocultural Theories – Philosophies, Approaches and Pedagogies


Sociocultural theories depict the image of child depending on the family
and community as strong, capable and always seeks learning. Children
learn by being active in sociocultural contexts. Besides, importance is given
to relationships between children and their families, communities and
teachers. Social relationships and interactions influence childrenÊs learning.
Zone of proximal development and scaffolding are significant for learning.

The approaches are based on constructivism where learners learn by
constructing their knowledge. Due to the philosophy of sociocultural
theories, the approaches to the curriculum is emergent where the focus on
learning experiences that account for childrenÊs interest and strengths. The
emphasis is on the concept of communities of learners as learners actively
engage in learning and sharing values. Furthermore, the approaches value
multiple intelligences that reinforce all types of intelligence that every
learner has. Besides, teachers direct learners to use different languages and
allow learners to examine their own social and cultural environments. The
approaches also consider inclusivity and integration. The inclusive
approach allows children of all backgrounds regardless of their abilities
and disabilities to learn and develop in the same classroom. While the
integrated approach in early childhood education focuses upon the
interrelatedness of subjects and allows children to pursue learning without
the restrictions of subject boundaries.
− Pedagogies
The pedagogies highlight intentional teaching and mediated learning such
as scaffolding and co-construction. Teachers provide opportunities for
children to investigate their questions either individually or small group
experiences as well as whole group experiences. This allows for accessible,
open-ended and culturally responsive resources. Teaching strategies are
mostly non-interventionist such as facilitating, modelling and supporting.
Different teaching strategies for different children in different contexts.
Documentation and analysis of groups of children such as narratives,
photographs of representations on group projects. Focus on documentation
and analysis/assessment of social interactions, relationships, dispositions
and learning process.
Individual records are organised in developmental areas.

• Post-structural and Critical Theories – Philosophies, Approaches and

Pedagogies

The post-structural and critical theories highlight the image of children as
active agents in their learning. Children learn by being active in
sociocultural contexts. Therefore, the importance of critical thinking
process and reconstruction of understandings have been emphasised
through childrenÊs sociocultural worlds. The analysis focuses on how
gender, ethnicity and class influence childrenÊs identity construction.
Indeed, the view of the world and knowledge as complex, multifaceted and
dynamic.
The post-structural and critical theories approach to curriculum by
transforming the structure of the curriculum and encourages children to
view concepts, themes and problems from different points of view. Similar
to Vygotsky sociocultural perspectives, learners construct their own
knowledge actively, engage in learning and share values through the
community of learners.
− Pedagogies
The pedagogies emphasise rich, complex experiences and learning
environments that empower children as decision makers which provides
opportunities for children to investigate their questions. Assessment
considers documentation and analysis of childrenÊs interactions,
conversations and understandings of identity and power relations.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Explain major theories which influence philosophies, approaches and

pedagogies in early childhood.

1.3.1 Teacher-directed Approach

Philosophically, teacher-directed learning advocates that children learn better
and at a faster rate through structured and organised instruction supported
with appropriate materials to teach explicit content in a clear and systematic way.
Children are perceived as not having enough awareness and basic abilities to
seek knowledge independently. Hence, guidance from teachers is necessary.
An early childhood education teacher is mainly responsible for planning, creating
and teaching lessons to children. Some educationists argued that the cognitive
development of children are shaped by experiential learning opportunities is
primarily provided by adults. Early childhood care and education programmes
associated with the teacher-directed approach stem from developmental and
instructional theory which argue that children can benefit from organised learning.
The main characteristics of teacher-directed programmes are as follows:
• The primary form of instruction is mainly large-group and teacher-directed

instruction. Single periods are set aside for children to learn specific content
areas such as early science, early mathematics and early literacy. Children
receive exact instructions from teachers on what they need to do for their
learning.
• Workbooks, worksheets and other abstract or two-dimensional learning

materials are commonly used by children as specified by teachers.
• Children are expected to respond with correct answers. Teachers emphasise

memorisation and drill in the learning process.
• Direct teaching for literacy instruction focuses on letter recognition, recitation

of the alphabet and the correct formation of letters.
• The common classroom environment is interchanging excitement and noise or

enforced quiet.
• Rewards or disapproval are prescribed by the teacher to get children involved

in learning activities.

Advocates of the teacher-directed approach argue that formal learning experiences

for children in early years settings provide enrichment which gives children an
important and valuable early start to school. The teacher-directed approach claims
that children benefit largely from formal instruction. The advocates believe this
approach is beneficial for young children with limited life experiences who are still
not aware of the process of seeking knowledge. The structure is rigid, does not
allow teachers to access prior knowledge and can hinder the creativity of the
children. There is little room to improvise teaching because the teacher is expected
to plan specific lessons with organised steps based on well-defined subject matter
within the curriculum.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Explain the disadvantages of using the teacher-directed approach in the

classroom.
1.3.2 Child-centred Approach

The child-centred approach has been the main principle in early child childhood
philosophy since the 19th century. Froebel (1826) conceptualised the kindergarten
as „a garden for children‰ where children could develop at their own pace by
exploring their individual interests. This concept has developed so much over the
years that many parents feel that the child-centred approach practised in
kindergarten helps their child to be socially, emotionally and cognitively prepared
for learning.
A child-centred approach encourages children to be in charge of their learning, as

opposed to being directed by their teachers. Children are responsible for making
choices and decisions about learning what interests them. Teachers observe what
children are interested in so that they can develop appropriate learning outcomes
for each child. This approach is commonly known as play-based learning.
Rousseau (1762) claims that children should be given opportunities to learn from
the natural surroundings in their own way without much interference from adults.
Nothing should be enforced unto a child until he is ready and capable of
understanding it. A childÊs individuality should be celebrated through his interests
because curiosity is the basis of his education. Academic-oriented materials such
as workbooks should be avoided particularly for young children as emphasis
should be given to children exploring their surroundings for holistic development.

In promoting the child-centred approach in early childhood pedagogy, the

following should be considered:
• Freedom
Pestalozzi (1801) argued that all children of different classes had the right to
education. He further emphasised that adults should give freedom to children
to explore and create their own learning experiences.
• Self-activities
Froebel (1826) stated that children learn best through play such as games as
these stimulate their self-activity. He focused on childrenÊs self-development
and said that childrenÊs self-activities should stem from their own initiatives
and natural interests.
• Spontaneous Learning
Children develop at their own pace. The teacherÊs main role is to understand
the childrenÊs development. The childrenÊs freedom and individuality usually
lead to spontaneous learning and the teacher should facilitate the learning.
• ChildÊs Interests and Needs

Children learn best when they do so out of their own interests and needs.
Children initiate learning out of genuine interest to understand something that
they need to know about.
• Experiential Learning
The main objective is to enable children to learn through life experiences
because this provides the authentic context for learning. Learning should be
life experience-oriented to meet the needs of children.
• Developmentally Appropriate Practices

Learning should be based on how children develop and learn.
Developmentally appropriate practices support individual appropriateness
and focus on all areas of development.
The whole education process revolves around childrenÊs interest, their needs and
holistic development. Early childhood philosophers throughout the centuries
emphasised the process of learning to achieve the objective of the education. The
teachersÊ role is to facilitate learning in order to optimise their potential. The child-
centred approach provides natural stimulation for the development of children.
SELF CHECK 1.1

1.3.3 Open Framework Approach

There has been criticism against the teacher-directed approach as it requires
children to listen to teachers for an extended period, which poses great difficulty
for most young children, and does not support the individualisation of learning.
Nevertheless, the teacher-led whole-group teaching approach has its benefits

and value. If well-designed and implemented, the teacher-directed approach
can have many positive influences, even for young children aged three to six,
such as instructional efﬁciency and fostering a sense of community and belonging.
Thus, it is important to consider a balanced approach which takes both the

teacher-directed and child-centred approaches into account when appropriate to
be implemented according to the nature of the childrenÊs learning experiences.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Which of the approaches do you find very useful in supporting childrenÊs

learning and development?
forum.
1.4 MATCHING PEDAGOGIES TO SELECTED

APPROACHES
You may select pedagogies based on the approach you choose to practise. This
means you need to translate a chosen philosophy into practice. Pedagogies involve
professional practice i.e. building and nurturing relationships, curriculum
decision-making, and teaching and learning. When implementing an approach,
you need to identify which pedagogies would be most useful in supporting the
approach in daily practice. These include but are not restricted to the following:
• Communication with Families

Some approaches, such as the sociocultural approach, puts greater emphasis
on communicating with families than others. Understanding family practices
guides teachers to which strategies may be most suitable for cross-cultural
communication. The way of the learning environment gives messages to

children and families about the settingÊs philosophy. Relationships which are
central to many approaches such as child-centred are significant for childrenÊs
learning.
• Interactions with Children

The way educators interact with children also varies across approaches.
Approaches such as the child-centred and constructivist approaches
emphasise teachers listening to childrenÊs ideas and engaging in conversations
with them as individuals and in small groups. Interaction and communications
among teachers and children constitute the core of relationships and learning
contexts.
• Documentation and Assessment of ChildrenÊs Learning

Teachers record and assess childrenÊs learning in different ways, with methods
of documentation and focus of analysis that reflect the chosen approaches. For
the developmental approach, anecdotes, checklists and running records would
be appropriate methods. Assessment for the sociocultural approach relies on
information from families in gaining insights into what children are able to do
in their homes and at the centres.
• Learning Experiences
Teachers design and implement learning experiences to support the selected
approaches. In a child-centred approach, planning is provisional and
responsive to family information about the childrenÊs fount of knowledge.
In contrast, learning experiences in a teacher-centred approach tend to be pre-
planned and are usually not open to negotiation. These experiences are often
planned based on national or state curriculum outcomes or learning outcomes.
• Learning Environments
When organising space, teachers need to think about the environment and
approaches. Different environments and spaces can promote different
responses, interactions and relationships among children. Resources also vary
along a continuum from open-ended to closed. Open-ended, flexible resources
support children as competent and capable learners who direct their own
learning.

ACTIVITY 1.4
How do you select the approaches of your practices that match your
philosophy about early childhood education?
Explain your answer to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online
forum.
1.5 CONCLUSION
Teachers can select from a range of approaches and pedagogies. The pedagogy
selected should reflect the settingÊs philosophy. Early childhood care and
education centres can employ a combination of pedagogical approaches even
though it is common to subscribe to one exclusive approach. Due to the range of
theories and practices, some pedagogical approaches are more common in many
countries. Many of these approaches are popular as they are influenced by the
dominant culture and values of a country. More importantly, teachers must
understand that the pedagogical approaches they choose must be based on
childrenÊs interest and needs and provide meaningful contextual learning
experiences for them.
• Early childhood pedagogy is mainly constructed from theories, research and

policy-making as well as values and principles.
• There is some divergence between philosophersÊ views regarding the role of

adults in childrenÊs learning.
• Three main approaches influence early childhood pedagogies, which are

teacher-directed, child-centred and open framework.

Child-centred Pedagogy
Developmental theories Self-activities
Education-based on experience Spontaneous learning
Memorisation and drill Teacher-directed
Open framework Western philosophers
Farquhar, S, & White, E. J. (2014). Philosophy and pedagogy of early childhood.

Educational Philosophy and Theory, 46(8), 821-832.
Loughran, J. J. (2010). What expert teachers do: TeachersÊ professional knowledge

of classroom practice. Routledge.
Pendegarst, D., & Garvis, S. (2020). Teaching early years; Curriculum, pedagogy
and assessment. Routledge.
Siraj-Blatchford, I., Muttock, S., Sylva, K., Gilden, R., & Bell, D. (2002). Researching
effective pedagogy in the early years.
Wall, S., Litjens, I., & Taguma, M. (2015). Early childhood education and care
pedagogy review: England. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development. Recuperado de https://goo. gl/f6D9wS.

Topic  Early
Childhood
2 Pedagogy:
Principles and
Practices

1. State the principles of early childhood pedagogy.
2. Discuss the practice of early childhood pedagogy.
3. Contrast the principles and practices of early childhood
pedagogy.
4. Determine appropriate practices based on the principles of
early childhood pedagogy.
Do you have your own principles in selecting a pedagogy for your classroom?
Early childhood pedagogy is shaped by principles which serve as fundamentals in
teachersÊ practices. It is crucial for you to value the principles as they explain
educational processes. They also demonstrate how teaching processes are carried
out and educational results are achieved. In the field of education, theory-based
principles are part of teachersÊ practices to determine and evaluate educational
aims and outcomes. Early childhood pedagogy counts as knowledge in each

TOPIC 2 EARLY CHILDHOOD PEDAGOGY: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES  19
discipline and how things become known within it. Research has found some
common pedagogical approaches across clusters of disciplines, but there are also
distinctive practices within them.
2.1 DEFINITIONS
Generally, the term „principle‰ can be defined as any kind of common truth or
steering standard by which a process continues, such as the principles of early
years pedagogy. In the context of education, the term „principle‰ is not
conceptualised as a rule but rather as a fundamental fact pertaining to the
connection of factors that the teacher and students agree upon. The term „practice‰
means the implementation or use of an idea, perspective or technique. Practices
are usually guided by principles of early childhood pedagogy in early childhood
settings. In the context of principles and practice of early childhood pedagogy,
Petrie et al. (2009) defined pedagogy in the broadest sense of the word, where care
and education meet, and which concerns upbringing, socialisation, child-rearing,
and supporting learning and development.
2.2 PRINCIPLES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

PEDAGOGY
Many principles echo current theories and research evidence regarding childrenÊs
learning and early childhood pedagogy. Most of the tenets underpinning
fundamental practices in early childhood centres focused on facilitating children
to grow, develop and make progress in relation to learning outcomes. Figure 2.1
illustrates these principles.

20  TOPIC 2 EARLY CHILDHOOD PEDAGOGY: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES
Figure 2.1: Principles of Early Childhood Pedagogy
Now, let us look at each principle.
• Warm, Responsive, Trusting and Respectful Relationships

Teachers who are familiar with and understand childrenÊs thoughts and
feelings can sustain the development of children by giving them a solid sense
of well-being. They communicate positively with children and offer them a
safe foundation for exploration and learning.
Within warm and secure relationships, childrenÊs confidence increases and

they feel respected and valued. They become progressively able to
acknowledge and respect othersÊ feelings, which leads to positive interaction.
Teachers who prioritise nurturing connections and provide continuous
emotional support can facilitate children in developing skills and abilities to
interact positively with their peers, family members and teachers.

• Family Partnerships
Learning outcomes can be realised when teachers have positive relationships
with childrenÊs families. Teachers need to recognise that families are childrenÊs
first and most dominant teachers. Positive associations establish a warm,
friendly atmosphere where children and families are valued and dynamically
encouraged to foster partnerships with teachers, in matters such as deciding
about learning outcomes, thus ensuring childrenÊs learning experiences are
significant and meaningful. Partnerships should be based on the recognition
of each otherÊs expectations and developing the strength of each otherÊs skills,
expertise and knowledge.
In fostering positive partnerships, families and teachers need to:
− appreciate each otherÊs information of each child
− respect each otherÊs involvement and role in each childÊs life
− believe in each other
− foster open communication with each other
− communicate insights about each child
− engage in mutual decision-making
• Understand Child Development

At the heart of the knowledge domain for the early years is a thorough
understanding of childrenÊs development. Those who work with children
are expected to be well-informed about the broad phases of development.
When teachers have insufficient or inadequate knowledge of development
informing their pedagogical base, this will affect their practice.
Knowing and understanding child development is imperative as it underpins

all that teachers do with and for children. This underpins early years
pedagogy. It also helps teachers understand what, how and why children do
what they do, when they may develop certain skills and abilities, and how best
to meet their development and learning needs at different stages.

Early childhood teachers working with young children must understand child
development as this enables them to:
− Plan appropriately for childrenÊs development and learning.
− Organise play opportunities for childrenÊs learning experiences.
− Observe and assess children appropriately to identify childrenÊs

development and progress as well as individual differences.
− Have meaningful conversations with parents about their children. Parents

can be confident in the knowledge that their children are entrusted to
teachers who know them.
TeachersÊ firm understanding of child development theories can inform their

practice. Theories on child development can provide insights into childrenÊs
development and help teachers to understand how best to work with them.
Effective pedagogy based on knowledge about each childÊs abilities and child
development principles together with knowledge of the best learning and
teaching practices can enhance quality practices in early childhood education.
• Pedagogical Knowledge
Pedagogical knowledge is the teachersÊ knowledge about the process and
practice of teaching and learning. It is the specialised pedagogical knowledge
base of teachers which includes all the required cognitive knowledge for
creating effective teaching and learning for children in the early years. The
pedagogical content knowledge is when different pedagogic techniques are
required to make different forms of knowledge, skills, and understanding
accessible to children.
• Respect Diversity
Cultural and socio-economic backgrounds, religion, as well as physical
differences among children are born within a culture, which is not only
influenced by traditional customs, but also by experiences, principles and
tenets of families and close communities. Celebrating diversity conceptualises
the curriculum values and reflect the principles, values and beliefs of each
family.

When teachers respect the diversity of families and communities, they can
inspire children to learn and reinforce their sense as capable learners. Teachers
need to evaluate the opportunities and dilemma that can develop from
diversity and act upon injustice that may occur within families and
communities. Thus, they should create opportunities to appreciate diversity.
• Continuous Professional Development and Reflective Practice

Early childhood teachers should constantly find opportunities to develop their
professional knowledge and skills to reflect on and improve their practices.
Professional early childhood teachers assess what is happening in their centres
and reflect on what and how practices could be improved. Analytical reflection
involves closely assessing various aspects of occurrences and experiences from
different perspectives. Teachers usually outline their reflective practice within
a set of overarching issues, developing more specific questions for particular
areas of enquiry.
A dynamic value of professional inquiry is established when teachers and

those who are directly or indirectly involved collaborate in a continuous cycle
of reviewing current outcomes of practices to generate new ideas.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Think of any early childhood programme that you are familiar with and
list the important principles that could be the basis of its practices.
forum.
2.3 PRACTICES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

PEDAGOGY
Early years pedagogy is unique and requires teachers to work ensuring a positive
influence on childrenÊs well-being, development and learning. To create these
opportunities, teachers need a balanced focus on the development of childrenÊs
academic, social, emotional, physical, cognitive and creative skills. In addition,
teachers need an extensive repertoire of pedagogy that take into account childrenÊs
background, abilities, interests and characteristics as well as the context of
teaching. Figure 2.2 shows the pedagogy in practice.

Figure 2.2: Pedagogy in Practice
The principles of early childhood pedagogy reinforce teachersÊ practices. Teachers

draw on a resonant range of pedagogical practices to optimise learning
experiences of children by implementing the following practices:
• Holistic Approaches
Holistic approaches to teaching and learning acknowledge the relationship of
each domain of development, the contributions of the families and
communities as well as environment. When teachers adopt a holistic approach,
they focus on childrenÊs physical, social, emotional and spiritual well-being
and the cognitive aspects of learning. As teachers plan or assess a particular
learning outcome, they must acknowledge that childrenÊs learning is
integrated and interrelated. Moreover, they acknowledge the relationships
between children, families and communities in order to foster reciprocal
relationships and partnerships for learning. Learning is regarded as an active
social pursuit and concerted learning and community participation which

leads to holistic learning. In addition, teachers promote childrenÊs capacity to

appreciate and value the environment and the inter-reliance between humans
and the natural surroundings.
• Responsive Teaching and Caregiving

Early childhood teachers must be responsive to all childrenÊs needs,
capabilities and interests. This way, they can develop childrenÊs strengths,
skills and knowledge to support their motivation and engagement in learning.
Teachers must also be responsive and open to childrenÊs suggestions and ideas
as they play, which contribute to an important basis for curriculum decision-
making. In responding to childrenÊs developing ideas and interests, teachers
can evaluate, predict and extend childrenÊs learning through open-ended
questioning, providing feedback, challenging their thinking and guiding their
learning. Spontaneous learning through teachable moments is paramount to
scaffold childrenÊs learning. Being responsive enables teachers to be respectful
of childrenÊs play and encourages them to think in order to enrich their
learning.
• Learning through Play

Play mostly contributes to a childÊs development when it is considered
meaningful to children. A child has the specific purpose of learning such as
completing a jigsaw puzzle or constructing materials. Play creates
opportunities for children to learn as they explore, experiment, invent and
imagine. When children play together with their peers, they form social
groups, analyse ideas, challenge each otherÊs thinking and build new
understanding.
Play creates a supportive environment where children can freely give

feedback, suggest solutions to problems and engage in critical thinking. Play
can stimulate their thinking and encourage their desire to seek knowledge and
acquire skills. Through these ways, play can encourage positive dispositions
towards learning. ChildrenÊs engagement in play reflects how play enables
them to simply enjoy learning. Teachers may adopt different roles as they
engage with children and use a wide range of techniques and strategies to
support their learning. Both teachers and children must engage in sustained
shared interactions with children to extend their learning.

When children decide to play, they are not thinking that they are going to learn
something from it. Nevertheless, their play provides significant learning
opportunities across all domains of development. Development and learning
are multifaceted and holistic, and yet skills across all developmental domains
can be acquired through play, including motor, cognitive, social and emotional
skills. In fact, children acquire a range of skills at any one time through play
such as during pretend play within the context of early years curriculum.
Children develop skills and learning competencies through well-planned yet
flexible learning opportunities.
• Learning Environments
Environments that promote learning are dynamic and flexible spaces that are
receptive to childrenÊs interests, needs and abilities. Learning environments
are welcoming spaces for children which allow them to explore and
investigate, with facilitation by teachers. This environment can cater to
different learning capacities and learning styles as well as encourage children
and families to share their ideas and feedback to enhance learning experiences.
Outdoor learning spaces offer a wide range of possibilities that are not available
indoors. Play areas in natural surroundings include plants, trees, edible gardens,
sand, pebbles and rocks, mud, water and other elements from nature. These
spaces invite engaging, open-ended interactions, experimentation, risk-taking,
exploration, discovery and connection with natural surroundings.
Indoor and outdoor environments promote childrenÊs learning and offer

opportunities for conversations between children, early childhood teachers,
families and the local community. They promote opportunities for sustained
shared thinking and collaborative learning.
The materials available in learning environments that are natural and familiar
also introduce novelty to trigger interest which increasingly promote abstract
thinking. The natural resources can foster exploration which gives knowledge
about the natural world. Teachers must invite children and families to contribute
ideas, feedback, share their interests and questions to the learning environment.
This collaboration can support meaningful interactions, providing a range of
opportunities for children, and by exploring opportunities for children to be
empowered in their learning.

• Assessment for Learning

Assessment for learning is the process of gathering and analysing information
as evidence of childrenÊs learning and understanding. It is part of a continuous
cycle that considers planning, documenting and assessing childrenÊs learning.
Teachers use a variety of strategies to gather, record, manage, organise and

interpret information to assess childrenÊs learning. They plan suitable ways to
gather significant and meaningful information that reflects childrenÊs
contextual learning which describes their development and notes their
strengths, skills and understanding.
More contemporary approaches to assessment also assess the learning

strategies that children adopt and reflect strategic ways in which learning is
scaffolded through interactions between teachers and children. These
approaches to assessment, when used effectively, become powerful ways to
ensure the process of learning is visible to children and their families.
Children are able to demonstrate their learning in many interesting ways.

Approaches to assessment that consider cultural and linguistic diversity and
are responsive to the holistic capabilities of each child will acknowledge
childrenÊs abilities, strengths and competencies. When assessment is
undertaken in collaboration with families, it can facilitate families to support
and empower childrenÊs learning. Teachers can include children in the
assessment process so that they can understand how they learn best.

Figure 2.3 summarises pedagogical practices:
Figure 2.3: Pedagogical Practices
ACTIVITY 2.2
1. Discuss each principle in the context of Malaysian early childhood

education and care.
2. Think of any early childhood teachersÊ principles and practices
which you find very meaningful for children. Share your answer
with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.
2.4 TEACHING AND PEDAGOGY

Teaching is a complex process that depends on and draws upon different types
of knowledge. Ofsted (2015) argues that teaching is not a top-down or formal
way of working. The goal of teaching is more than just a transfer of content
from one person to another. Teaching is a number of pedagogical practices
that facilitate diverse childrenÊs access to knowledge, skills, activities and
opportunities built on previous knowledge.

While pedagogy is often regarded as the science, art, and craft of teaching, it is an
element of pedagogy in practice and the focus is on helping children learn.
Figure 2.4 shows the important elements of teaching in early years settings.
Figure 2.4: Important Elements of Teaching in Early Years Settings
It is resourceful for teachers to share their teaching practices with their colleagues
to support childrenÊs development and learning. Working, planning, sharing and
collaborating with colleagues is stimulating and enable teachers to engage in
critical and analytical thinking about their own pedagogy. This challenges teachers
to look at existing pedagogical practices and if necessary, change the way things
are done. It also helps them to connect learning with how best to meet childrenÊs
needs. This requires teachers to look at pedagogy differently and create a
sustainable joint pedagogical knowledge base from which to work and develop.
To understand pedagogy, teachers need to think through their beliefs,

understanding of learning, teaching, and development that make up pedagogy.
It is also important for teachers to be familiar with components associated with
pedagogy as these inform the enactment of pedagogy in practice:
• Reflexivity in asking childrenÊs learning experiences.
• Atmosphere that is productive for learning that teachers prepare and present
to children.
• Situations where pedagogical action is required by teachers such as

interactions.
• Practices which support learning such as scaffolding, facilitating and

questioning.

SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. Explain examples of important elements that make up teaching for

children.
2. Explain components of pedagogy in practice and reflect on your
teaching or childhood experiences.
2.5 LEARNING AND PEDAGOGY

ChildrenÊs learning is the first consideration of what constitutes pedagogy.
The role of pedagogy is to ensure that children learn and develop, or rather
pedagogy influence the ways in which learning takes place and the relations which
structure learning. Nevertheless, learning itself can be challenging for children as
they need to understand and remember as well as engage in abstracting and
problem solving. Learning can be considered as a process that takes place within
children through which they change. Through this change, new types of behaviour
norms, attitudes, knowledge, and skills appear. Incorporating these with attributes
and dispositions is what children should learn, build, and develop in early
childhood education and care.
Pedagogy can also mean understanding how learning takes place, and the
philosophy and practices that support that understanding. Teachers do this by
selecting from a range of strategies and matching them to childrenÊs needs and
interests and identifying the best way for them to learn. These decisions are made
by teachers each day rooted in a deep understanding of childrenÊs development
and learning.

According to Dewey (1960), such change will appear through childrenÊs

interactions with people and the surrounding world which the children
experience. This is what pedagogy also means, as in what is taught for learning,
and this stems from the early childhood curriculum. However, for an effective
pedagogy, teachers need to have a knowledge base as illustrated in Figure 2.5 on
how children learn and develop, knowledge of the process of learning, knowledge
of child developmental theories, knowledge of the early years curriculum, and
knowledge of pedagogy.
Figure 2.5: TeachersÊ Knowledge Base
ACTIVITY 2.3
If you were to open an early childhood centre, how would you determine
appropriate practices based on your principles about teaching and
learning in the early years?

2.6 CONCLUSION
The main pedagogical principles focused on relationships with children and
partnership with families. Understanding child development encourages early
childhood education teachers to respect diversity among children. Teachers need
to undergo continuous professional development so that their dynamic
knowledge and skills can support them to become reflective practitioners. In the
context of practice, early childhood teachers must adopt holistic approaches
through responsive teaching and caregiving. Learning through play in a
conducive learning environment helps childrenÊs learning to flourish and
facilitates teachersÊ assessment. Developing teachersÊ professionalism
acknowledges that sharing of practices with others is a branch of professional and
practical knowledge.
• Early childhood pedagogy is shaped by principles which serve as

fundamentals in teachersÊ practices.
• Principles of early childhood pedagogy include relationships with children,

partnership with parents and communities, respect diversity, and continuous
professional development and reflective practice.
• Practice of early childhood pedagogy considers holistic approaches,

understanding of child development, responsive teaching and caregiving, and
assessment for learning.
Assessment of learning Professional development

Diversity Reflective practice
Fundamentals Respectful relationships
Holistic approaches Responsive teaching
Learning through play Teachable moments

Avsic, S., & Rifel, T. (2016). Holistic pedagogy and early childhood education.
Good Shepherd Kindergarten-St. Stanislav's Institution in Ljubljana. Nova
Prisutnost, 14(3), 429-442.
Eaude, T. (2011). Thinking through pedagogy for primary and early years.
Exeter: Learning Matters.
Murray, J. (2018). Early childhood pedagogies: Spaces for young children to

flourish. Early Childhood Pedagogies, 1–18.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273462548_Early_Childhood_
Pedagogies_Spaces_for_young_children_to_flourish
Ofsted. (2015). School inspection handbook.

https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment
_data/file/391531/School_inspection_handbook.pdf
Petrie, P., Boddy, J., Cameron, C., Heptinstall, E., McQuail, S., Simon, A., & Wigfall,
V. (2009). European models for practice, training, education and
qualification. Briefing Paper. Thomas Coram Research Unit, Institute of
Education, University of London.
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82095.pdf
Rogers, S. (2014). An enabling pedagogy. In J. Moyles, J. Payler, & J. Georgeson

(Eds.), Early years Foundation: Critical issues. Maidenhead: Open University
Press.
Špela, A., & Rifel, A. (2016). Holistic pedagogy and early childhood education.
Nova Prisutnost, 14 (2016) 3, 429–442.
Van Manen, M. (2016). Pedagogical tact: Knowing what to do when you donÊt
know what to do (Vol. 1). Routledge.

Topic  Constructivist
Perspectives
3 in ChildrenÊs
Learning

1. Define the concept of constructivism in childrenÊs learning.
2. Describe scaffolding in childrenÊs learning.
3. Discuss the zone of proximal development in childrenÊs
learning.
4. Organise teaching and learning activities based on
constructivism.
When we teach children, we usually find that children can construct their own
learning. However, not many teachers share the same views about childrenÊs
learning. Reflect on how we learned as children ourselves. Theoretically, each
individual makes unique meaning of the world surrounding him. For you to
support childrenÊs learning, you must understand their unique constructions and
see learning through their eyes. Constructivism has significant implications for
how teachers understand learning and think about their roles as well as the
methods they use to teach.

TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVES IN CHILDREN’S LEARNING  35
3.1 DEFINITION
Constructivism is a theoretical concept based on reflection and scientific study of
how human beings learn. According to the constructivist perspective, people
develop knowledge and understanding of the world through their experience and
reflection on those experiences. In the context of childrenÊs learning, constructivist
perspectives on education emphasise the importance of children actively
engaging in constructing knowledge and understanding.
Scaffolding is a concept that is closely related to constructivism. A scaffold literally

means a transitory structure used for holding workers during building
construction. Similarly, cognitive scaffolding is temporary support offered by a
parent or teacher to a child in the process of learning. The assistance provided by
the parent or teacher decreases as the child increases his or her skills and becomes
capable of carrying out the task on her or his own (Clark, 2014; Daniels, 2010).
A related concept to scaffolding in the context of constructivism is VygotskyÊs

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). More knowledgeable others can best assist
the child through this zone by gearing their assistance according to the childÊs
capabilities. The critical forms of childrenÊs cognitive activities develop through
interaction with more knowledgeable, more experienced individuals who teach
and guide them within appropriate learning environments such as in early years
settings (Clark, 2014).
3.2 TYPES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Contemporary perspectives on childrenÊs learning are the outcome of centuries of
changes in mostly Western cultural values and philosophical perspectives about
children, and scientific and technological development. John Dewey (1933/1998)
is often acknowledged as the founder of this philosophical approach. Bruner (1990)
and Piaget (1972) are considered the prominent theorists among the cognitive
constructivists, while Vygotsky (1978) is the dominant theorist among the social
constructivists. Constructivist perspectives acknowledge various constructions of
the world. Generally, constructivism is categorised into three broad categories –
cognitive constructivism (based on the work of Piaget), social constructivism
(based on the work of Vygotsky) and co-constructivism. See Figure 3.1.

36  TOPIC 3 CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVES IN CHILDREN’S LEARNING
Figure 3.1: Types of Constructivism
3.2.1 Cognitive Constructivism

Developmental psychologist, Piaget (1896–1980), is among the theorists who
founded cognitive constructivism due to his major work on cognitive theories
(refer to Figure 3.2). He was a major figure in 20th century developmental
psychology.
Figure 3.2: Piaget
Source: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Piaget

His developmental theory has two major parts, which are ages and stages
component that expects childrenÊs ability to understand at different ages, and how
they develop cognitive abilities according to the four stages of cognitive
development: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal
operational periods as shown in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Four Stages of Cognitive Development
Source: https://sites.google.com/site/principlesonlearning/b-jean-piaget

According to Piaget, development is driven by the process of equilibration.

Equilibration encompasses schema, assimilation and accommodation as
illustrated in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: PiagetÊs Process of Equilibration
PiagetÊs cognitive constructivism indicates that knowledge is actively constructed

by learners based on their existing cognitive structures. He theorises that humans
cannot only receive information, as they need to construct their own knowledge.
They build their knowledge based on their experience that enables them to create
schemas which can be defined as a set of mental representations of the world
which can be changed, enhanced and made more complex. For instance, babies
naturally have a sucking reflex, which is triggered when something touches their
lips. Therefore, a baby will suck a nipple or a personÊs finger when it is placed close
to their lips. Piaget, therefore, assumes that the baby has a „sucking schema‰.
Piaget emphasises the importance of schemas in cognitive development and

described how they were developed or acquired through two complementary
processes, assimilation and accommodation (refer to Figure 3.5). Assimilation of
knowledge happens when a learner encounters a new idea and it fits into what
they already know. Accommodation of knowledge happens when existing schema
(knowledge) does not work and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or
situation. Another concept related to assimilation and accommodation is
equilibrium, which is the force that moves development along.

Figure 3.5: PiagetÊs Concept
Source: https://www.slideshare.net/lidiaibanez3975/piaget-46000944
Piaget believes that cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but
rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibrium occurs when a childÊs schemas can deal
with most new information through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of
disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing
schemas (assimilation). According to constructivist perspectives, learning is a
collaborative process and knowledge develops from individualsÊ interactions with
their culture and society.

3.2.2 Social Constructivism

Social constructivism was developed by a Soviet psychologist, Lev Vygotsky
(1896–1934), who is known for his work on psychological development of children
(refer to Figure 3.6).
Figure 3.6: Vygotsky
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky
In VygotskyÊs theory, the guidance and support of adults and others more expert
than the child are significant influences in the childÊs development and learning.
The importance of social context is emphasised, with the idea that the child exists
within society and cannot be separated or studied away from society.
Vygotsky proposed that:
„Every function in the childÊs cultural development appears twice: first, on the
social level and, later on, on the individual level; first, between people
(interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological).‰
Vygotsky described all higher mental functions as having social origins.

This means they first appear in interactions between people before they are
internalised by the individuals.
The emphasis of this theory is on how children develop the knowledge and skills
relative to their community, rather than on the basis of a universal description
of development. Development is understood as an outcome of childrenÊs and
adultÊs social interactions within a given cultural context. VygotskyÊs theory has
been especially influential in the study of cognitive development. Vygotsky agreed

with Piaget that children are active, constructive beings. But whereas Piaget
emphasised childrenÊs independent efforts to make sense of their world, Vygotsky
viewed cognitive development as a socially mediated process, in which children
depend on assistance from adults and more expert peers as they tackle new
challenges.
Based on the Figure 3.7, social constructivism relates to culture which influences
knowledge and the means of thinking. Social learning, on the other hand,
emphasises the importance of language in the context of „what to think‰ and
„how to think‰. Besides, learning also takes place through problem solving
based on cultural exchange, internalisation and zone of proximal development.
Figure 3.7: Social Constructivism
Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/149604018847180138/

Building on VygotskyÊs theory, Barbara Rogoff (1990) emphasised the importance

of childrenÊs culture and the ways in which this influences development and
learning. She highlights that „people develop as participants in cultural
communities. Their development can only be understood only in the light of
practices and circumstances of their communities. Culture influences the
knowledge and means of thinking. The learning of children will reflect things that
are important in a particular culture. As children interact with others who have
more experience and expertise, they are guided and supported in their learning.
This is called „guided participation‰. Look at Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8: Combining Thought and Language
Source: https://sites.google.com/site/learningtheorieskwallace/erik-erikson

3.2.3 Co-constructivism
Co-constructivism relates to the theory of learning by American psychologist,
Jerome Bruner (1915–2016) (refer to Figure 3.9). Similar to VygotskyÊs view on
learning, Bruner emphasises effective teaching, starting from what children know
already and providing them with facilitation that pushes their thinking forward.
In addition, he agrees with VygotskyÊs core component of learning which focuses
on social interaction, language, instruction and the development of thinking.
Figure 3.9: Bruner
Source: https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/426909.Jerome_Bruner
Similar to Piaget, Bruner highlights action and problem solving in childrenÊs

learning. However, Bruner argues that PiagetÊs perspectives on the linear
approach based on a gradual move towards more abstract forms of thought is
contradictory to his views which theorises that logical thinking is not the ultimate
thinking.

Young childrenÊs experiences and their growing understanding of the world rather
than a stage theory can be represented in three categories:
• enactive representation – When children represent through their actions.
• iconic representation – When children represent by looking at or making

pictures or images of things.
• symbolic representation – When children use symbolic systems such as written

language or mathematical symbols to represent thinking.
Bruner emphasised that the three ways of representing are available to young
children at any one time with the adultÊs role in scaffolding the process being
essential.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Think of your views on how children construct their learning based on

your childhood experiences.
forum.
3.3 CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVES ON

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
There are some important principles of constructivist thinking for early child
education teachers as illustrated in Figure 3.10. These principles draw upon the
theoretical perspectives of Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner.

Figure 3.10: Important Principles of Constructivist Thinking for

Early Child Education Teachers
Let us look at the explanation:
• Learning as an Active Process

Children actively utilise sensory input and construct meaning out of it
based on their experiences and existing knowledge. They need to do something
out of the knowledge gained because learning is not the passive acceptance of
knowledge which exists; children need to engage with their surroundings to
learn.
• Children Learn to Learn as They Learn

Learning comprises both constructing meaning and developing systems of
meaning. Each meaning that a child constructs makes them better able to make
sense of other perspectives which are of a similar pattern.

• The Critical Action of Constructing Meaning Involves the Mind

The construction of meaning occurs in the mind. Physical movements and
hands-on experience may be necessary for learning, particularly for children,
but it is not sufficient for constructing meaning. Therefore, teachers need to
provide activities which engage the mind as well as the hands.
• Language is Important in Learning

The language children use influences their learning. Vygotsky claimed that
language and learning are inextricably interrelated.
• Learning as a Social Activity

ChildrenÊs learning is closely related to their connection with teachers, peers,
family members and acquaintances. Constructivists recognise the social aspect
of learning which involves interaction with others, and application of gained
knowledge during any social activity is a central aspect of learning.
• Learning is Contextual
Children learn to integrate facts that they learn in association to their existing
knowledge. This highlights that learning is contextual as well as social so
children cannot isolate their learning from their lives.
• Children Need Knowledge to Learn

It is impossible to integrate new knowledge without having some structure
developed from previous knowledge to build on. Therefore, early childhood
teachers must connect learning and offer a route into the matter for children
based on the childrenÊs previous knowledge.
• Principles of Learning Require Time

Children need to revisit their ideas and consider to apply the knowledge as
they learn. Learning for children happens over an extended period. Thus,
children need time to learn and make sense of what they have learned.
• Motivation is a Critical Element of Learning

Motivation can be generally conceived to embrace an understanding of how
the knowledge can be applied until children know its rationale. Children may
not be very involved in using the knowledge until it is instilled in them.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Describe briefly the types of constructivism.

3.4 ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) coined the term „zone of proximal development‰ (ZPD)
and carried out many research that led to instructional scaffolding. Therefore, the
concept is often referred to as „Vygotsky scaffolding‰. Vygotsky focused his main
work on developmental psychology. In the 1920s and early 1930s, he developed
the concept of ZPD which suggested that teachers should facilitate learning within
childrenÊs ZPD so that they can enhance their knowledge and skills by considering
whether the knowledge is currently too difficult for them to accomplish or
otherwise.
The child is said to be within the ZPD when the knowledge usually remains and
improvement is still feasible with more knowledgeable individualsÊ assistance.
The childÂs thinking will advance towards independent and autonomous thinking
with the help of teachers or parents (refer to Figure 3.11).
Figure 3.11: Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky proposed the idea of ZPD after extensive examination of how young
children learn and the effectiveness of various teaching methods. His studies
revealed that individual knowledge-based tests are often not representative of a
childÊs intelligence since children need to interact with others who are more
knowledgeable than they are. Vygotsky cited many examples of cultures where
adults teach young children new skills and knowledge passed down by older
generations.
ZPD is often portrayed as a series of concentric circles. The smallest circle is

the set of skills a child can learn on his or her own, without much assistance.
The next circle is ZPD, which shows the skills that a child would not be able to do
on his or her own without adult assistance. The circle after the ZPD depicts the
skills that a child cannot do yet, even with help. For example, when toddlers
are learning how to talk, they often start by imitating an adult or older child
who guides them. The toddlers will continue to do this until they have enough
skills and strength to utter on their own. Therefore, they are able to learn to walk
much faster through this way than if they were expected to learn without being
able to hold onto anything.
As a scenario of ZPD in early years settings, we can use the example of a child
who is learning how to read and write. He recognises all the letters of the alphabet
but cannot yet read or write words. No matter how much assistance he is given,
he cannot read on his own at that point. However, with a teacherÊs help, he can
learn how to read and write short words like „cat‰, „cake‰ and „dog‰ because
this skill is within his ZPD. It would have taken him much longer to learn this
skill on his own, but it is still simple enough that he can understand it if he has
someone to teach reading or writing to him. The childÊs ZPD is reading and
writing short words, and the teacher who helps him learn them is the scaffolding.
Look at Figure 3.12.

Figure 3.12: Layers of Zone of Proximal Development
Source: https://kristiesteachingphilosophy.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/zpd.jpg
SELF-CHECK 3.2
Explain the concept of ZPD in relation to early childhood education.
ACTIVITY 3.2
State an example of ZPD strategy that can be implemented in early years

settings.

3.5 SCAFFOLDING
Scaffolding is an instructional technique in which a teacher provides
individualised support by incrementally improving a learnerÊs ability to build on
prior knowledge. Scaffolding can be used in a variety of content areas and
across age and grade levels.
3.5.1 Concept of Scaffolding

Vygotsky died in 1934, less than a decade after he introduced the concept of ZPD.
After his death, the research on his ideas greatly decreased. In the 1960s, a group
of psychologists studying developmental psychology resumed VygotskyÊs
work. Bruner coined the term „scaffolding‰ and associated it with ZPD.
Bruner and other psychologists started researching the application of ZPD in
different educational contexts. They discovered that encouraging learners to
attempt the most difficult tasks within their ZPD leads to worthwhile learning.
According to Vygotsky, one of the most critical factors in learning is support

from adults, which is known as scaffolding. Other factors include social factors
such as supportive home environment and quality of preschool education.
ChildrenÊs learning is promoted by scaffolding through interaction with more
knowledgeable people, often their teachers.
Scaffolding can be conceptualised as a teaching method that facilitates children to

learn more by getting support from their teacher or a more advanced peer.
Theoretically, instructional scaffolding highlights that children learn better when
collaborating with others who have a more extensive range of knowledge and
skills than the child currently does. The teachers or peers are the scaffolding
who facilitates children to expand their learning and learn more independently.
3.5.2 Strategies for Scaffolding

Early childhood teachers can adopt many strategies for scaffolding childrenÊs
learning. Among the strategies are the following:
• Modelling
Modelling for children is a fundamental of scaffolding for young children.
Teachers must take every chance to show children exactly what they are
expected to do. They can assist children through each step of a process until
they complete it.

Teachers can do a fishbowl activity where children gather around a small

group in the centre and model how an activity is done for the larger group.
ChildrenÊs cognitive abilities are still developing, so they need opportunities
to see how the tasks given can be accomplished.
• Tap into Prior Knowledge

Encourage children to talk about their experiences, share ideas about what they
are learning and relate it to their own lives. At times, teachers may need to give
hints and suggestions, leading children to make connections with what they
already know. Once they get the connection, they will make meaning of the
new knowledge. Teachers can use this as a basis for learning based on the
childrenÊs prior knowledge, and utilise this as a framework for future lessons.
• Offer Time for Children to Talk

Children need time to process new ideas and information that they have just
learned. They also need time to verbally make sense of and articulate their
learning with their peers who are also engaged in the same learning
experience. When children interact about their work on a regular basis, it does
really work best despite diversity in terms of level of maturation.
• Use Visual Aids and Realia

Pictures, realia and educational charts can all function as scaffolding tools.
They can facilitate children to visually represent their ideas, manage
information and illustrate important concepts such as sequencing, and cause
and effect. Implementing realia as a teaching resource is one of the most
enjoyable for children. Children learn using their senses while observing,
handling, touching, smelling and experiencing with realia. Children usually
remember and understand learning better with the use of visual aids and realia
because it will be easier to connect between the object and the word that
represents it. The use of realia in any lesson can expand and create new
learning that helps the learning process to evolve.
• Pause, Ask Questions, Pause, Review

This is a practical way to check for understanding while children learn a new
concept or content. First, a new idea from interaction is shared, and then
provide thinking time for children. Next, teachers may ask a strategic question
and then pause again. Strategically speaking, teachers need to design the
questions ahead of time, making sure they are specific, guiding and open-
ended. Keep children engaged as active listeners by calling on their peers to
what have just been discussed, discovered or questioned. If the questions
cannot be answered, provide an opportunity for children to discuss them with
their peers.

• Exploring New Strategies

Diverse learners in early childhood classrooms require teachers to learn and
experiment with new scaffolding strategies. Scaffolding children to
understand a new concept may take longer but the process of learning is
rewarding as the end product is of greater quality and the experience is much
more rewarding for all involved.
ACTIVITY 3.3
Discuss the concept of scaffolding and give two scaffolding strategies

that can be implemented in early years settings. Share your answer in the
myINSPIRE online forum.
3.6 CONCLUSION
Constructivism is a significant concept in early childhood education. Three types
of constructivism influence the process of teaching and learning in the early years.
The principles of scaffolding guide teachers and parents to support childrenÊs
learning based on their prior knowledge. VygotskyÊs concept of ZPD states that
there are three levels of learning: things that children can accomplish on their own,
things they can accomplish with help from someone else (ZPD) and things they
cannot accomplish no matter how much help they receive. Bruner developed the
concept of scaffolding several decades later. Studies have shown that scaffolding
can be a very effective teaching method, as long as the teacher understands the
concepts behind it and does not provide too much guidance.
ACTIVITY 3.4
Plan for two teaching and learning activities for young children based on
constructivist perspectives.
forum.

• There are three types of constructivism: cognitive constructivism, social

constructivism and co-constructivism.
• Constructivism has significant implications for the ways teachers understand

learning, think about their roles and teach.
• Teachers can help children learn within their zone of proximal development
so that they can increase their knowledge and skills without becoming
frustrated by things that are currently too difficult for them to accomplish.
• Scaffolding is a teaching method that helps children learn more by working

with a teacher or more advanced peer.
Constructivism Realia
Constructivist perspectives Scaffolding
Modelling Teaching strategies
More knowledgeable others Visual aids
Prior knowledge Zone of proximal development
Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. (2007). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach
to early childhood education. Merrill Prentice Hall.
Glasersfeld E. von (1995) A constructivist approach to teaching. In: Steffe L. P. &

Gale J. (eds.) Constructivism in education. Erlbaum, Hillsdale: 3–15.
Martin, M. J., & Loomis, K. S. (2013). Building teachers: A constructivist approach

to introducing education. Cengage Learning.

Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social

context. Oxford University Press.
Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development. Oxford University

Press.
Vygosky, L. S. (1978). Mind in the society: The development of higher

psychological process. Harvard University Press.

Topic  Strategies,
Approaches
4 and Methods
in Early
Childhood
Education

1. Define the concepts of strategy, approach and method in early
childhood education.
2. Explain the implementation of strategies, approaches and
methods in early childhood education.
3. Differentiate strategies, approaches and methods in early
4. Select the implementation of strategies, approaches and
methods in early childhood education.

56  TOPIC 4 STRATEGIES, APPROACHES AND METHODS IN
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
As an early childhood teacher, you probably use a range of strategies, approaches

and methods in ensuring the quality of learning in the early years. Have you
reflected upon the selection of the strategies, approaches and methods? Are they
the same or do they have distinctive features? The selection of these strategies,
approaches and methods depends on factors such as background of the children
and teachersÊ skills. Teaching strategies, approaches and methods are developed
from resources which include early childhood education theories, understanding
of child development and experiences with children in different learning
environments.
4.1 DEFINITION
The term „strategy‰ can be defined as a long-term plan of action designed to
achieve a particular goal. Teaching strategy is the science or art of planning and
implementing teaching and learning sessions. It is also known as instructional
strategy.
The term „approach‰ has a broader meaning than method. Approach brings the
meaning of perspectives looking at things and may not have a scientific logic. In
the context of teaching and learning, approach can be defined as an array of
principles, beliefs or ideas about the nature of learning which is implemented in
the classroom. Teachers may use approaches that reflect their personal philosophy
of teaching. Through the teaching approach, there can also be various teaching
methods.
Method is a systematic way of doing something. It suggests an orderly logical

arrangement of steps or procedures. Its main focus is on how subject matter can be
delivered effectively step by step and in a scientific way. Teaching method in early
childhood settings is the kind of activity that teachers use in order to teach. Simply,
method refers to the procedure within an approach.
4.2 STRATEGIES
A variety of teaching strategies help teachers to achieve learning outcomes and the
strategies change according to the situation. Teaching strategy is a broad plan for
a lesson which includes organising the desired learner behaviour related to the
goals of instruction. Teaching strategies include general strategies (e.g. know the
children as learners), instructional strategies (e.g. use imagery as cues),
environmental strategies (e.g. use visual displays when giving instructions).

TOPIC 4 STRATEGIES, APPROACHES AND METHODS IN  57
Among the instructional strategies that early childhood teachers can employ to
prepare children in the 21st century are as follows:
• Integrated Technology
TodayÊs children are born in the age of the Internet. Many children are
technologically savvy due to early exposure to technology. Early childhood
teachers must be conversant with the technology that comes naturally to
children. Integrating technology can tap into childrenÊs interests and
strengthen their technical skills, while providing enriching learning
opportunities. As with any new development, many teachers may simply go
through the motions of integrating technology in their teaching and learning.
• Cooperative Learning Strategies

Early childhood teachers are increasingly using a child-centred approach.
Cooperative learning promotes childrenÊs engagement by encouraging
interactions among the children. The teacher, rather than calling on one child
at a time, needs to allow children to interact with their friends, thus optimising
the level of participation.
Figure 4.1: Cooperative Learning Strategies
Source: http://shaznurstationery.blogspot.com/2014/12/

• Differentiated Instruction
Teachers can customise learning experiences to the individual needs of
children in the early years setting. There are three main learning styles, which
are visual, auditory and kinaesthetic. The characteristics of these learners and
the types of activities in which they best flourish are to be distinguished from
cognitive styles. Differentiation of teaching can be done by matching tasks to
developmental levels, offering appropriate intervention or extension activities
as required. Giving the opportunity for children to select activities based on
their interest is another way to differentiate. In addition, small-group work is
one of the most effective ways to meet the needs of diverse learners in large
class settings.
• Goal Setting
ChildrenÊs involvement in the goal-setting process is a powerful way to
encourage them to take ownership of their learning. In the initial stages, goal
setting needs to be done in a very straightforward and simplistic way e.g.
frequent two-way open communication with children about their progress in
specific areas. Teachers can further facilitate goal setting by using charts, which
is simpler for children to understand. Guiding children to reach their goals
requires teachers to provide specific, frequent feedback as well as ample time
for self-reflection.
• Cross-curriculum Teaching
In contrast to the traditional teaching of subjects in isolation, teaching multiple
subjects simultaneously can help children to engage in learning concepts and
skills. Generally, teachers are responsible to make this approach workable.
Teachers can integrate learning strands such as literacy and early science with
reading or writing. Project-based learning, for example, involves children
working on a project. The accomplished project can be shared with parents and
the early childhood centre.
4.3 APPROACHES
Teaching approach is how we view things or a way of looking at teaching
and learning. The approach in early childhood education is based on a set of
principles, beliefs or ideas about how children learn which is translated into the
teaching and learning processes.
When selecting an approach, teachers need to consider:
• curriculum aims and objectives
• learning theories and education philosophies

• childrenÊs development, interests and capabilities
• childrenÊs existing knowledge
• learning environment
• childrenÊs assessment
4.3.1 Types of Approaches

There are three main types of approaches in early yearÊs pedagogy, which are the
teacher-centred approaches, child-centred approaches and a mix of the
teacher-centred and child-centred approaches. Teachers need to decide how to
balance activities led by children with activities led by teachers. Many early years
pedagogies support a mix of teacher-centred and child-centred approaches
because it can contribute to childrenÊs overall development and learning. Look at
Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Types of Approaches
• Teacher-centred Approaches
The teacher is the main source of information in these approaches, in contrast
to the learner-centred approaches. Teacher-centred approaches are more
traditional and focus on the teacher to deliver lessons to children. They usually
adopt direct instruction, deductive teaching or expository teaching. In these
teaching approaches, the teacher controls the content of the lessons and how
learners are presented with the information that they are to learn.
• Child-centred Approaches
These approaches are premised on the perspective that children as learners are
also an important resource because they too can construct their knowledge and
are therefore capable of sharing something. Child-centred approaches
(sometimes referred to as discovery learning, inductive learning or inquiry
learning) emphasise strongly on the learnerÊs role in the learning process.

When early childhood teachers adopt child-centred teaching approaches, they

still determine the learning agenda but they have much less direct control over
what and how children learn.
• A Mix of Teacher-centred and Child-centred Approaches

General practitioners do not prefer one approach over another and do not think
of their time with children as being either teacher-centred or child-centred. Both
teacher-centred and child-centred activities are an interplay between teachers
and children as a continuum, with teachers making constant decisions about the
level of formality, structure and dependence that would promote the best
possible learning. It is clear that teaching in the early years should not be a formal
way of working and must include interactions with children during planned and
child-initiated activities. These are the foundations of learning. Children need to
be taught through direct instruction but in order for them to understand what
they have been taught, they have to work on their own to make sense of ideas.
It is a highly complex balance between teacher-directed and child-initiated
learning (Dubiel, 2018), yet this mixed pedagogy is challenged on a day-to-day
basis through contextual factors.
ACTIVITY 4.1
What do you understand about the concept of approaches in early

childhood education?
forum.
4.3.2 Children and Teachers on a Continuum

Teachers see their approaches to teaching and learning as sitting on a continuum.
A continuum is a continuous sequence in which the elements are not perceptibly
different from each other, but the extremes are quite distinct. Here, teachers weigh
up the extent of their involvement and fine-tune how formal or informal,
structured or unstructured, dependent or independent each learning experience
should be to meet the needs of each child most effectively (Ofsted, 2015).
This means that too little teacher support may limit learning, whereas
child-initiated play and activities can be rich and purposeful for children but can
become repetitive and cause a learning block if not extended or challenged.

However, at the same time, on the other end of the continuum, too tight and
structured teacher-led activities can disengage children and take away their love
of learning. Brooker (2010) classes this as transmission (adult-led) rather than
learning as acquisition (child-led), which then requires teachers to think about
genuine opportunities for activities that develop childrenÊs thinking rather than
teacher-led disguised as play. Nonetheless, there is consensus that the best
outcomes for childrenÊs learning occur when most of the activities in a childÊs day
is a mixture of child-initiated play which is actively supported by adults. This
allows focused learning where teachers guide learning through playful and rich
experiential activities. Ideas about child-initiated and teacher-led activities do
overlap, and research indicates that both pedagogies have a place in educational
contexts (Elwick et al., 2018). So, it is useful to be clear about what is meant by both
terms, how they can work together to support learning, and what the pedagogical
role is in each one.
Figure 4.3: A Continuum of Child-initiated and Adult-directed Activities and Play
Source: DCSF (2009)
Thornton (2015) recommends that we aim for a balance of adult-directed activities

and child-initiated activities – a third each is common. The other third of the time
should ideally be taken up by child-initiated activities that are then picked up and
supported by an adult. However, the balance is still not visible. When most people
think about the question of balance, they think of each exerting an equal weight on
each side. Here, child-initiation and adult-led seem to sit on opposite sides of the
balance, with a lever controlling the weight that can be tipped either side
depending on the context of learning. Balance is a faulty metaphor to use, as it
provides a boundary and separation between both pedagogies. It suggests a

relationship that is always, by necessity, zero sum: if one side rises, the other must
fall in exact proportion. Also implicit in balancing is the idea that equilibrium is
the ideal, and anything that upsets that balance is a change for the worse i.e. a rise
in adult-led activities and fall in child-initiated activities conveys control by the
adult or chaos if vice versa. When discussing teaching and play balance,
Siraj-Blatchford and Brock (2017) argue that synergy rather than balance provides
a much better metaphor.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Think of any approach that supports childrenÊs learning based on your

childhood experiences.
forum.
4.4 METHODS
Methods imply more scientific aspects of teaching and learning than an approach
and are procedural to implementing learning sessions. It is also a scientific way of
presenting learning activities and keeping in mind the developmental milestones
of the children. It is the formal structure of the sequence of acts in teaching. This
consists of procedures to follow, steps to take and actions that you have to do. The
term „method‰ covers both strategy and techniques of teaching. Different
strategies may be adopted in following a method. The teaching method is a style
of presentation of content in the classroom. Two main types of teaching method
are non-participatory method and participatory method as depicted in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4: Methods of Teaching and Learning

• Non-participatory Methods
The teacher highlights himself/herself as an expert of the subject matter. The
teacher is perceived by the learners as an expert or authority. Children as
learners are presumed to be passive and merely recipients of knowledge from
the teacher.
• Participatory Methods
Teachers and children are in constant interaction, actively involved in teaching
and learning sessions and continuously exchanging ideas in the overall
teaching and learning. These methods are sometimes known as interactive
teaching methods or learner-centred teaching methods. These are a shift from
the belief that children are a blank slate to whom knowledge should be
imparted to the perspective that children can construct knowledge and learn
on their own if properly scaffolded by teachers.
It is the teacherÊs responsibility to select appropriate methods, taking the

dynamics of the group into consideration and the teaching aids available in the
early childhood centres by following the general methodological guidelines
provided by the national curriculum and teachersÊ guides.
During an activity, teachers can decide to organise frontal activities with all the
children, in smaller groups or individually through differentiated activities –
depending on the specific objectives of the activity and the level of the children.
The following general points can be taken into consideration:
– The oral communication methods adopted can be categorised as
expository methods such as storytelling, description and explanation.
– Teachers also use exploratory learning methods such as direct exploration
of objects and phenomena such as observation and indirect exploration
such as demonstration through pictures.
– Teachers use extensively methods in most of the activities based on the
childrenÊs direct voluntary action and simulated action.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
Why do teachers need to use various methods in teaching young

children?

4.5 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN APPROACH AND

METHOD
There are differences between approach and method as well as between method
and strategy. The differences are explained in Table 4.1 and 4.2.
Table 4.1: Differences between Approach and Method
Aspect Approach Method
Meaning It is the view of looking The procedure of teaching learning is

at things. called an approach or the way we teach.
Scope It is a broader term than It is more specific than approach.

method.
Logic It has no scientific logic. It has scientific logic.
Purpose To realise the goals of It is the style of presentation or we can

education. say practical realisation of an approach
through a procedure in a system.
Objective To realise the goals of To make effective presentation of subject

education. and content in the classroom.
Table 4.2: Differences between Strategy and Method
Aspect Strategy Method
Term It is new term belonging to It is old term related with

educational technology. This pedagogy.
term is firstly used in military
science.
Purpose It is used to create appropriate It is used for the effective

teaching learning environment presentation of the specific
which helps the learners in content of the subject which
attaining teaching learning help the learner to understand it.
objectives.
Assumption Its assumption is that teaching Its assumption is that teaching

is the science and quite technical is an art.
in nature.

Application The steps taken in strategy are The steps taken in method are
flexible. quite rigid and fixed.
Emphasis The emphasis is laid over The emphasis is laid over the
teaching activities for the proper instructional steps taken for the
organisation of teaching proper presentation of subject
learning environment. matter.
Effectiveness The effectiveness of strategy is The effectiveness of instructional

evaluated in terms of realisation method is evaluated in terms of
of set objectives. mastery over the subject matter.
Objectives The behavioral objectives and The content and mode of

teaching condition are the two presentation are the two main
basic elements of teaching elements of teaching method.
strategy.
Although there are differences in meaning between method and strategy, teachers
need to understand the concepts of early years pedagogies for young children to
be able to implement either method or strategy successfully.
ACTIVITY 4.3
Choose one aspect of teaching such as emphasis and discuss a specific

context in which the difference between strategy and method is
distinctive. Share your answer in myINSPIRE.
4.6 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN STRATEGY,

APPROACH AND METHOD
From the definitions of the root words provided by the various dictionaries, it is
clear to see that method, approach and strategy are not the same and therefore
cannot be used interchangeably. While an approach is informed by oneÊs view or
perspective on issues, a strategy comprises carefully planned activities used to
achieve a goal and a method is the procedure one adopts in solving an issue.
The definitions of the actual terms which stem from the meaning of the root
word also suggest clear differences. Therefore, these words cannot be used
interchangeably since doing so would lead to a distorted view of the terms.

Figure 4.5: Clear Relationship between Approaches, Strategies and Methods
Approaches, strategies and methods depict a clear relationship between the terms
as illustrated in Figure 4.5. Teaching approaches provide a basis for teaching
methods, teaching strategies evolve to define the components of each teaching
method and teaching techniques provide unique ways of going about a strategy.
In other words, teaching approach becomes a universal set which is obtained from
teaching methods. Teaching methods are also related to teaching strategies.
ACTIVITY 4.4
Discuss how you will implement approaches, methods and strategies in

an early childhood education centre.

forum.
4.7 CONCLUSION
Teaching approach is how teachers go about teaching, which suggests creativity
in teaching performance. Underlying any early childhood teaching approach is a
theoretical perspective of what learning is, and of how children learn best.
An approach highlights methods which are the systematic way of teaching
something, through classroom activities or techniques to help children learn
effectively. Teaching strategy is a careful plan of teaching activities to be
undertaken which ensures effective teaching and learning. It is an action plan
designed to achieve specific learning outcomes. At the stage of planning for each

lesson, the teacher decides what method of teaching to adopt, whether teacher-
centred or child-centred. Upon determining which method to adopt, consequently
ensuring effective teaching and learning of that specific topic, he begins to
carefully plan teaching activities which can help achieve effective learning.
• There are three types of approaches in early childhood education, namely:
− teacher-centred approaches
− child-centred approaches
− a mix of teacher-centred and child-centred approaches
• Methods are non-participatory and participatory which highlight the roles of

teachers in teaching children.
• Pedagogical strategies can be general, but they can be used to support a childÊs
learning.
• There are differences among approaches, methods and strategies but they are
also interrelated.
Approach Differentiated instruction

Assessment for learning Goal setting
Child-centred approaches Method
Cooperative learning Strategy
Cross-curriculum teaching Teacher-centred approaches

Brooker, L. (2010). Learning to play in a cultural context. In P. Broadhead,

J. Howard, & E. Wood (Eds.), Play and Learning in the Early Years: From
Research to Practice. Sage.
DCSF (Department for Children, Schools and Families). (2009). Learning, playing
and interacting good practice in the early years foundation stage. DCSF
Publications.
Dubiel, D. (2018). Responsible early childhood pedagogy. Early Years Educator,

19(10), 6.
Elwick, A., Osgood, J., Robertson, L., Sakr, M., & Wilson, D. (2018). In pursuit of
quality: early childhood qualifications and training policy. Journal of
Education Policy, 33(4), 510-525.
Ofsted. (2015). School inspection handbook.

https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment
_data/file/391531/School_inspection_handbook.pdf
Siraj-Blatchford, J., & Brock, L. (2017). Comments On: ÂTeaching and Play in the
Early Years a – Balancing Act?Ê Schema Play. https://schemaplay.com/
author/schemaplay/
Thornton, L. (2015). Getting the right balance between adult-led and child-initiated
learning. The Optimus Blog. https://bit.ly/3GI4MuE

Topic  Lesson
Planning
5
1. State the concept of lesson planning in early childhood
education.
2. Describe the elements of lesson plans in early childhood
education.
3. Analyse the elements of lesson plans in early childhood
education.
4. Prepare lesson plans for early childhood education.
Do you agree that teaching requires a lot of planning, from organising the
classroom to developing engaging content for learners every day? It is important
for you to establish a vetted repertoire of go-to lesson plans to promote
development that is critical from birth to six years old. Lesson plans for preschool
pupils should focus on the need to teach them behavioural values, basic values
and structure. As preschool pupils start to understand what they have been taught,
they will use these items in their life.

70  TOPIC 5 LESSON PLANNING
5.1 DEFINITION
A lesson plan is a step-by-step guide that provides a structure for essential
learning. Before planning a lesson, it is essential to classify the learning outcomes
for the class. It is important because it helps the teacher in maintaining a standard
teaching pattern and does not let the class deviate from the topic.
5.2 IMPORTANCE OF LESSON PLANS

Although children mostly play in early childhood centres, it does not mean that
teachers need not prepare for the learning activities. The writing of the lesson plan
gives the teacher time to think about the class, the stage of development of the
pupils and allows for challenging but achievable goals to be set for the week
(Beecher, Death, Dockett, Farmer, & Arthur, 2015).
Among other reasons for lesson plans are:
• helps teachers prepare activities for coming weeks
• allows teachers to set challenging but achievable goals
• allows for observation and reflection when designing lesson plans for coming
weeks
• allows teachers to monitor class progress
• allows substitute teachers to take over a class when a teacher has to leave due
to an emergency
• allows parents to see what activities their children are involved in, if the lesson
plans are posted on the noticeboard
ACTIVITY 5.1
There is a saying, „If you fail to plan, you plan to fail‰. Do you agree with
this in relation to lesson planning in early childhood education? What do
you understand by planning a lesson?
forum.

TOPIC 5 LESSON PLANNING  71
5.3 ELEMENTS OF DAILY LESSON PLAN

The following lesson plan template shows the elements needed in a daily lesson
plan. The rationale for having these elements are as follows:
• TeacherÊs Name
It is important to state the teacherÊs name, so that if someone needs to
refer to the lesson plan or clarify on the activities prepared, he or she
would know who to refer to.
• Class
The class name gives details such as the location of the class and the age group
of the children in the class.
• ChildrenÊs Age Group

The childrenÊs age group indicates the suitability of the activities and their
developmental milestones. Stating the age group also facilitates the teacher in
planning appropriate materials and techniques for the particular age group.
• Focused Domains and Strands

There are two types of domains or strands in a daily lesson plan. If the lesson
plan is intended for children aged four years old and below, then the
PERMATA Negara Curriculum is used for this section. The PERMATA Negara
Curriculum emphasises six important domains in ensuring the holistic
development of children (Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, 2017). It includes
the development of:
− personality, socio-emotional and spiritual aspects
− language, communication and early literacy
− early mathematics and logical thinking
− senses and understanding of the environment
− physical aspects
− creativity and aesthetics

Lesson plans for preschool children use the National Preschool Standard-
based Curriculum (NPSC). The NPSC is designed to ensure the holistic
development of children. The NPSC has six strands:
− language and communication
− spirituality and moral
− science and technology
− social science
− creativity and physical development
− socio-emotional development
• Date/Time and Duration

Information on date helps teachers to plan on a specific date of when the lesson
should be carried out based on the consideration such as related themes, topics
and so on. The time also gives an indication of when the lesson should begin,
and the alloted time for the lesson plan to be carried out. Each lesson should
not exceed 20 minutes for children aged 4 years old and below and 30 minutes
for preschool children as their attention span should be taken into
consideration in order to ensure that learning objectives can be achieved within
the alloted time.
• Teaching and Learning Approach

The PERMATA Negara Curriculum and NPSC highlight approaches such as
student-centred, learning through play, integrated, thematic, inquiry,
discovery, constructivism and project-based learning (Kementerian
Pendidikan, 2017; Jabatan Perdana Menteri, 2011). Teachers can adopt the
approaches deemed appropriate for the activities designed in the lesson plan.
• ChildrenÊs Existing Knowledge

Existing knowledge is the knowledge that children already have before they
know new information. Early childhood education has long been synonymous
with approaches that are integrative of childrenÊs social and cultural
backgrounds, and their existing, prior knowledge. Existing knowledge has long
been considered the most important factor influencing learning and learnerÊs
achievement. The amount and quality of existing knowledge positively
influence both knowledge acquisition and the capacity to apply higher-order
cognitive problem-solving skills.

Among the strategies that teachers can use to discover childrenÊs existing
knowledge are by going through what has been learned by children before
through the documentation of the previous lesson plans. Another way is
through interactions in which teachers encourage children to talk about their
experiences. For younger children who may not be able to verbally share their
experiences, the expansion of learning may occur during every day
experiences as teachers watch for opportunities to clarify and build on babiesÊ
and toddlersÊ current knowledge and understanding. By applying these
strategies, teachers can develop a lesson plan consisting of a set of related
learning concepts based on the childrenÊs background and existing knowledge,
turning it into a congruent lesson.
• Learning Materials
Learning materials is a generic term used to describe the resources teachers use
to deliver instruction. Ideally, the learning materials need to be tailored to the
context in which they are being used, and to the children in whose class they are
being taught. Learning materials come in many shapes and sizes, but they all
have in common the ability to support student learning (Beecher et al., 2015).
− The objectives of learning materials are to:

 support childrenÊs learning in order to achieve the learning objectives
set in the lesson plan
 encourage children to be active participants during the lessons
 help children relate what is being taught to real-life situations
 develop the perception of children towards the content
− Some of the characteristics of learning materials that can be used in a lesson

are that they:
 can be found easily in a market or can be made by teachers
 are affordable and easy to carry
 not too complicated and can be adjusted to classroom situations
 can make lessons enjoyable and interesting for children

− The following are the types of learning materials that should be in any early
childhood education programme.
 Language
Colourful childrenÊs books, magazines, alphabet letters of different
sizes and shapes, storytelling area, drawing sets and paper to practise
early literacy skills; recognise alphabet stamps, figurines, word blocks
and magnetic letters (refer to Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1: Materials of Linguistic Activities
Source: https://www.understood.org/en/school-learning/learning-at-
home/encouraging-reading-writing/8-childrens-books-featuring-rhyme-
and-alliteration
 Logical-mathematical
Materials for counting, sorting, categorising, and classifying
(e.g. buttons, coins, rocks, colour swatches), number blocks of different
sizes and shapes, scale to weigh things, measuring tape, measuring
cups, calendars, clocks, and other time-related materials, cash register,
play computer, magnets, lacing, beads, pattern puzzles, pattern blocks
and abacus.
 Spatial
Pictures of all kinds, drawing, painting, and collage (paint, coloured
chalk, pens, collage materials, paste, play dough etc.); easels, puzzles,
pegboards, parquetry sets, telescope, microscope, different coloured
materials to look through, maps, geometric shapes, cameras.

 Musical
Percussion instruments, electronic keyboard, drums, auto harp and
other stringed instruments, music to listen to, containers with „mystery
sounds‰; stage for karaoke, everyday materials to create their own
musical instruments (e.g. cardboard tubes, oatmeal box etc.),
stethoscope to listen to things with.
 Bodily-kinaesthetic
Hands-on manipulatives (refer to Figure 5.2); dry sandbox with age-
appropriate toys (including bulldozers, small shovels and other sand
processors); wet sandbox; building materials (e.g. large Lego sets,
large wooden blocks, stacking blocks), water table with cups, pans,
cans (to play „sink or float‰).
Figure 5.2: Manipulative Materials
Source: https://www.pwap.com/infant-toddler/toys/wooden-
manipulatives-pack
 Interpersonal
Household furniture, dress-up clothes for make-believe, doll house,
dolls and stuffed animals of all kinds, miniature figures for play,
puppets and puppet theatre, stage for impromptu drama, board games,
materials for creating playing at store, farm, village, or other social
institutions; parachute, huge ball, tunnels, miniature vehicles, action
figures and walkie-talkies.
 Intrapersonal
Private spaces to be alone, recorder to record voice, mirrors, sand play
with miniature people, objects and houses to create worlds.

 Naturalist
Aquarium, terrarium, class pet, outside garden, indoor plants,
materials for measuring weather (e.g. weather vane, rain gauge),
binoculars for bird-watching, gardening equipment, miniature farms
and farm animals.
 Tasting and Smelling

Cooking and baking opportunities with an adult, containers with
mystery smells and child-sized kitchen play area.
• Learning Outcomes
Learning outcomes are statements that describe the knowledge and skills
children should acquire by the end of a lesson and help children understand
why the knowledge and skills will be useful for them.
− Intended Learning Outcomes

 must refer specifically to the standards (PERMATA Negara
Curriculum or NPSC) addressed in the lesson
 clarify the intended learning outcomes for children
 provide a focus for instructional planning
 set the stage for teaching, learning and assessment
 identify specifically how learning will be evidenced
− Measurable Learning Outcomes

The learning outcomes should be made measurable as follows:
 identify the noun, or thing children need to learn
 select a verb that is observable to describe the behaviour at the
appropriate level of learning
 add additional criteria to indicate how or when the outcome will be
observable to add context for children
• Set Induction
Set induction is also called anticipatory set. It involves the steps taken by a
teacher to begin a lesson or classroom activity. It is used to introduce a topic
and get children focused and interested in the lesson. When the children
are set, they are ready to learn.

Examples of set induction:
− Hello, all! How are you doing today?
− Ask some connection questions: Do you get to go outside? So, when you
are outside, how do you move around? (Run, walk, skip, jump, etc.) What
do you like to do on the playground? Well, today we are going to practise
all the different ways we can move from one area to another. We will
practise going in a straight line, a curved line and a zigzag line (show
on poster board) and we will practise moving fast, regular and slow.
• Introduction
Early childhood teachers can plan many interesting ways to introduce the topic
of lessons to children. They can try the following:
− Playing a brief game related to the lesson.
− Asking questions to get children thinking about the topic of the lesson.
− Showing pictures that relate to the lesson topic.
− Telling a story to show the importance of the topic.
− Bringing in realia (real objects) related to the lesson.
• Learning Activities
Implementing learning activities should be procedural to guide teachers.
However, as teachers plan for the activities to be carried out, childrenÊs
engagement should be considered carefully in ensuring positive learning and
achievement. Depending on the childrenÊs development, teachers can still be
flexible in adding or skipping any of the steps in learning activities.
To strengthen childrenÊs sense of competence in learning activities, the

assigned activities could:
− be only slightly beyond childrenÊs current levels of proficiency
− make children demonstrate understanding throughout the activity
− show peer coping models (i.e. children who struggle but eventually
succeed at the activity) and peer mastery models (i.e. children who try and
succeed at the activity)
− include feedback that helps children to make progress

• Reinforcement and Conclusion

Reinforcement plays a central role in the learning process. There are many
ways to reinforce learning in a lesson such as asking questions and asking
children to recall what has been learned. Closure is the step where teachers
wrap up a lesson plan and help children organise the information in a
meaningful context in their minds. This helps children better understand what
they have learned and provides a way in which they can apply it to the world
around them.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. List characteristics of learning materials that can be used in a lesson.

2. Describe the elements of the lesson plan.
ACTIVITY 5.2
1. What might happen if learning outcomes are not measurable?

2. Why do you think all the elements of the lesson plans are
important?
3. Which one of the lesson planÊs elements is the most important when
planning a lesson?
4. Prepare a lesson plan for a preschool class based on an appropriate
theme.
Post your answer in myINSPIRE online forum.
5.4 CONCLUSION
A lesson plan is a step-by-step guide that provides a structure for an
essential learning. It is important because it helps the teacher to maintain a
standard teaching pattern and be flexible at the same time. Preparing lesson plans
helps teachers to cater to the different ability levels and needs of their
pupils. Lesson plans also serve as documentation of what they teach their pupils.

• The writing of the lesson plan gives the teacher time to think about the class
and the stage of development of the children and allows for challenging
but achievable goals to be set.
• There are many elements in a lesson plan which guide children.
• There are various lesson plan templates which teachers can use.
• Lesson plans in Malaysia must follow the national curriculum.
Closure Learning outcome

Curriculum Lesson plan
Documentation Prior knowledge
Existing knowledge Reinforcement
Learning activities Set induction
Beecher, B., Death, E., Dockett, S., Farmer, S., & Arthur, L. (2015). Programming
and planning in early childhood settings (6th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Ephgrave, A. (2018). Planning in the moment with young children: A practical

guide for early years practitioner and parents. Routledge.
Jabatan Perdana Menteri. Kurikulum PERMATA Negara. (2011). Bahagian

Pendidikan Awal Kanak-Kanak (PERMATA). Perbadanan Percetakan
Negara.
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (2017). Dokumen Standard Kurikulum

Prasekolah Kebangsaan. Semakan 2017. Bahagian Pembangunan
Kurikulum.

Topic  Implementing
Teaching and
6 Learning

1. Define the concept of routines in early years settings.
2. Discuss the environment and spaces for teaching and
learning.
3. Analyse the resources for teaching and learning in early
4. Design appropriate routines, environment, spaces and
resources for teaching and learning.
In working with children on a daily basis, do you find routines facilitate you in
organising teaching and learning? What happens if there are no routines at your
early childhood education centre? Implementing early years teaching and learning
needs important elements such as a routine that helps children to feel safe and
ready for learning, an environment that motivates them to learn and resources that
aid their learning. Early childhood teachers need to carefully plan the
implementation of teaching and learning to ensure positive teaching and learning
outcomes.

TOPIC 6 IMPLEMENTING TEACHING AND LEARNING  81
6.1 DEFINITIONS
Now, let us look at these definitions:
• Routines
Routine activities within an early childhood education setting are predictable
basic activities that need to be carried out daily. These activities are carefully
organised to be conducted at a fixed time and form the main transitions of the
day. In a childcare centre, the purpose of many activities are meeting basic
needs such as having meals and napping. Generally, the younger the child, the
longer these routines take and the more frequently they occur. In a preschool
or kindergarten, routines focus more on educational activities and transition
from one activity to another.
• Transition Activities
Transition activities are usually organised to be easy, straightforward and
brief. The purpose of these activities are to connect two longer activities,
regulate childrenÊs behaviour and punctuate the day. These moments mark a
transition during the day for activities, change of learning areas and play
partners.
• Environment
There are elements in the environment that contribute to the successful
implementation of teaching and learning such as learning corners, varieties of
learning materials and meaningful wall displays.
• Resources and Materials

Early childhood education resources vary from physical to digital. These
resources cater to childrenÊs developmental milestones and learning
development.
• Technology
Using technology in early childhood settings is paramount. There are many
kinds of technology that can be used for the teaching and learning process.
Appropriate use of technology for young children needs to focus on enriching
content that teaches meaningful skills and concepts, rather than mindless
entertainment.

82  TOPIC 6 IMPLEMENTING TEACHING AND LEARNING
6.2 ROUTINES AND TRANSITIONS

Teachers need to ensure the smooth implementation of the routines and transitions
in early childhood settings. Routines and transitions must be planned in the same
way as educational activities. To be beneficial and pleasant for children, they must
be based on educational principles. Well-planned routines, activities and transition
encourage learning, motivation and interpersonal relationships in children. Look
at Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: Benefit of Routines
• Routines Help Children Learn Self-control

Consistent routines with activities that occur at approximately the same time
and in more or less the same way each day offer comfort and a feeling of being
secure and safe, particularly for young children. Knowing and expecting
activities that happen next after each activity gives children a sense of security
and emotional stability. It also helps them to learn to trust that teachers will be
there when they need them. This feeling of safety and trust allows them to
freely play, explore and learn.
• Routines Facilitate ChildrenÊs Positive Behaviour and Safety

Routines are like instructions – they guide childrenÊs behaviour towards a
specific goal. Routines can be used to ensure childrenÊs health and safety and
help them learn to be positive and responsible for their behaviour. One
example of such a routine is washing hands before and after having meals.

• Routines Support and Develop ChildrenÊs Social Skills

As children grow, they come into contact with more people and begin to learn
patterns and routines of social interaction. Greeting and chatting with others
are examples of routine interactions that teach social skills. These interactions
are opportunities to help children develop language skills.
Playtime and mealtime are two routines that are very social times for both
children and parents. By talking, taking turns, sharing toys, learning to wait
and helping others during these activities, young children learn important
social skills that will help them later on in school.
• Routines are an Important Opportunity for Learning

Although daily routines such as mealtimes, running errands, taking baths and
getting ready for bed are often regarded as just maintenance activities, these
provide ample opportunities to support childrenÊs learning and development,
while they are having fun. Routines also present opportunities for them to
develop self-confidence, curiosity, social skills, self-control and communication
skills.
Teachers can use planning tools to ensure that each routine and transition is
smoothly implemented. An example of routines is shown in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2: Example of Routines
Source: https://www.pinterest.com/bcpsconsult/routines-and-
transitions/more_ideas/?ideas_referrer=18

SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. Why are routines important for children?
2. How do you make routines a part of learning activities?
6.3 ENVIRONMENT, RESOURCES AND

TECHNOLOGY
There are certain places you like to go maybe a favourite restaurant or a local park.
What about those places that makes you feel welcome or secure? What makes you
want to go back there? Thinking about these places, you might remember the
people around you, the colour of a room, smells and sounds, furniture and
accessories or temperature. Just like adults, children are affected by their
environments. Therefore in this subtopic, we will look at the teaching and learning
environment, resources and material, wall displays and technology in early
6.3.1 Teaching and Learning Environment

The physical organisation of a room or an area reflects a lot on the quality of an
early childhood education centre. A physical environment that provides warmth,
stimulation, comfort, functionality and hospitality for children and teachers fosters
well-being, socialisation and responsiveness to childrenÊs needs. The conducive
environment promotes a welcoming and engaging atmosphere. As children
develop their skills and interests, they also grow to be empowered as proactive
and skilled learners. The whole learning environment also instils a sense of
belonging in children.
A supportive teaching environment has a major influence on childrenÊs learning.

A well-planned environment can optimise childrenÊs learning. In each room of a
centre, corners reserved for specific play must be clearly identified. These may
include a psychomotor activity corner that harbours objects to push and pull,
a relaxation corner with comfortable pillows and attractive books, and a storage
corner for childrenÊs personal belongings. Each area should be identified by
dividers or shelves of some kind. Dividers must be low, and if possible, should
have see-through openings. A colour line on the floor may be used to define a
specific space. Clear and functional divisions between areas can foster harmony
and calm.

One of the useful ways to design a constructive learning environment is by having

childrenÊs interest spaces. These spaces are usually organised to support a
play-based learning curriculum and provide a specific area in which to set up
experiences based upon each individual interest. The physical environment can be
organised into areas such as literacy areas, block and construction play, computer
area, music and movement, sensorial area, science and nature area. These interest
spaces provides rich opportunities for children to explore and discover.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Discuss environment and spaces that encourage childrenÊs learning.

What are the characteristics that are essential to create the atmosphere?
forum.
6.3.2 Resources and Materials

According to Lorina (2015), when establishing the environment, the floor plan,
organisation of furniture and the furnishings used need to be taken into account.
Depending on the size of the room, the arrangement of the room plays a significant
part in childrenÊs holistic learning and development.
• A Large Open Space

Needed for children to move freely. It is also important to break up a large
space within a room into smaller defined areas (refer to Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3: Spaces in an Early Childhood Education Centre
Source: https://www.brightlittlestars.com/wp-content/uploads/TQ8A9124.jpg
• Furniture and Furnishings

Can be used to locate main spaces and enable children to understand
boundaries during play. Some activities need tables and chairs so it is a good
idea to figure out what activities will be placed on tables and mats.
• Shelves
Can be used to show different areas. Shelves can be located at right angles to
provide a specific space for focused learning experiences. It helps children to
understand where the experience begins and stops within the area. Using mats
also helps children to identify main areas. If mats are not available, teachers
can use masking tape along the floor to create boundaries. When areas and
spaces are well-defined, children can focus and concentrate more on the
experience they are engaged in, rather than be distracted by other activities.
• Materials
Should be displayed in a functional way. Teachers should not overcrowd
shelves with lots of different objects. Be selective with the materials which will
encourage children to be engaged in their learning experiences. Items such as
seed pods, leaves, sticks, pebbles and shells can be used for sorting, matching
and counting activities. Natural materials such as rocks or cane baskets to hold
items encourage children to appreciate natural resources. Place indoor plants
and providing real objects for children to use. Instead of using plastic kitchen
equipment in the home corner, provide unused cooking utensils. The use of
natural materials enables children to explore elements of the environment and
helps them to become environmentally responsible.
6.3.3 Wall Displays

Wall displays are an important feature of the physical environment. It is a good
idea to leave a space on the wall for a specific and individual purpose. Children
get to choose the materials they want to display, which creates a sense of belonging
for children and their families. Posters, arts and crafts, and photos can also be put
up on the wall to offer a welcoming environment.
• Programming and Planning Essentials

Can be displayed on a wall near the entrance. The displays can include the
curriculum plan, daily diary, child daily information chart, weekly menu, and
calendar of events. This area should be constant and accessible to parents to
view the dayÊs activities and events.

• Art Work
Teachers can use one wall and create a gallery of childrenÊs art. Make sure the
childrenÊs names are written on the artwork displayed. This enables parents to
identify their childÊs artwork clearly.
• Photo Wall
Looking at photos hung on a photo wall can provide children with a sense of
belonging to the centre. The photos should be displayed at childrenÊs level and
set in a theme so that they can be changed over time. When adding photos to
a photo wall, a brief description can be included to let others know about the
purpose of the photos and why they are being displayed.
• Posters
Can be displayed to give information, help understanding or develop
awareness. When displaying posters, it is best to stick to one particular topic
rather than have random posters displayed throughout the room. A random
display can look messy, unappealing and lose its meaning. Select posters based
on childrenÊs current interests or to extend on learning.
It is important to plan well on how to organise the wall space within the
environment. The displays need to promote inclusiveness, support diversity and
express meaning that is useful for children.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
What are the materials that can be displayed?
6.3.4 Technology
Technology plays an important role in childrenÊs development and learning.
It enables teachers to become more innovative and improve their teaching
methods to promote interactive learning and create an active learning
environment for children. The majority of teachers at early childhood education
centres have access to technology and use it regularly for childrenÊs learning
activities. The integration of technical gadgets in lessons through the use of
tablets or smart interactive whiteboards may enhance the teaching and learning
environment as well as childrenÊs learning experiences (Donohue, 2015).

The use of technological devices such as tablets or whiteboards will increase

childrenÊs engagement in learning. Furthermore, technology allows teachers to
design unique learning environments for children because they provide children
with a much more interactive experience through the use of applications. Technical
tools are not only used for classroom interactions with children but also for
instruction, documentation, assessment and communication support, enabling
teachers to create a more effective teaching environment (refer to Figure 6.4).
Figure 6.4: Use of Technology at an Early Childhood Education Centre
Source: https://www.celcom1cbc.com/rimba-mas/blog/9317
ACTIVITY 6.2
If you were to organise the resources for teaching and learning at your
centre, list the five most important ones to be provided. Discuss your
answers in myINSPIRE online forum.
6.4 CONCLUSION
The implementation of teaching and learning requires careful planning which
involves routines and transitions. In organising the physical environment, spaces,
corners and facilities need to be conveniently located for both teachers and
children. Room decorations should not be overwhelming and distract children
from learning. Natural lighting should be plentiful but subdued when needed.
Ideally, windows in all rooms should be open every day to ensure good air
ventilation.
ACTIVITY 6.3
Design a physical environment which consists of educational resources,

materials and technology to support childrenÊs learning.
• Routine activities within an early childhood education setting are predictable

basic activities that have to be performed daily.
• Transitions are meant to connect two longer activities, regulate and punctuate
the day.
• The conducive atmosphere in an early years setting creates a welcoming,

inviting and engaging environment.
• A supportive teaching environment has a big influence on childrenÊs learning.
• Through the use of technology, teachers can be innovative and improve

teaching methods to promote learning and create an active learning
environment for children.
ChildrenÊs engagement Routine

Interactive whiteboard Technical devices
Learning environment Technology
Resources and materials Transition
Room arrangement Wall display

Beecher, B., Death, E., Dockett, S., Farmer, S., & Arthur, L. (2015). Programming
and planning in early childhood settings (6th ed.). Cengage.
Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early

childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8 (3rd ed.).
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).
Donohue, C. (2015). Technology and digital media in the early years: Tools for
teaching and learning. Routledge.
Lorina. (2015). Childcare room setup. https://bit.ly/3dYKeSx
Malenfant, N. (2006). Routines and transitions: A guide for early childhood

professionals. Redleaf Press.

Topic  Early
Childhood
7 Pedagogical
Approaches

1. State important early childhood pedagogical approaches.
2. Describe the important characteristics of these approaches.
3. Discuss the implementation of these pedagogical approaches.
4. Select appropriate pedagogical approaches for early
Many early childhood teachers find some approaches more effective than others.
Why do you think so? There are many pedagogical approaches which can be
implemented in early childhood settings. You can select approaches based on the
vision, mission, philosophy and principles of your early childhood education
centre.

TOPIC 7 EARLY CHILDHOOD PEDAGOGICAL APPROACHES  93
7.1 DEFINITION
A pedagogical approach is related to the instructional strategies and techniques
employed by teachers which enable the desired learning to take place. The use of
the correct approach will enable children to acquire knowledge, skills, attitudes
and dispositions of learning within an early years setting.
7.2 PLAY-BASED APPROACH

Before we discuss the play-based approach, it is important for you to understand
what play is. Play has been defined in a variety of ways, depending on the
perspectives of the person defining it. When children are asked what constitutes
play, they simply refer to it as pleasurable and the freedom to choose what they
enjoy most. Researchers such as Gestiwicki (2017) highlight play as:
• Intrinsically motivated and spontaneous.
• Involving symbolic play, creativity and imagination.
• Engaging children in playful activities.
• Attention is on the means, rather than on a particular end – process-oriented

rather than product-oriented.
The Early Years Learning Framework defines play-based learning as „a context for
learning through which children organise and make sense of their social worlds,
as they engage actively with people, objects and representations‰ (EYLF, 2016).
Children naturally learn through play. A play-based programme develops
childrenÊs motivation by using play as a context for learning. Through this context,
children have the opportunity to explore, investigate, experiment, discover and
solve problems in imaginative and playful ways. Play also allows for differences
in developmental ability, interest and learning style.
Play pedagogy as a negotiated practice, co-constructed between children and

adults, requires you to recognise and value the different ways in which children
play (Rogers, 2011). In many early childhood education settings, play allows
children to engage with others in meaningful ways. Play should allow children to
engage with others in meaningful ways but this is challenging in practice.

94  TOPIC 7 EARLY CHILDHOOD PEDAGOGICAL APPROACHES
A play-based approach in early years settings provides both child-initiated and

teacher-supported learning. The teacher promotes childrenÊs learning experiences
through interactions by expanding their thinking to higher levels.
In activities where children play with puzzles, you can ask questions that
encourage them to solve problems and suggest solutions. In addition, you can raise
their awareness of early mathematical concepts or other domains of lessons
through hands-on learning.
When children are not given the opportunity to play, they can experience negative
effects such as stress, anxiety, decreased motivation for learning and other
behaviour problems. It is important for you to recognise that play supports
childrenÊs emotional development. Play, according to many researches, helps
children to release stress. Actual physiological evidence links play to anxiety
reduction (Gestiwicki, 2017). This is especially so for young children who are not
yet prepared for more formal academic learning.
However, in many traditional approaches, play in early years settings still

emphasises teaching and learning. As such, play can be in the form of free play,
which is spontaneous child-directed activity, and guided play, which is still
child-directed but there is involvement of teachers as co-players and intentional
teaching. Both free play and guided play benefit childrenÊs learning.
There are four types of play in the context of early childhood education:
• Free Flow Play

It offers an enriching and meaningful experience for children. It allows
children to progress at their own pace. Children are free to explore their world
and access different environments independently. It is open-ended, has no
objectives and gives children the freedom to solve problems and develop their
creativity.
• Structured Play
It has more adult initiatives and is goal-oriented. Adults set the learning
objectives and offer children specific learning experiences based on the
objectives or curriculum. Adults help the children meet the objectives and
assess their learning and development based on the objectives.

• Guided Play
It emphasises childrenÊs natural ability to learn through play by allowing them
to express their autonomy within a prepared environment. Scaffolding is a key
concept of guided play with adults supporting childrenÊs learning so that they
gain mastery of the tasks involved.
• Playful Learning
It involves both free flow play and guided play. Children learn in joyful and
rich ways. They use their imagination and adults scaffold them by providing
support in the play environment.
7.2.1 Planning for Play-based Approach

How do you plan a play-based approach for children in early childhood settings?
Rather than the goal, you can focus on the process of play. You also need to
develop and extend on childrenÊs play or interests. Do not forget to consider
childrenÊs emotions as expressed in their play and actions. Analyse problems
that can be seen in the play. As a teacher, you should offer varied resources
to encourage exploration and play. You need to provide open-ended materials
for children to play with. Let us look at the roles of the teacher and children in
the play-based approach (refer to Table 7.1).
Table 7.1: Roles of Teacher and Children in Play-based Approach
Roles of Teacher Roles of Children
• Create opportunities for play • Engage in learning experiences

within the learning programme/ and progressively withdraw from
environment. scaffolding while gaining mastery.
• Make connections between the • Attempt modelled language and

national curriculum and play and behaviours within engaging
clearly articulate this relationship. classroom contexts.
• Include the use of various resources • Progress towards applying skills,

in play. strategies, concepts and rules without
much reliance on the teacher.
• Actively engage before, during and
after the play. • Transfer newly learned knowledge
to broader learning contexts.
• Acknowledge when and from whom

assistance can be sought.

The play-based approach offers opportunities for children to actively and

progressively engage with people, materials and their surroundings. Symbolic
representation is a crucial element as when children play, they are organising,
constructing, manipulating, creating and making sense of their world. This
promotes holistic development and supports a broad range of literacy and
numeracy skills. The role of a teacher in scaffolding play is pivotal.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Reflect on your childhood experience. Did your preschool teachers offer

the play-based approach to encourage learning? What do you
understand from the play-based activities?
forum.
7.3 INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING APPROACH

The role of children in the learning process is paramount in the inquiry-based
learning approach. Most of the time, they are encouraged to explore resources,
obtain feedback and share ideas while not depending on their teacherÊs
instructions. Inquiry-based learning stems from a question, problem or idea posed
by the children or their teacher. Children are directly involved in planning and
carrying out investigations, suggesting explanations and alternatives, and
communicating their comprehension of ideas and concepts in a range of ways.
Children observe, investigate and give feedback on how they carry out tasks
throughout the inquiry process. This approach encourages connection of learning
and can be effectively integrated in childrenÊs learning (refer to Figure 7.1).

Figure 7.1: Cycle of Inquiry Process
Source: https://www.pinterest.dk/pin/169729479679626387/
The teacher may:
• start off the inquiry by asking questions or expressing ideas related to the
childrenÊs interest and experiences
• guide the children in thinking about a hypothesis
• offer opportunities for the children to explore
• manage the childrenÊs learning experiences by extending beyond prescribed

activities to ensure active engagement in purposeful learning

The children may:
• initiate the inquiry by asking factual and exploratory questions based on their
personal interests and experiences
• investigate, infer, hypothesise, predict and experiment
• practise their skills in decision-making, planning and problem solving
• share what they learn with others
ACTIVITY 7.2
What are possible inquiries that you think children might be interested
to explore? Discuss your answers in the myINSPIRE online forum.
7.4 PROJECT APPROACH

The project approach is an in-depth exploration of a subject or topic that may be
child-initiated or teacher-initiated and involves an individual, a group of children
or the whole class (refer to Figure 7.2). The main feature of a project is that it is a
research deliberately focused on looking for answers to question about a topic
which are asked by children, teachers or the teacher working with the children
(Katz & Chard, 2000). The topics for projects are negotiated between children and
their teachers. The childrenÊs interest is a major criterion for topic selection.
The length of a project can be a few weeks to a few months, subject to the level of
the childrenÊs interest. The main difference between the project and inquiry
approaches is that the final outcome might take the form of a presentation such as
a poster, demonstration or display. The project approach encourages children to
be in charge of their own learning and represent their learning through the
construction of personally meaningful artefacts.

Figure 7.2: Children Participating in a Project
Source: http://hanikasina.blogspot.com/2012/05/pengajaran-berasaskan-projek.html
7.4.1 Structure of Project Approach

The structure of the project, as defined by Katz and Chard (2000), can be used to
guide the process and reduce many of your concerns. An example of the structure
of the project can be seen in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: Example of the Structure of the Project in Table Format
Solar City Project by Children Aged 4-5

Tadika Ceria Minda
Length of Project: 1 Month
Phase 1 The solar city began when one of the children talked about the weather
during circle time. It looked cloudy but did not rain. After talking about
the weather, the children observed the clouds and wondered why clouds
had many colours, such as white and black. The next day, one of the
children said her parents did not allow her to play in the rain as it could
make her sick. Children were interested in the reason. Hence, they decided
to invite an expert to talk to them about the rain.
Phase 2 After the expertÊs talk, they discussed the causes of pollution that
contributed to acid rain, such as smoke from vehicles. Based on their
investigation and knowledge gained during the expertÊs talk, they sketched
an alternative energy that can move vehicles, such as energy from the sun.
They decided to have a solar city to encourage drivers to use an alternative
source of energy.
Phase 3 After a month of the project, they decided to have a solar city. They built a
model of a solar city and presented it to their friends and parents.

The structure of the project can be explained according to three distinct phases
as illustrated in Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3: Structure of the Project: An Example
The teacher may:
• facilitate a three-step phase of the project that includes planning, exploration

and conclusion
• familiarise children with a shared product or the invention of an artefact
• offer opportunities for children to explore aspects of the project that are of
specific interest to them
• provide chances for children to compromise on the ways to create and share
their project
The children may:
• get involved with project materials such as objects, books, magazines,

newspapers, music and websites
• give ideas and suggest creative ways to approach the project
• collect information from given sources
• investigate aspects related to the project
• conclude whether they are satisfied with the outcome of the project

ACTIVITY 7.3
Can you think of a project that can be implemented in an early childhood

education centre?
forum.
7.5 THEMATIC APPROACH

A thematic approach is a teaching approach which organises a subject area around
unifying themes. The subject area is brought together under a particular theme
such as food, animals and festivals. The chosen topic is then investigated from the
perspectives of other subject areas such as mathematics and arts. Different areas of
the curriculum are related together and integrated within an appropriate theme.
This approach allows learning to be more natural and less segmented due to the
integration of many related areas (Brogdon, n.d.).
Teaching thematically encourages children to make sense of what they learn

because content areas are integrated with other subject areas. Children are able to
synthesise information when it is not taught as isolated facts and units, but rather,
as part of a whole. Thematic units promote childrenÊs participation through topics
relevant to them (Borgdon, n.d.). They can relate their learning to real-world
experiences and build on prior knowledge of a topic. Different learning styles can
be met through thematic teaching as diverse ways of learning topics allow for
differentiated teaching. Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner, who have researched child
development, suggested that integrating subject matter across different content
areas, such as mathematics and science, engaged the whole brain through active
and hands-on involvement.
Based on Figure 7.4, the theme on flowers can be used for activities across the
curriculum such as literacy and communication, social studies, dramatic play,
early science, music and movement and creative arts.

Figure 7.4: Example of a Theme on Flowers
Source: https://www.thelittletreehouse.com.my/curriculum.php
The teacher may:
• develop thematic units and organise teaching and learning for one topic for a
period of time depending on the broadness of the theme
• organise the units around a book with learning possibilities across subjects,
seasons of the year that can integrate many topics or fundamental skills that
children need to acquire, such as identifying sizes and shapes
• discuss possible themes with children to find out their interests and organise a
few units around these

• involve as many hands-on activities as possible so that the chosen themes

appeal to children
• select literacy materials for children to get more information about the theme
The children may:
• suggest topics that interest them and gather information from available sources
• explore other areas related to the theme
• present ideas and pieces of work based on the themes learned
• work in a team to encourage better partnership in learning as they share their

prior knowledge within the themes selected
ACTIVITY 7.4
Think of a theme which may interest children and discuss subjects or

strand areas that can be learned under this theme.
7.6 PROBLEM-BASED APPROACH

The problem-based approach emphasises child-centred involvement in the
problems or situations they face and encourages them to actively participate in
decision-making processes. In early childhood education, this approach may be
more suitable for older children because they can discuss the problems they face
in their lives (Edwards & Hammer, 2007). In addition, they can suggest solutions
from their perspective and this requires higher-order thinking skills.
It takes a certain level of maturity for children to understand the concept of a

problem and propose problems based on their limited perspective and
prerequisite knowledge. Nevertheless, teachers need to facilitate their
understanding of the concept of problems by carefully selecting problems that are
real to them (Edwards & Hammer, 2007).

The problem-based approach involves the use of many resources, communication

with others and cooperation within the early years learning environment. The
important elements of problem-based learning are situated cognition,
constructivism, social learning and communities of practice.
The teacher may:
• identify a challenge or problem faced by children
• explore the ideas and challenge them through collaborative activities
• utilise the inquiry process to refine products
• develop the summative product that addresses the challenge or problem and
share it publicly
The children may:
• discuss real problems that they face in their lives
• select one problem that they really want to solve
• analyse the problem
• suggest a product to address the problem
• share with their friends about the product
Figure 7.5 depicts the process of the problem-based approach. Children are
presented with real-world problems in a situated context. They use critical
thinking to formulate ideas and develop reasoning skills.

Figure 7.5: Process of Problem-based Approach
Source: http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/index.php?title=Problem_Based_Instruction
Problem-based learning helps children to develop skills that they can transfer to
real-world situations. The concrete contexts and outcomes discussed in a problem-
based learning activity can be very engaging for children as these make them more
profound and resilient.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
What are the important elements of problem-based learning?

7.7 INTEGRATED APPROACH

An integrated approach allows teachers to adopt many pedagogical approaches to
facilitate engaging and meaningful learning, without the limitations often imposed
by subject boundaries. This approach emphasises the inter-relatedness of all
curricular areas in helping children to acquire fundamental learning tools. Early
childhood teachers can explore different pedagogical approaches and teach in a
way that best supports childrenÊs learning. The principle of the integrated teaching
and learning approach emphasises a balanced curriculum. Successful integrated
approaches to learning and teaching shift children from where they are in terms of
their understanding and build on this using real-life examples to make learning
engaging and relevant (Edwards, Gandini, and Forman, 2011).
The integrated approach for children has many benefits. It:
• engage in meaningful and purposeful learning
• see interconnectedness and interrelationships in the curriculum area
• use their prior experiences and knowledge to construct learning
7.8 CONCLUSION
There are many pedagogical approaches that can be implemented in teaching and
learning within the context of early childhood education. Each approach has its
weaknesses and strengths. Early childhood teachers need to consider childrenÊs
development in choosing appropriate pedagogical approaches in order to optimise
learning outcomes. Many approaches differ in the levels of child and teacher
participation.

• In the play-based approach, children are given the opportunity to discover,

experiment, investigate and solve problems in creative ways.
• Inquiry-based learning starts with a question, problem or idea.
• A project approach is an in-depth investigation of a topic that may be

child-initiated or teacher-initiated and involve an individual, a group of
children, or the whole class.
• A thematic approach is a teaching approach which organises subject matter

around unifying themes.
• The problem-based approach emphasises child-centred engagement with real

problems or situations, involving children in active decision-making processes.
• An integrated approach allows teachers to adopt many pedagogical

approaches to facilitate childrenÊs learning in a holistic way.
ChildrenÊs engagement Play-based approach

Holistic development Problem-based approach
Inquiry-based approach Project-based approach
Integrated approach Thematic approach

Brogdon, R. (n.d.). Thematic approach to teaching preschool. https://classroom.

synonym.com/thematic-approach-teaching-preschool-8586347.html
Early Years Learning Framework. (2016). https://www.ecrh.edu.au/docs/

default-source/resources/eylf-plp-e-newsletters/eylf-plp-e-newsletter-no-
1-2010-talking-about-play.pdf?sfvrsn=8
Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. (Eds.). (2011). The hundred languages of
children: The Reggio Emilia experience in transformation. ABC-CLIO.
Edwards, S., & Hammer, M. (2007). Problem-based learning in early childhood and
primary pre-service teacher education: identifying the issues and examining
the benefits. Australian Journal of Teacher Education (Online), 32(2), 21-36.
Gestwicki, C. (2017). Developmentally appropriate practice: Curriculum and

development in early education. Cengage Learning
Katz, L., & Chard, S. (2000). Engaging childrenÊs minds: The project approach
(2nd ed.). Ablex.
Rogers, S. (Ed.). (2011). Rethinking play and pedagogy in early childhood

education. Routledge.
Stacey, S. (2018). Inquiry-based early learning environments: Creating, supporting,

and collaborating. Redleaf Press.

Topic  Approaches
in Early
8 Childhood
Curriculum

1. Describe approaches in an early childhood curriculum.
2. Analyse important characteristics of the approaches in the
early childhood curriculum.
3. Plan approaches according to the early childhood
curriculum.
4. Assess the implementation of the approaches in the early
childhood curriculum.
There are many early childhood curriculum which are being used by practitioners
in early years settings. What approaches have you adopted so far in your practice?
Most of the time, you may have chosen approaches based on certain considerations
such as the suitability of the content that you plan for your pupils. Let us look at
approaches for the main curriculum adopted in Malaysia.

110  TOPIC 8 APPROACHES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CURRICULUM
8.1 DEFINITION
The term „curriculum‰ has different conceptual and operational meanings
depending on various stakeholders. Curriculum can be conceptualised and
operationalised as a philosophy in education, an approach, an educational
programme or relevant materials and activities related to teaching and learning.
„The curriculum consists of the knowledge and skills to be acquired in the

educational programme as well as the plans for experiences through which
childrenÊs learning will take place‰.
(Developmentally Appropriate Practice in
Early Childhood Programs, NAEYC [2009] p. 42)
ACTIVITY 8.1
In the myINSPIRE online forum, explain your understanding of the

concept of approaches in the early childhood curriculum.

TOPIC 8 APPROACHES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CURRICULUM  111
8.2 MONTESSORI APPROACH

The Montessori approach was founded by Dr Maria Montessori (1870-1952) (refer
to Figure 8.1) who put forth scientific observations about how children learn
according to their developmental milestones. Research on child development,
according to the Montessori perspective, is on creating the optimal learning
environment for children. In the Montessori approach, a child-centred learning
framework is essential as it integrates holistic learning outcomes according to
every childÊs developmental needs and interests.
Figure 8.1: Montessori
Source: http://www.wmpcs.org/aboutmontessori-2/

8.2.1 Core Principles

The Montessori curriculum is designed around a set of principles derived from the
philosophies about how children think and learn. Maria Montessori highlights
these principles which include the following (refer to Figure 8.2):
Figure 8.2: Core Principles of Montessori
Source: https://sapientiamontessori.com/montessori/about-montessori/
• Child-directed Work
Montessori teachers give their children some choice of activity. Children are
given the chance to choose an activity that captures their personal interest or
attention and then, once an activity has been chosen, they allow the child to
spend a lot of time on the activity they chose. In some cases, the child may be
working on their activity independently. In other cases, they may team up with

a couple of other pupils who share their curiosity over that particular subject
or activity. Together as a team, they discover, learn and grow through
exploration.
In a Montessori classroom, it is more likely to see small groups of children

working on several different activities simultaneously. Rather than standing
up in front of the room directing the class, it is more likely for the teacher to go
from group to group of pupils, answering their questions and helping them
along in their exploration.
• Absorbent Mind
A young child is naturally an eager, highly capable learner who can absorb a
significant amount from his environment. Although learning is a lifelong
concept, the brain of a toddler is similar to a sponge – it soaks up everything in
its path. There is no better time to begin encouraging their natural inclination
to explore the world around them.
• Sensitive Periods for Learning

Many parents do not realise that their childÊs growth takes place across four
scientifically based stages or planes of development. Each stage has different
needs within the learning cycle. So, rather than adapting a subject to fit a
certain age or stage, the Montessori theory says the educational approach itself
should change to suit each stage.
Montessori teachers receive special training to recognise and nurture these

sensitive periods, maximising the opportunity to help children learn at a time
when they can receive it most effectively. For example, young pupils might be
introduced to mathematical concepts by spending time counting wooden
blocks. Then, as they become more comfortable counting, their teacher may
guide them towards basic concepts of adding and subtracting blocks to the mix
– rather than moving right to a traditional method of handing out worksheets
or memorising the idea that 2 + 2 = 4.
• Prepared Environment
Montessori learning uses a wide array of specialised materials that allow the
child to learn with increasing levels of abstraction. These materials impart
complex concepts, while the child enjoys their use and manipulation with the
guidance of a certified teacher.
The interesting thing about a Montessori classroom is that it is carefully

designed, but that design is created with the intention that children spend their
days learning and exploring the classroom environment. „Prepared‰ never
means restricted, and our teachers strive to provide open, safe spaces for

children to discover and explore throughout their day. You will never see a
Montessori classroom with places that are off-limits to children or items they
cannot touch.
• Independence and Discovery

Montessori recognises each child as different, and therefore the interests and
educational needs of children will vary, as well. An individual approach
allows teachers to figure out and develop activities and learning experiences
that follow each childÊs specific needs and readiness. Over time, these
principles foster self-esteem, independence, exploration and creativity – the
keys to ultimately promoting joy and a love of learning.
Child-directed learning means children lead their learning time. Instead of

directed 30-minute increments for an activity or task, children have longer
blocks of time to engage in activities that cover subjects and things that interest
them. These longer blocks of time give children the space they need to make
discoveries and master new concepts.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
Explain the core principles of the Montessori curriculum.
8.2.2 Learning Areas

The Montessori approach comprises five main learning areas which provide a
holistic education programme that is personalised to each childÊs unique
developmental needs and interests.
The following are the learning areas:
• Practical Life
Practical life activities facilitate children in learning how to look after
themselves and their surroundings. Children become more independent by
carrying out practical life activities which lead to better self-confidence, and
the ability to cope with life challenges. Practical life activities teach children to
be courteous, care for themselves and look after the environment. The aim of
the activities is to increase hand-eye-motor co-ordination, attention span and
independence, and prepare children indirectly for writing and reading.
Examples of such activities are cleaning, preparing food, washing, and
watering plants (refer to Figure 8.3).

Figure 8.3: A Practical Life Skill in a Montessori Classroom
Source: http://littlenobel.com/montessori-us/
• Sensorial
Sensorial materials were designed by Dr Montessori to help children express
and classify their sensory experiences. The purpose of sensorial activities is to
aid in the development of the intellectual senses of the child, who develops the
ability to observe and compare with precision. There are sensorial materials
that focus on visual perception, tactile impressions, auditory sense, and
olfactory and taste perceptions. Activities often include matching and grading
materials that isolate the senses of sight, sound, touch, taste and smell.
• Mathematics
Children use concrete sensorial materials to learn about early mathematical
concepts. In order to understand early mathematical concepts such as learning
number recognition, counting and sequencing of numbers, children use
sensorial materials. Children become better prepared for a more formal
introduction to mathematics, and the introduction of abstract mathematical
concepts such as the decimal system and mathematical operations.
• Language
Montessori teachers design language materials to increase vocabulary and
explore both written and spoken language. Children learn phonetic sounds
and composition of words phonetically through language-based activities,
such as the play dough letters and magnetic alphabets. Children progress in
composing their own written work by using concrete materials, reading the
work of others, and learning to communicate their own thoughts and feelings.

• Culture
Children learn about cultures through their experience in music, stories,
creative work and artefacts from their community and cultural background.
The demographic of geographical aspects, science and botanical elements are
all included in this area. Learning materials and resources such as globes,
puzzles and maps of diverse countries provide children with insight into
different cultures. This encourages children to develop their creativity for
creation, and develop fine motor skills. While learning to creatively express
themselves, children develop awareness and appreciation of cultural heritages
around them.
8.3 REGGIO EMILIA APPROACH

The Reggio Emilia approach was founded by an educational philosopher, Loris
Malaguzzi (1920–1994), based on the belief that a child is born with robust
potential for optimised development and is an individual with rights, who learns
through the hundred languages belonging to all mankind.
Figure 8.4: Malaguzzi
Source: https://www.reggiochildren.it/en/reggio-emilia-approach/loris-malaguzzi/

8.3.1 Reggio Emilia Principles

The Reggio Emilia approach outlines seven guiding principles that are important
in distinguishing Reggio Emilia from other child-centred approaches in early
years. These guiding principles are shown as follows:
• Ability to Construct Their Own Learning

Children can initiate the learning process for themselves. They are motivated
by their own interest to explore and learn. They are capable of constructing
learning on their own given the uniquely individualistic understanding. Thus,
children should be regarded as active collaborators for their own learning, as
opposed to passive learners.
• Children Can Collaborate and Learn through Interaction within Their

Communities
Learning is developed through interrelationships across all spectrums of
learning. Close interaction between teachers, parents and children support
learning. As indicated in the first principle, children can collaborate and learn
best when they are engaged in a community compared to working
independently. Therefore, this approach emphasises learning in small groups,
which is based on the fundamental belief that all mankind develop through
interaction with the community and surroundings.
• Children Should be Encouraged to Express Themselves in Any Way that They

Feel They Can
Malaguzzi wrote one of the most profound aspects of Reggio Emilia which is
known as The Hundred Languages of Children. The essence of The Hundred
Languages is that children are natural communicators and thus should be
reassured to communicate through whatever means they can and choose to.
These means include movement, words, artwork, drawings, paintings,
constructions and sculptures. Due to the various ways that children express,
discover and learn, they should be empowered to use numerous resources for
exploration, communication and even demonstration of what they
comprehend, astonish, query, feel or imagine. Teachers are responsible for
facilitating the discovery of a childÊs surroundings.
• The Third Teacher is the Classroom Environment

The classroom environment is one of the most powerful and important
components. It acts as a „living organism, a place of shared relationships
among the children, the teachers, the parents, and a feeling of belonging in a
world that is alive, welcoming, and authentic‰. Classrooms and common

spaces are thoughtfully integrated to be shared with one another and the
outside community. Natural furnishing is usually used in the classroom to
encourage real-life interactions.
• Exploration of ChildrenÊs Interests is Facilitated by Teachers Who Act as

Partners in Working on Short-term and Long-term Projects
EmiliaÊs philosophy regards teachers as partners in the learning process.
Teachers guide childrenÊs experiences, open-ended exploration and problem
solving. One of their main aims is to carefully listen to and observe the children
as they learn, as well as look for opportunities to encourage further exploration
of their interests. Collaboration between children and teachers is paramount;
teachers are responsible for identifying a concept that can be used to further
discovery and learning. As a guide, teachers must allow projects to emerge
based on childrenÊs interests.
• Documentation is a Critical Component of Communication

Documenting the learning process within the early yearÊs settings is the
responsibility of teachers. They are also responsible for transcribing the verbal
language used by children. Photographs and videos are among the tools that
can be used by teachers to better understand the children and facilitate parents
in understanding what their child is learning. TeachersÊ documentation allows
children to exchange and evaluate ideas with others. In addition,
documentation shows to children that their work is acknowledged by teachers.
Upon finishing the early childhood years, documentation such as a portfolio
of projects, pictures, photos and worksheets represents their learning process.
• ParentsÊ Partnership in ChildrenÊs Learning

Parental involvement in their childÊs learning is a crucial component of the
EmiliaÊs learning philosophy. There are many ways that parents can be
involved in their childÊs learning. They should always be involved so that they
can play an active role in their childÊs learning experiences as well as ensure
the well-being of their children in the local community. ParentsÊ skills,
experiences and ideas are very resourceful in childrenÊs learning. In EmiliaÊs
programme, teachers acknowledge and respect parents as individuals who
provide support to their children, and parents are known as the second teacher.
Parental involvement is crucial in creating a learning community for children.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
Explain the guiding principles of Reggio EmiliaÊs curriculum.

ACTIVITY 8.1
Malaguzzi wrote a poem entitled, A Hundred Languages. Find the poem

at https://bit.ly/3pUjOqo. What is the important message highlighted
in the poem?
forum.
8.4 DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE

PRACTICE
The developmentally appropriate practice is a framework created to encourage
childrenÊs optimal learning and development. Teachers consider the following to
make decisions that reflect best practices for childrenÊs learning:
• child development and learning
• each child is a unique individual
• each childÊs social and cultural context
These practices are based on research on how children learn and develop best. This
approach has the following fundamental considerations.
8.4.1 Three Fundamental Considerations

Goals are very crucial in childrenÊs learning and development. Therefore, teachers
need to be intentional in facilitating children to achieve these learning and
developmental goals. The essence of developmentally appropriate practice lies in
this intentionality.
• Knowledge of Child Development and Learning

Teachers must have knowledge of child development and learning.
Understanding of typical and atypical developmental milestones and learning
at different ages is an important starting point. This research-based knowledge
helps teachers to envisage which experiences will support childrenÊs learning
and development.

• Knowledge on Individually Appropriate Development

Each child is unique. Having knowledge on each childÊs development and
learning supports teachersÊ decisions about how to best teach and care for each
child as an individual. By continually observing childrenÊs play and interaction
with the physical environment and others, we learn about each childÊs
interests, abilities and developmental progress.
• Knowledge on the Importance of Culture

Teachers need to understand that each child is shaped by his or her culture.
Hence, they must have knowledge of childrenÊs cultural background to
understand and learn about the values, expectations and factors that shape
their lives at home and in their communities. This cultural background
information helps to provide meaningful, relevant and respectful learning
experiences for children who come from diverse cultural backgrounds.
8.4.2 Principles of Child Development

Developmentally appropriate practice is informed by theories and literature on
child development and learning. A comprehensive review of the literature yields
important principles. Each of the principles is based on very extensive research
and critical review of theories.
The following are the principles of child development and learning:
• All domains of development and learning are significant.
• Learning and development usually follow sequences.
• Development and learning progress at varying paces and rates.
• Interaction of maturation and experience leads to development and learning.
• Early experiences have profound effects on development and learning.
• Development moves towards complexity, self-regulation, and symbolic

capacities.
• Secure relationships support child development and learning.
• Development and learning occur in and are influenced by various social and
cultural contexts.
• Children learn in diverse ways.

• Play is an important tool for developing childrenÊs self-regulation and

promoting competencies.
• Development and learning progress when children are challenged.
• ChildrenÊs experiences shape their motivation and approaches to learning.
8.4.3 Guidelines for Effective Teaching

Effective teaching ensures that lessons are planned according to achievable
objectives, interesting activities and appropriate to their development. Teachers
may need to follow these guidelines for effective teaching:
• create enthusiasm for learning among the community of learners
• enhance development and learning
• well-planned curriculum to achieve important goals
• holistic and authentic assessment of childrenÊs development and learning
• strengthen reciprocal relationships with family
8.5 WALDORF APPROACH

The Waldorf curriculum emphasises that future holistic development of each child
relies on health-giving experiences in the first seven years of life. Waldorf Steiner
was the founder of the Waldorf Curriculum (refer to Figure 8.5).
Figure 8.5: Waldorf Steiner
Source: https://www.steinereducation.edu.au/steiner-education

The healthy development for the well-being of the child is the result of an
atmosphere of loving warmth and guidance that promotes happiness, wonder and
respect. The most important aspect of the curriculum is the attitude of the teacher,
who acts as an exemplar for the childÊs imitation.
In WaldorfÊs early childhood care and education programme, teachers focus on

activities that become the foundation for later learning and healthy development,
including lifelong physical, social, emotional, intellectual and spiritual growth.
8.5.1 Characteristics of Waldorf Curriculum

The Waldorf curriculum is based on an understanding of the human individuality
development, providing protection and respecting the dignity of childhood. It
includes understanding the development of a child from pre-birth to seven years
old, including the distinctive significance of the development of walking, speaking
and thinking in the first three years of life.
Educational Principles
Waldorf-based programmes are distinct according to geographical location,
culture, age range, and individual teaching approaches. Having these differences,
Waldorf programmes share certain fundamental characteristics:
• Acceptance of each child unconditionally.
• Provision of opportunities for self-initiated play with basic play materials as

the main activity for young children.
• The childÊs piece of work reflects that it is possible for them to digest and
understand their learning experiences.
• Teachers must be aware that young children learn through the experience of
various sensory impressions, imitation and movements. It is a natural
tendency for children to actively explore their physical and social environment.
The environment may have limitations in terms of structure and protection, as
well as the possibility of risk taking and challenges.
• Emphasis on real rather than virtual experiences to support the child in

developing a healthy relationship with the world.

• Artistic activities such as storytelling, dancing, drawing and painting, and

modelling that offer the healthy development of imagination and creativity.
• Meaningful life skills such as cooking, cleaning, gardening, repairing and

domestic activities that offer opportunities to develop evolving human
capacities. The emphasis is on the processes of life skills rather than on learning
outcomes.
• Predictable routines through the day, week and month that offer a sense of
security and the interrelationships and completeness of life. Seasonal activities
are celebrated according to the cultural and geographical surroundings.
ACTIVITY 8.3
What are your observations on the international approaches in Malaysian

early childhood settings?
forum.

8.6 PERMATA NEGARA

The PERMATA Negara curriculum as shown in Figure 8.6 highlights the
integration of four aspects in childcare domains.
Figure 8.6: PERMATA Negara Curriculum
Source: PERMATA Negara (2013)

The curriculum is for children from birth to four years old. The six learning areas
depicted are achievable through concerted efforts among the:
• educator/carer
• parents and community
• supportive system provided by the authorities
The four aspects of childcare component include:
• balanced diet
• health and safety
• self-help skills
• fitness and exercises
As for the six learning areas, they comprise the following:
• personality, socio-emotional and spiritual development
• language, communication and early literacy
• early mathematics and logical thinking
• senses and understanding the world
• physical and psychomotor
• creativity and aesthetic values
8.7 NATIONAL PRESCHOOL

STANDARD-BASED CURRICULUM
The National Preschool Standard-based Curriculum (NPSC) provides children
aged four to six years old with learning opportunities to achieve the following
objectives:
• use language for communication
• practise basic religious values in daily life
• practise moral values of Malaysian society
• appreciate and show respect towards the various cultures of Malaysian society

• explore the natural environment
• develop positive self-concept and self-confidence
• practise a healthy lifestyle, develop physical fitness and ensure personal safety
• develop creativity and aesthetics
• apply critical, creative and innovative thinking and problem-solving skills in

learning as well as in daily life.
There are various teaching and learning strategies which are outlined by the
curriculum such as child-centred learning, learning through play, inquiry-based
learning and integrated approach, thematic approach, project-based approach,
mastery learning and contextual learning in which all consider the multiple
intelligences of children.
The NPSC is developed based on six learning strands:
• communication
• spirituality, attitudes and values
• humanities
• personal competence
• physical development and aesthetics
• science and technology
These six learning strands are the main components that complement one another
and are integrated with critical, creative and innovative thinking. The integration
aims to develop human capital that appreciates moral values based on religion,
knowledge, competence, creative and critical thinking and innovation as
illustrated in Figure 8.7.

Figure 8.7: National Preschool Standard-based Curriculum
Source: Ministry of Education (2018)
ACTIVITY 8.4
In the myINSPIRE online forum, think of a theme that is of childrenÊs

interest and discuss other subjects or strand areas that can be learned
under this theme.

8.8 CONCLUSION
There are many early childhood curriculum which adopt various pedagogical
approaches that can be implemented in teaching and learning within the context
of early childhood education. Each curriculum has its own conceptual framework,
principles and unique practices that draw upon the ideas of well-known theorists
and curriculum founders.
• The Montessori curriculum is a child-centred learning framework that

incorporates holistic learning outcomes tailored to each childÊs developmental
needs and interests.
• The Reggio Emilia approach is an educational philosophy based on the image

of the child as having a strong potential for development and as a subject with
rights who learns through the hundred languages belonging to all human
beings and grows in relation to others.
• Developmentally appropriate practice is a framework designed to promote

young childrenÊs optimal learning and development.
• Activities in Waldorf early childhood education take into consideration

the age-specific developmental needs of young children, from focus on
will-oriented physical activity in the first three years to imaginative play in
the middle years of early childhood, and later a more cognitive approach to
learning after the child enters school.
• The PERMATA Negara Curriculum and National Preschool Standard

Curriculum are both national curricula which cater to children from birth to
four years old; and from four to six years old respectively.

Developmentally appropriate National Preschool Standard

practice Curriculum (NPSC)
Educational principles PERMATA Negara Curriculum
Learning strands Reggio Emilia approach
Montessori curriculum Waldorf curriculum
Edmunds, F. (2011). An introduction to Steiner education: The Waldorf school.

Rudolf Steiner Press.
Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. (Eds.). (2011). The hundred languages of
children: The Reggio Emilia experience in transformation.: ABC-CLIO.
Jabatan Perdana Menteri. Kurikulum PERMATA Negara (2011). Bahagian

Pendidikan Awal Kanak-Kanak (PERMATA). Perbadanan Percetakan
Negara.
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (2017). Dokumen Standard Kurikulum

Prasekolah Kebangsaan. Semakan 2017. Bahagian Pembangunan
Kurikulum.
Montessori 101. https://sapientiamontessori.com/montessori/about-montessori/

Topic  Assessment
of ChildrenÊs
9 Learning and
Development

1. Identify types of assessments for children's learning and
development.
2. Illustrate important characteristics of assessment for learning
and development.
3. Analyse techniques of assessment for learning and
development.
4. Evaluate the implementation of assessment for learning and
development.
Have you ever wondered why teachers need to assess children? Early childhood
assessment enables teachers to convey important milestones in childrenÊ learning
and development to parents and collaborate with parents to support children as
they progress. However, assessing childrenÊs learning and development is more
technical than what you might think, as it needs skill and practice as well as
understanding of childrenÊs development.

TOPIC 9 ASSESSMENT OF CHILDREN’S LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT  131
9.1 DEFINITION
Assessment in early childhood is a process of gathering information about a childÊs
learning and development, reviewing the information and then using the
information to plan educational activities that are appropriate for the childÊs
understanding. Assessment is a critical part of a high-quality early childhood
programme. In current early childhood education, there are four primary reasons
for assessment:
• support learning
• early identification of special needs
• evaluation of programme and monitoring of trends
• centreÊs accountability
The most important aim of assessment is to provide teachers with information on

childrenÊs learning and development that can serve as a basis for pedagogical and
curriculum decisions. Secondly, it aims to diagnose children who may have
symptoms of mental, physical, or emotional difficulties that require special
services.
There are many methods for assessment in early childhood education such as
observation, checklists, anecdotal records, running record, childrenÊs work
samples and documenting childrenÊs work.
ACTIVITY 9.1
In your opinion, what types of assessment best support childrenÊs

learning?
forum.

132  TOPIC 9 ASSESSMENT OF CHILDREN’S LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
9.2 OBSERVATION
Early childhood education is not only about teaching; it is also about children
exploring and learning. Therefore, observations play an important role in meeting
the developmental needs of children in early childhood care and education
centres.
Observation is often regarded as one of the most basic yet effective methods of
assessing children as they develop and progress while attending an early
childhood programme. Observation involves a teacher noting and documenting
how each child behaves, learns, reacts to new situations and interacts with others.
Subsequently, the teacher reflects on this information and determines how it can
support childrenÊs development and improve learning in order to meet their needs
(Snow & Van, 2008).
9.2.1 Importance of Observation

Observation in early years settings is the process of tracking childrenÊs behaviour
in relation to development and learning over a period of time. A detailed
documentation enables teachers to notice patterns and assess how each child is
developing and learning. As teachers observe children, they can better appreciate
and understand the strengths and weakness of each child. TeachersÊ observations
can then guide them in improving the teaching and learning process and help them
to make adjustments to improve a childÊs behaviour and facilitate learning.
Regular observation requires careful analysis of a childÊs development and

learning. This can encourage teachers to develop a stronger relationship with each
child and connect with children in a more meaningful way.
Among the most important skill categories to observe childrenÊs development and
track important changes include:
• cognitive
• social
• physical
• emotional
• language

Observation is about carefully watching children, noticing and recording their

actions, expressions, behaviours and interactions. It is better to observe regularly
in order to obtain insights on the patterns of development, childrenÊs interests,
strengths and weaknesses. It is important for parents and teachers to share and
discuss important details to plan for any intervention, if necessary, and whether
the childÊs development is at the expected stage.
9.2.2 Purpose of Observation

Each child is unique as he or she is born with talents. Observing childrenÊs
inclination on certain activities as well as noticing what materials and resources
they enjoy playing with provides reliable information about each child as
individuals. It also offers an opportunity to determine the needs of the child and
therefore plan the next learning experience that the child can be engaged with.
Figure 9.1 shows that the cycle of assessment for children commonly begins with
observations using appropriate techniques and documentation. Then, analysis on
the observations are carried out carefully and teachers decide what the analysis
can inform them about the children. Lastly, teachers review the planning for
childrenÊs learning experiences based on the analysis done.
Figure 9.1: Cycle of Assessment for Children

SELF-CHECK 9.1
Explain the importance of assessment in early childhood education.
9.3 DOCUMENTATION FOR OBSERVATIONS

Documenting and monitoring are the process of observation that needs to be
carried out by teachers. Teachers need to carefully plan for more observations as
this leads to more in-depth analysis of childrenÊs development and learning.
Documentation for observation includes childrenÊs achievements and
accomplishments in terms of their development and learning progress.
Observations can be recorded using pen and paper or any electronic device.
Applications are also available now and have been designed to assist teachers with
their observation documentation. Any methods for observation can be employed
by teachers as long as it is systematic, precise and current.
Teachers need to document observations and assessments of a child which

includes the following:
• The child has done something for the first time.
• The child has shown an evidence of embedded knowledge – something that

has been previously learned but the child only demonstrates this knowledge
physically or verbally at a later date.
• The child expresses satisfaction or enjoyment in the process of learning or as

an output of their learning.
• The child shows remarkable attitude and creativity pertaining to something

which he had not been taught before.
• The child reveals perspectives or offers insights about his personality or

behaviour.

Systematic and careful observations should place emphasis on accuracy and

objectivity, and be as detailed as possible when the teachers document the
observation. Teachers may note down their observations at the time and
continually throughout the day. This is easier rather than trying to recall an event
at the end of the day, as teachers may miss certain details which sometimes can be
very important. The documented observations may include the following
information:
• name of the child
• date and time of observation
• context or situation where the observation takes place
• activity or main strands of learning
• teacherÊs observations
• observed comments or feedback from the child
9.4 TECHNIQUES FOR OBSERVATIONS

There are various techniques for documenting observations which record in-depth
narration. These offer the opportunity for childcare practitioners to reflect upon
the observations. These include anecdotal records, running record, checklist and
work samples.
9.4.1 Anecdotal Records

Anecdotal records can be time consuming but they provide naturalistic,
meaningful and detailed information about childrenÊs individual development in
all domains. Anecdotal records are usually brief, precise and non-judgmental.
They record directly observed incidents rather than narrate a continuous
behaviour.
Teachers should take the following steps in writing anecdotal records. A sample
of anecdotal report is shown in Figure 9.2.

Figure 9.2: Sample of Anecdotal Record
Source: https://aussiechildcarenetwork.com.au/eylf-templates/child-
observations/anecdotal-record
• Focus on Developmental Domains

All developmental domains should be observed as equally as possible over the
duration of time. Alternatively, teachers may focus on only one area of
development each day or week. For instance, teachers record language
development on Monday and childrenÊs social development on Tuesday. Over
a period, teachers can tally the developmental areas that have been observed
for each child, and later focus on gathering more information in the less
complete areas.
• Be Objective
It is important that teachers only record facts and exactly what is seen. They
should avoid judgmental language (e.g. naughty, nice and slow) and labelling
behaviour with words. They should simply record behaviour and avoid
interpreting childrenÊs intentions.

• Keep Detailed Records

Detailed observations are more helpful than ambiguous descriptions.
For instance, teachers can record childrenÊs interactions, the titles of books that
they request to be read over and over, and their engagement in an activity.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Explain the characteristics of anecdotal record.
9.4.2 Running Record

A running record is an uninterrupted observation of a pattern of behaviour for
a particular duration. The teacher should aim not to interpret what is seen but
to record naturally occurring behaviour. The aim of the running record is to
collect detailed information, which is generally qualitative. After recording the
behaviour in the running record, the teacher may conclude and briefly summarise
what occurred.
Running records as illustrated in Figure 9.3 clearly support planning of activities

for individual pupils. They result in the systematic collection of detailed,
descriptive narrative data about development. Making good running records
calls for good understanding of how children learn, knowledge of the
children being observed, sensitivity, expertise and objectivity on the part of the
observer.

Figure 9.3: Sample Running Record Form
These aspects are to be considered when writing a running record:
• Observe only one child at a time.
• Focus on facts when writing the running record. Avoid being judgmental or
interpreting based on what is perceived or inferred from the childÊs behaviour
during the observation.

• The running record must be very detailed and not omit anything.
• Record behaviours in the order that they happen during the observation.
ACTIVITY 9.2
What could be challenges faced by early childhood teachers when

observing a child using the technique of running record?
forum.
9.4.3 Checklist
Checklists are commonly used by teachers to record childrenÊs behaviour.
A checklist is an inventory of behaviours or skills that teachers mark if the child
is observed to demonstrate them. The aim of having a checklist is to record
easily observed behaviours or skills that occur typically during daily routines
and activities.
Teachers may conduct observations for a period or over several periods.

The checklist may be marked during or after the observation. Teachers as the
observers must be well-versed with each item on the checklist so that it is
clear how to go about using the checklist. The checklist can be used to observe a
childÊs interaction or action during a particular length of time. Teachers must
record dates to track changes in behaviour over time. Checklists are popular
among teachers as they save time and are efficient and convenient. Development
and progress within a wide range of behaviours and skills can be assessed using
checklists.
One of the disadvantages, though, is that there is a tendency of missing important

information if observations are limited to only items on a checklist. Checklists
also indicate only presence or absence of certain behaviours and do not explain
the context in which the observations are conducted. Therefore, teachers cannot
totally rely on checklists to give a holistic view of childrenÊs development and
learning.

Nonetheless, checklists are useful as a basis for discovering the aims of further
observations and to offer a simple assessment of a childÊs progress and
development within a curriculum domain. Checklists can be more meaningful
when teachers record additional comments on the context or when linked
explicitly to other observations that have been done.
There are many formats of checklists. Teachers can devise their own format
and include items that they wish to record based on the developmental milestones
of the children. What is more important is that the teachers can make sense
of the checklist in order to understand what needs to be done to support
childrenÊs development. Figure 9.4 shows an example of a checklist that can be
simply done by teachers.
Figure 9.4: Sample Checklist Observation
SELF-CHECK 9.3
Explain the characteristics of anecdotal record.

9.4.4 Work Samples

Work samples include childrenÊs written work, drawings, project and artwork.
Teachers can record important notes detailing childrenÊs ideas and thoughts
as well as their feedback surrounding these work samples. ChildrenÊs work
sampling reflects the quality of observational skills.
In assessing childrenÊs progress through work samples, emphasis should be given

to the following:
• understanding childrenÊs differences
• connecting the differences of children to the established framework of

development
• utilising these observations to enhance teaching and learning
• discussing the feedback with children to inform them of their progress
Below is the assessment template for art work that can be adapted by teachers
(refer to Figure 9.4).
Figure 9.4: Sample of Art Work
Source: https://aussiechildcarenetwork.com.au/eylf-templates/child-portfolios/art-
work-sample
Teachers must be clear about the purpose of observation and the observational
processes that are matched to this aim in using different observational tools and
techniques. The process of observation and the documented information must be
included in a childÊs file, which will be reviewed and analysed over time to make
meaningful observations about the childÊs development.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Can you think of other childrenÊs work that can be assessed by early
childhood teachers? Share your answers with your coursemates in the
myINSPIRE forum.
9.5 CONCLUSION
There are various observational methods used by teachers in early childhood
education centres. Teachers must carefully watch, listen, document and analyse
childrenÊs development and learning as they explore, play and learn. The
documentation of observations include childrenÊs physical behaviours,
interactions, expressions, gestures and behaviours which reflect their
development. This documentation must consider teachersÊ objectivity during the
observation to ensure the validity of the report or feedback. Teachers must be clear
about the purpose of observation and that the observational processes are matched
to this aim.
• There are many methods for assessment in early childhood education such as
observation, checklists, anecdotal records, running record, childrenÊs work
samples and documenting childrenÊs work.
• Observation is about watching children and noticing their actions, expressions,

behaviours and interactions.
• There are also different, more in-depth narrative techniques for documenting
observations.
• Anecdotal records provide naturalistic, meaningful and detailed information

about childrenÊs individual development in all domains.

• A running record is an uninterrupted observation of a pattern of behaviour

for a particular duration.
• A checklist is an inventory of behaviours or skills that teachers mark if a child

is observed to demonstrate them.
Anecdotal record Observation

Assessment Observational techniques
Check list Running record
Documentation Work sample
Alasuutari, M., Markström, A., & Vallberg-Roth, A. (2014). Assessment and

documentation in early childhood education. Routledge.
Mindes, G., & Ann Jung, L. (2015). Assessing young children. Pearson.
Smidt, S. (2014). Observing young children: The role of assessment in early

childhood settings. Routledge.
Snow, C. E., & Van, H. S. B. (2008). Early childhood assessment: Why, what,
and how. National Academies Press.

Topic  Reflective
Report
10
1. List the characteristics of a teacherÊs reflective report.
2. Explain the important characteristics of a reflective report.
3. Analyse the categories of reflective responses.
4. Plan the implementation of the reflective report.
A reflective report is a common practice in teacher education programmes as

well as among teachers. This practice is often used by both pre-service and
in-service teachers to promote critical reflection. One of the goals in teacher
education programmes is to engage student teachers in critical reflection upon
their teaching beliefs and practices. A dominant paradigm in teacher education
programmes is the notion of reflective teaching.

TOPIC 10 REFLECTIVE REPORT  145
10.1 DEFINITION OF REFLECTIVE REPORT

Reflective report, as part of reflective teaching, is an opportunity for teachers to
use the process of writing to narrate and explore their own teaching practices.
A reflective report is useful to jot down reflections and thoughts. You can
write about your experiences, both positive and negative, how they affected
your practice and what you may have learned from them.
Reflective reports are important documentation on the practice of early childhood

teachers. The use of reflective reports among pre-service and in-service teachers
allows supervisors to discuss and share insights about their experiences in the
teaching and learning experience.
ACTIVITY 10.1
In your opinion, is it a common practice for Malaysian early childhood

teachers to keep a reflective report?
forum.
10.2 BENEFITS OF REFLECTIVE REPORT

WRITING
There are many benefits of reflective report writing. Among the benefits are:
• As an effective tool to identify variables which teachers feel significant.
• As a means of formulating assumptions and hypotheses about teaching

and learning experiences.
• Instil awareness about the teacherÊs various pedagogical approaches.
• As an excellent tool for reflection because they offer important discussion

on teaching and learning experiences.
• As a basis for action research to improve teaching and learning.
• As a sustainable record of experiences and events.

146  TOPIC 10 REFLECTIVE REPORT
SELF-CHECK 10.1
What are the advantages of reflective report writing?
10.3 GUIDELINES FOR REFLECTIVE REPORT

Writing a reflective report requires teachers to describe learning experiences,
analyse the lessons, and express their feelings and thoughts on their experiences.
A reflective report does not have a standard format as it is meant for their own
reflection. The writing process depends on the teachersÊ preferences. Nevertheless,
there are some guidelines to follow that will make teachers more successful at
writing a reflective report:
• Easy Access to the Report

It is important for teachers to straight away write their thoughts and feelings
pertaining to their role as reflective teachers. Teachers must be able to easily
access their teaching so that they can reflect while a situation is still fresh in
their mind. If teachers do not have time to write immediately, they should
make notes everywhere. They can refer back to their notes when there is free
time.
• Write Entries Regularly

Writing regular entries, even if an inspiration does not arise, can keep the
momentum for reflective report writing. This ensures that teachers are able to
review the content and think actively on the experience and event. This
practice facilitates the development of their writing and critical thinking skills
while keeping them organised.
• Participation and Observation

It is vital for teachers who first participate in a learning activity to participate
and make observations on the experiences. For instance, if teachers are writing
literacy, they need to know the objectives and outcomes of the activity prior to
explaining their ideas and opinions on what was discovered. Teachers need to
participate and observe before writing.

• Review Regularly
Teachers need to take time to read previous reflective report in order to review
their new experiences and knowledge, and reflect upon the changes in their
thoughts and feelings about the materials that they have been contemplating.
The regular review will make the report more valuable to teachers personally,
as it will shed light on how teachers have grown.
• Reflective Report Not Limited to Description Only

Teachers must be able to reflect on and explain their reflection and the reasons
for choosing their approaches. The report must be beyond the description of
experiences, and instead provide analysis that makes reflective reports a
valuable learning tool for teachers.
• Analysis of the Report

Teachers must be honest in their assessments when writing in the reflective
report so that they can improve their practices. It is a learning tool that
facilitates teachers to be more analytical.
• Be Selective
Teachers must be selective in writing their thoughts and feelings in the
reflective report. They should focus on the key points and insights from their
experiences.
ACTIVITY 10.2
What are the main characteristics of a reflective report?
10.4 TYPES OF REFLECTIVE DAILY REPORT

The reflective report is a means for teachers to organise their analysis guided
by their practical experiences. Based on the various objectives, the report can
have different degrees of structuring such as a structured reflective report with
a variety of types of objectives and degrees of structuring such as shown in
the following:
• a compilation of standardised questions
• a series of varied and contextualised questions
• well-thought options which explain the reportÊs organisation around an

important incident that the teachers chose and give feedback on the reflection
There are also types of reflective report in which teachers gather itemised
information about significant experiences and events pertaining to pedagogical
practices, embedding them with reflections and theoretical perspectives that are
beneficial for understanding specific actions related to teaching and learning.
Although there are various forms available, most reflective reports have the
common objective of orienting the reflection activity such as reflection in-action
and reflection on-action:
• Reflection In-action
During a learning activity, teachers use reflection in-action. The reflection may
include:
− the process of gaining the experience
− thinking promptly
− planning the next step
− teaching the children
• Reflection On-action
Teachers can do reflect-on-action right after the activity based on what they
can recall about the lesson. They need to remember the situation, and retrieve
their memories or what they can recall about the experience. Then, they can
talk about their reflection and comprehend what has happened and learn
about their teaching practices from the experience such as:
− recall the experience or event that happened
− consider options of what to do differently next time
• How to Reflect Effectively

Teachers need to reflect effectively to ensure that their experiences can improve
their teaching and learning. Figure 10.1 shows a flowchart of reflecting
effectively from before to after the experience.

Figure 10.1: Flowchart of Reflecting Effectively from Before to After the Experience
Now, let us learn the details of the flowchart.
• Before the Experience
− Think about the things that could have happened.
− What are the things that teachers feel might be a challenge?
− The things that teachers can do to prepare for these experiences.
• During the Experience
− Observe what is happening at the moment, as teachers make a particular

decision.
− Is it working out as expected? Are teachers dealing with the challenges

well?
− Is there anything teachers should do, say or think to make the experience
successful?
• After the Experience
− Describe the thoughts immediately after and/or later when teachers have
more emotional distance from the event. You can use sample shown in
Figure 10.2.
− Is there anything teachers would do differently before or during a similar

event?
− What do teachers learn from this experience/event?

Figure10.2: Sample of Daily Reflection After the Experience
ACTIVITY 10.3
How do you best implement a daily reflective report? Discuss your

answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.

10.5 STEPS IN WRITING REFLECTIVE REPORT

A basic entry used in reflective report is shown here:
• Teachers can record an experience or event during the day.
• Teachers describe the experience or event by writing:
− who and/or what was involved in the event or experience
− what roles who and/or what played in the recorded event
• Teachers can reflect upon the experience and/or event by writing about
the following:
− contemplations on the experience and/or event
− reactions to the experience and/or event
− feelings about the experience and/or event
− both positive and negative aspects of the experience and/or event
− learning process from the experience and/or event
− thoughts, feelings and reactions about the experience and/or event
− analysis on the experience and/or event
− ability to make sense of the experience and/or event
− efforts to integrate a learned theory into the experience and/or event
− understanding of the experience and/or event, and how this supports the
teacherÊs professionalism
• Teachers can conclude by:
− learning from the experience and/or event
− analysing the experience and/or event
− considering how they can do differently if this type of experience and/or

event recurs
− take steps based on what they have learned from the experience and/or
event.

SELF-CHECK 10.2
What are the advantages of daily reflective report writing?
10.6 CATEGORIES OF REFLECTIVE RESPONSES

There are three categories of teachersÊ report entries which are reaction,
elaboration and contemplation.
10.6.1 Reaction
Reaction refers to responses related to feelings, concerns, reports or issues about
classroom activities, environments, students, cooperating teachers, teaching
partners, readings and so on. Subcategories of reaction include:
• positive feelings
• negative feelings
• report
• personal concerns
• issues
10.6.2 Elaboration
What does elaboration mean? Elaboration involves detailed description of initial
reactions – feelings, concerns or situations – by providing explanation and
examples. Subcategories of elaboration are:
• concrete elaboration
• comparative elaboration
• generalised elaboration

10.6.3 Contemplation
Figure 10.3 shows us the contemplation process. Contemplation involves the
following:
Figure 10.3: Contemplation Process
There are three subcategories of contemplation as the following:
• teachersÊ personal focus particularly their personal matters
• teachersÊ professional focus related to children, pedagogies, educational plans,

theories and issues
• the social/ethical focus pertaining to social challenges, ethical concerns and

moral issues
10.6.4 Levels of Reflectivity

In educational reflection, there are three levels of reflection which have been
identified about how teachers deliberate about their teaching practices
(Van Manen, 1977). These are discussed in the following:
• Technical competency is concerned primarily with teachersÊ competence to

apply appropriate pedagogies in the centre. A teacher within the technical
mode is open to accepting situations and issues and try to address them.
• The second level of reflection relates to the capability to analyse teaching

decisions which are made (Van Manen, 1977).
„The focus is on an interpretive understanding both of the nature and quality

of education experience, and of making practical choices‰ (ibid, pp. 226–227).
The assumptions and beliefs related to the choices which are made will be
clarified at this level.

• Critical reflection is the highest level of reflection which represents the

ability to focus on moral and ethical consequences of teaching practices.
The emphasis here is the worthiness of educational experiences and
knowledge and whether the educational activities have really served
human needs.
ACTIVITY 10.4
Design a template of a reflective report writing that helps a teacher to do

reflective responses.
forum.
10.7 CONCLUSION
A reflective report may be valuable to teachers for developing abilities
in improving their teaching and learning processes and for promoting their
self-orientation as well as responsibility for the processes of their personal
and collaborative learning. Through reflection, teachers become more aware of
their thoughts, positions, and feelings in relation to learning. Reflective reports
as an important tool for the improvement of learning by creating a connection
between theory and practice.
• Reflective report writing is common in teacher education programmes and

is often used to promote critical responses during teaching and learning.
• Teachers need to explicitly describe childrenÊs learning experiences, and

analyse the lessons and explain their perspectives about the matter.
• Diary or reflective report comes in various forms and commonly steer the
reflection activity.
• When teachers are reflecting while they are in an activity, they are carrying
out reflection in-action.

• Teachers can do reflect-on-action right after the activity is completed based

on what they can recall about it.
• TeachersÊ reflective report entries are categorised into reaction, elaboration

and contemplation.
Contemplation Reaction
Critical reflection Reflecting report
Elaboration Reflection in-action
Improvement for learning Reflection on-action
Levels of reflectivity
Brock, A. (2015). The early years reflective practice handbook. Routledge.
Hallet, E. (2013). The reflective early years practitioner. Sage.
Hayes, C., Daly, J., Duncan, M., Gill, R., & Whitehouse, A. (2014). Developing
as a reflective early years professional: A thematic approach. Critical
Publishing.
Van Manen, M. (1977). Linking ways of knowing with ways of being practical.
Curriculum Inquiry, 6(3), 205–228.

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-78012140
Fax No.: 03-78875911 / 03-78875966

www.oum.edu.my

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EDUCATION AND

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Developed by Centre for Instructional Design and Technology, OUM.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1: Pedagogy in Early Childhood Education and Care 1

Topic 2: Early Childhood Pedagogy: Principles and Practices 18

Topic 3: Constructivist Perspectives in ChildrenÊs Learning 34

Topic 4: Strategies, Approaches and Methods in Early Childhood Education 55

Topic 5: Lesson Planning 69

Topic 6: Implementing Teaching and Learning 80

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Topic 7: Early Childhood Pedagogical Approaches 92

Topic 8: Approaches in Early Childhood Curriculum 109

8.1 Definition 110

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Topic 9: Assessment of ChildrenÊs Learning and Development 130

9.1 Definition 131

Topic 10: Reflective Report 144

10.1 Definition of Reflective Report 145

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

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Figure 1: Student Learning Time

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the principles of pedagogy in early childhood education and care

2. Demonstrate effective pedagogical strategies for early childhood settings.

3. Design an integrated pedagogical approach and documentation which

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Table 1: Synopsis for Each Topic

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9 Describes various types of assessments for childrenÊs learning and

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

(a) Learning Outcomes

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(e) Key Terms

Martin, M. J., & Loomis, K. S. (2013). Building teachers: A constructivist approach

Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2010). A focus on pedagogy: Case studies of effective practice.

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

Figure 2: Among the Online Databases Available at TSDAS Digital Library

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following:

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Contemporary perspectives of pedagogy can be defined as the art or science of

1.2 LANDSCAPE OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

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Figure 1.1: Rousseau

Figure 1.2: Pestalozzi

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Figure 1.3: Froebel

Figure 1.4: Imam Al-Ghazali

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These philosophers advocated the following as a basis for early childhood

• Child development needs to be holistic.

• Children learn through play and their experiences.

• The context of childrenÊs learning involves their family and community.

• The environment plays an important role in childrenÊs learning.