Final Notes

2022-09-08
Relationship between Structure and

Architecture
Maziar Asefi (PhD, March, PMP, MRAIC)
Adjunct Faculty, Toronto Metropolitan University
Professor in Architecture and Building Technology (TIAU)
IARTECH Founder and Director
Architecture and Structure--Think???

What??
What is your mission as students of architecture in this ever-
changing world in face with emerging technologies?
What factors affect and shape today’s architecture?
As students of architecture, why do we have to embrace

emerging technologies and structural advancement?
Finally: Why is the relationship between architecture and

structure important?
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Goals – Architecture- Architects

Our goal is to build:
Cost-effective
Energy-efficient
Sustainable
Adaptable
Responsive
Environmental friendly
Beautiful
purposeful
-
Buildings.
https://www.archdaily.com/585599/defining-a-more-purposeful-architecture-a-guide-to-current-architectural-trends
Relationship between Architecture and structure
Initial Steps (Common Expectations from our design)

Reducing dependency on fossil fuels
Promoting the use of green and sustainable products
Using recycled building materials when available
Reducing building waste by recycling and using a more
efficient manufacturing process
Reducing the number of fatalities in disastrous situations
Design of a building that is responsive to our behavioral,
social, cultural, aesthetic and environmental requirements
and expectations.
……
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Innovative or Advanced Structures

Steps from us as architects:
Use of lightweight, adaptable structures
Design based on developing and changing needs of our clients
Use creativity not just in plan, site and section drawings
Integrating architectural thoughts with structural requirements and
considerations.
Use of sustainable and smart materials
Reduce the cost of manufacturing, future expansions and changes
Reduce the cost of maintenance and management
Design intelligently based on situation and design brief
Relationship between architecture and structure
Different types of relationship can be imagined

between architecture and structure:
Ranging between the extremes of complete
domination of the architecture by the
structure.
https://seele.com/references/birds-nest-olympic-stadium
To total disregard of structural requirements in

the determination of both the form of a
building and of its aesthetic treatment.
http://www.punditcafe.com/world/unique-and-creative-
buildings-around-the-world/- Crooked House in Poland
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Relationship between architecture and

structure
Three types of relationship can be imagined between architects and structural
engineers:
The form of a building is determined solely by the architect,
The engineer acts as architect and determines the form of the building and all other
architectural aspects of the design.
Mid-way between these extremes is the situation in which architect and engineer
collaborate fully over the form of a building and evolve the design jointly to satisfy
aesthetic and technical requirements in equal measure.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QIMV9eSr30Q
Relationship between architecture and

structure
This large number of possibilities is discussed
here under Two main categories of:
Structure respected and may be dominated:

ornamentation of structure
structure as architecture
structure accepted
Structure disrespected:
structure as ornament https://naikpranav.wordpress.com/2010/08/30/14/
structure ignored.
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Structure respected(Ornamentation of structure)
In this type of relationship, the form

of the structural system influence
the overall form of a buildings.
The building consists of little more
than a visible structural skeleton
The structural forms have been
adjusted and ornamented for https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis
visual reasons.
Example of this type of relationship
can be seen in some historic building
including Parthenon in Athens,
Persepolis in Iran.
https://fayette-news.net/the-parthenon/
Ornamentation of structure
In twentieth century, architects became
interested in the aesthetic possibilities of
the expression of structural function.
AEG Turbine hall is an example showing
the idea of ornamentation in
architecture.
Another example is the structure of the https://www.rsh-p.com/projects/reliance-controls/
Farnsworth House designed by Mies van

der Rohe – As seen the structure is
exposed and forms a significant visual
element.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farnsworth_House
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The exposed-steel structure of the

Reliance Controls building in
England, for example is a fairly
straightforward technical response
to the problems posed by the
design requirements of the
building.
It is an example of‘ornamentation
of structure’ rather than a work of
pure engineering because it was
adjusted in minor ways to
improve its appearance.
https://www.rsh-p.com/projects/reliance-controls/
In these examples, the buildings
has been made from exposed
structure (such as the Waterloo
Terminal) and architecture has
been affected by structural
technology.
The architects of such buildings
have paid enough attention to
requirements of the structural
technology and have reflected
this in the basic architectural forms
of the buildings.
http://architectuul.com/architecture/waterloo-international-
railway-station
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Structure as Ornament
structure as ornament is another

category of architecture which
involves the manipulation of
structural elements according to
mainly visual criteria.
As in the category ‘ornamentation
of structure’ the structure is given
visual prominence but unlike in
ornamentation of structure, the
design process is driven by visual
rather than by technical
considerations.
https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/architects-lounge/a819-
ornamentation-in-contemporary-architecture/
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The Lloyd’s headquarters building
is a good example of “structure as
Ornament”
The building has a central atrium
through most levels, which gives
the floor plan a rectangular-
doughnut form.
The structural skeleton is a
reinforced concrete beam-and-
column framework that forms a
prominent element of the visual
Book: Structure and Architecture – Author: Macdonald A. (2018)
vocabulary but that is problematic https://www.reinsurancene.ws/lloyds-updates-electronic-response-targets/
technically in several respects:
https://www.pinterest.es/pin/386113368049274234/
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Another example in this category

is Bird’s nest stadium designed for
Beijing Olympic Stadium.
This building uses huge quantiles of
steel and its structure is inefficient.
https://reganindustrial.com/blog/presenting-steel-marvels-birds-
nest-beijings-national-stadium/
https://designlike.com/bionic-tower-the-architecture-of-the- https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lloyds_of_London_buildin
future/ionic Tower- Architecture of the future g_(Dec_2014).jpg
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Structure as Architecture
Structure as Architecture (structure without ornament)
In this type of buildings, no compromise

with structural requirements is possible.
Examples of this type of building are
those in which extreme lightness is
desirable, for example because the
building is required to be portable.
https://metro.co.uk/2015/12/11/17-igloos-that-will-make-you-want-
to-pack-it-all-in-and-live-in-the-snow-5559757/
Or where some other technical issue is
so overwhelmingly important that it
determines the design programme.
https://www.simonsellars.com/nebula-portable-art
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It can also be seen in long span
architecture
Timber lattice dome: https://www.simonsellars.com/nebula-

portable-art
Ultra-thin concrete shell- ETH Zurich- (Thickness of 5 centimetres)-

Fire-reinforced concrete shel -
https://www.archdaily.com/882360/this-ultra-thin-concrete-
structure-was-constructed-using-a-novel-steel-net-formwork-
system
Airport hanger: Nervii – concrete shell

http://anengineersaspect.blogspot.com/2009/10/22-pier-luigi-
nervi-structures-on.html
In these building, the technology

employed was necessary to
achieve the spans involved and Cable-Net roof over the building of Munich Olympic Park- Otto- -
https://structurae.net/en/media/179177-roof-over-the-buildings-of-
the resulting forms have been the-olympic-park-munich-olympic-stadium
given minimal stylistic treatment.
Millenium Dome- London– Rogers

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Millenium-Dome-The-O2-
Arena-London-1999-comprises-virtually-flat-fabric-
panels_fig1_256968643
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Most of tall building can also lies in this
category of Building ( Structure as
architecture).
From a structural point of view two
problems are posed by the very high
building that requires the dominance of
structure against architecture.
One is the provision of adequate

vertical support
The other is the difficulty of resisting
high lateral loading, including the
dynamic effect of wind.
Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong, 1990,
https://de51gn.com/asian-buildings-on-ctbuhs-50-most-influential-
skyscrapers-list-of-past-50-years/
Structure as Architecture (with ornament??)
https://www.archdaily.com/882100/burj-khalifa-som
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The situation in which saving in
weight is an essential requirement
is another scenario which causes
technical considerations to be
allocated a very high priority in
the design of a building. This often
comes about when the building is
required to be portable.
https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/396527942189121222/
Athens Olympic park- Calatrava—

https://www.pandotrip.com/top-10-incredible-geometric-
structures-25841/
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Structure accepted
Structure accepted
In this group: the structural

requirements are allowed to
influence strongly the forms of
buildings even though the
structure itself is not necessarily https://www.dezeen.com/2014/03/20/opinon-justin-mcguirk-le-
corbusier-symbol-for-era-obsessed-with-customisation/
exposed. Dom-Ino House
In this type of relationship the

configuration of elements that is
most sensible structurally is
accepted and the architecture
accommodated to it.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pantheon-building-Rome-Italy
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Structure Ignored…in the form making process
In this types of building structure

has no or very little influence in
the form-making process of the
building and has not contribution
to the aesthetic of the building.
An example of that is Chapel

Notre-Dame Designed by Le
Corbusier in 1954.
https://www.tripadvisor.com/LocationPhotoDirectLink-g739268-d2175275-i61398720-
Chapelle_Notre_Dame_du_Haut-Ronchamp_Haute_Saone_Bourgogne_Franche_Comte.html
Imperial War Museum designed

by Daniel Libskind… 2001-
Manchester- UK
Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao,

Spain designed by Frank Gehry.. https://www.iwm.org.uk/visits/iwm-north/about
https://www.iwm.org.uk/visits/iwm-north/about
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You may design your building following this
style. However Two important considerations
must be taken into account when form is
devised without having regard to structural
requirements:
First, because the form will almost certainly

be non-form-active, bending-type internal
force will have to be resisted.
Second, the magnitudes of the internal
forces that are generated are likely to be
high in relation to the load carried.
The implications of both of these
considerations are that structural material
will be inefficiently used and that the
element sizes required to produce
adequate strength will be high. This is a
scenario that can result in structures that
are clumsy and ungainly.
Heydar Aliyev Centre in Baku, Designed by Zaha Hadid.

https://www.architecturaldigest.com/gallery/zaha-hadid-greatest-works-slideshow
In all of the buildings considered in

this section the structure is present
in order to fulfil its principal
function of supporting the building
envelope. In this kind of
architecture structural engineers
act as facilitators and just make
the building stand up.
https://www.dw.com/en/highlights-of-the-guggenheim-museum-bilbao/g-41315940- Bilbao Museum by Gehry
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Examples showing the relationship between

Architecture, Structures and Materials.
Material, Architecture and Structure
Walter Jack: Crushed Wall. concrete installation,

Heartlands, Cornwall
https://en.wikiarquitectura.com/building/laminata-house/
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Laminata House- Netherland
Kruunenberg Van der Erve Architecten

Laminata House- Netherland
Kruunenberg Van der Erve Architecten
Variable light
Striking effect
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https://www.archdaily.com/

GC Prostho Museum Research Center, Japan
Kengo Kuma & Associates
https://arch5541.wordpress.com/2012/09/16/material-focus-gc-prostho-museum-kengo-kuma/
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GC Prostho Museum Research Center
Human Scale
Lightness
Familiar to user
Book-Tectonic-96
http://www.archtalent.com/projects/gc-prostho-museum-research-center
Tectonics in Relation with joints and

Details
Book-Tectonic-96
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Miami Skyscraper- Zaha Hadid
https://www.feliseeber.com/downtown-miami-condos-condos/One-Thousand-Museum.htm
Example: Miami Skyscraper-Zaha Hadid
https://www.dezee
n.com/2020/02/28/
one-thousand-
museum-tower- Tectonic Articulation – Making Engineering Logics Speak
zaha-hadid- Patrik Schumacher, London 2014
architects-miami/
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Tectonic Articulation – Making Engineering Logics Speak

Patrik Schumacher, London 2014
https://www.dezeen.com/2020/02/28/one-thousand-museum-tower-zaha-hadid-architects-
miami/

Research Pavilion- University of Stuttgart (ICD and
ITKE)
http://www.evolo.us/researching-new-tectonic-
possibilities-in-architecture-robotically-fabricated-
pavilion-in-stuttgart/
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Material, Architecture and

Structure
Research Pavilion- University of Stuttgart
(ICD and ITKE)
The design was inspired from the

exoskeleton of lobster
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Serpentine Pavilion-Ito and Balmond
This is a temporary pavilion,

composing of chaotic patterns
of line supporting a flat roof.
Fredrik Nilsson- Tectonics, the poetics of technology
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Simplexity-(and-Complicity)-in-Architecture-
Kolarevic/7af328692247ce6314103e39133a322400362301/figure/0
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https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Simplexity-(and-Complicity)-in-Architecture-
Kolarevic/7af328692247ce6314103e39133a322400362301/figure/0

Sphedia Project- Artech Architects
Sphedia is a portable urban

kiosk/shelter that was aimed to be
used in different climate in
different seasons.
The main design requirements were:
Ease of transportation
Ease of assembly and disassembly
Multi-functionality
Natural ventilation through a
transformable roof
Having meaningful connection
with ancient Iranian Architecture
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Material,
Architect
ure and
Structure
Sphedia
Project-
Artech
Architects
Connection to past Iranian

Architecture
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Tectonics in relation to details,

geometry, structure and material
Sphedia Project- Artech Architects
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Nova Project- Artech Architects
Nova is a transformable round

canopy designed for the
courtyard of Tabriz Art university
The main design requirements
were:
Ease of assembly and
disassembly
Ability to easily expand and
retract
Must be functional in different
stages of transformation
Innovative and monumental
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References:
Fundamentals of Building Construction - Materials and Methods, Edward Allen and Joseph
Iano, 2019, Seventh Edition
Construction Materials, Methods, and Techniques, Kultermann, E. & Spence, W. P. 2016,
Structure and Architecture (3rd Edition). By A.G. Macdonal, 2019, Routledge.
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Simplexity-(and-Complicity)-in-
ArchitectureKolarevic/7af328692247ce6314103e39133a322400362301/figure/0
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pantheon-building-Rome-Italy
https://www.dezeen.com/2020/02/28/one-thousand-museum-tower-zaha-hadid-
architects-miami/
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“Architecture is the
thoughtful making
of space….”
Louis Khan
So consider structure and

material as the most
important ingredient of your
building from early stages
of the design..
Thank you…………
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Unit 2:
Wood as Building Material
and Structural Elements
Revised September 2022
Wood as a Building Material

1. What is Wood?
Wood is the fibrous material that

makes up the main substance of a
tree, including the trunk and
branches.
https://www.britannica.com/science/science
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1. What is Wood?
Wood has also been used as a

structural system for our most basic
shelters (tepees, wigwams, tents) to
more complex structures that are
considered the oldest wooden Wigwam
structures on earth. Photo by Marilyn Angel Wynn/Nativestock/Getty Images
https://www.reference.com/history/main-differences-
betweenwigwam-tepee-4591e5a868c194f3
Indian Encampment on Lake Huron 1850,

Horyu-ji temple near Osaka Japan (Unesco World Heritage Site) is
By Paul Kane
considered one of the world’s oldest functional buildings.
https://www.wikiart.org/en/paul-kane/indian-
encampment-on-lake-huron-1850
https://www.christravelblog.com/japan-horyu-ji-day-trip-from-
osaka-kyoto-worlds-oldest-wooden-structures/

1. What is Wood?
Today’s technological advanced in structural

engineering, glues and fasteners is resulting
in taller and taller wood (often-hybrid)
buildings using CLT (Cross-Laminated
Timber).
Proposed 10-storey T3 Bayside, Office Complex, Toronto Proposed 62-meter-high CLT residential tower in
by Danish architecture firm 3XN Toronto by Chris Precht
https://www.inexhibit.com/case-studies/clt-goes-tall-high-rise-buildings- https://www.inexhibit.com/case-studies/clt-goes-tall-
in-cross-laminated-timber/ high-rise-buildings-in-cross-laminated-timber/
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1. What is Wood?
There are two principle

types of trees growing in
Canada today:
 Deciduous Trees
 Coniferous Trees
https://pixabay.com/photos/autumn-autumn-mood-colorful-2805650/

1. What is Wood?
Deciduous trees are those trees that lose Red Oak

their leaves in the fall, in a very colorful
display of yellows, oranges and reds.
Deciduous trees are also known as

hardwood trees, because their wood is
harder than those of conifers.
The wood from deciduous trees are most White Birch Tree
often used in furniture and other interior

millwork, rather than being used in
construction.
Sugar Maple
https://www.tentree.com/blogs/posts/10-awesome-trees-to-know-and-love-canada-edition
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1. What is Wood?
Below are examples of common Deciduous trees in Canada. The most common
hardwoods used in Canada are poplar, birch, maple and oak.
https://www.burlingtongreen.org/co http://expeditieaarde.blogspot.com/2014/11/the-
mponent/acymailing/listid-2/mailid- difference-between-deciduous-and.html
378-july-2019-eco-
news?tmpl=component&tmpl=comp
onent

1. What is Wood?
The following are examples of common deciduous wood grains:
Hickory Maple White Oak & Red Oak
Walnut Cherry White Ash
https://www.lanctotcsd.com/ca_en/blog/post/hardwood-varieties:-the-most-common
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1. What is Wood?
Coniferous trees (evergreens) are those trees
that have ‘needles’ for leaves, which generally do
not drop in the Fall. Hemlock
Coniferous trees have adapted to grow primarily

in cold northern climates.
Coniferous trees are known as softwood trees,

because their wood is soft compared to
Spruce
Deciduous trees.
The wood from coniferous trees are most often

used as lumber or veneer sheathing in
construction materials.
Eastern White Cedar

https://www.cbc.ca/kidscbc2/the-feed/trees-of-canada

1. What is Wood?
The majority of lumber used for construction

in eastern Canada is cut from softwood
trees such as (black) spruce, (jack) pine and
(balsam) fir (known as SPF) trees.
Timber buildings are most often constructed

of Douglas-fir and eastern white pine trees.
https://arbre.bensinan.com/bon-photos-silhouette-arbre-astuces/
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Construction Materials Made of Wood
https://www.ecohome.net/guides/2283/best-material-choices-for-wood-frame-
construction/#:~:text=CLS%20wood%20is%20an%20acronym,of%20Canada%20it%20came%20from.

There are five principal

wood construction
products manufactured
with trees:
a) Logs
b) Timber
c) Lumber
d) Veneer
e) Engineered Lumber
The ‘manufacturing
process’ for each will be
described in the following https://www.proremodeler.com/boise-cascade-engineered-wood
slides.
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a) Logs
https://www.homestratosphere.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/log-home-exterior-example2018-05-29-at-
11.00.19-AM-22.jpg

2. Construction Materials Made of Wood
a) Logs
The manufacturing process to

prepare logs for use in
construction is the simplest of the
five types of wood construction
products.
A tree is cut down, debranched,

cut to specific lengths,
transported to a work site, peeled
and then erected to form a log
structure.
https://www.namericanlogcrafters.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Log-Home-Front-
Porch.jpg
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a) Log Assembly
Assembling peeled logs to form

weather-tight log buildings requires
skills and knowledge of traditional
wood crafting techniques.
Various cultures throughout the world

have developed specific and regional
joinery details, each dependant on the
skills of the craftsperson and their
tools.
https://tweedyland.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/logstyles_crop.jpg

a) Logs
In the past, the space between logs was

filled with flexible materials such as
moss, grass or other natural fibres, and
a mixture of clay, mud, sand, lime, silt,
ash and just plain dirt!
https://www.dreamstime.com/photos-images/moss-caulking.html
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a) Log Assembly
Today, logs can be shaped to

minimize heat loss and air
infiltration, with gaps filled with
compressible insulation, caulking
or other insulators.
https://duncanwoodslogtimberhomes.com/products/milled-log-homes/

a) Log Assembly
This illustration
describes six types of
corner arrangements for
horizontal log
buildings…
https://houseunderconstruction.com/walls/how-build-log-cabin-inner-pleasure-process
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a) Log Assembly
Logs can also be installed vertically, not just

horizontally.
Vertical log construction is based the French-

Canadian technique called poteaux-sur-sol
(post-on-sill).
This style of log construction is very popular in

the northern parts of Canada.
http://logandtimberworks.com/services/canadiana-
vertical-log-cabins/

a) Log Assembly
Vertical log construction is less

costly than horizontal logs
construction, because there is less
work required to make logs fit
together at corners, so the building
is faster to assemble and there is
less waste.
http://logandtimberworks.com/services/canadiana-
vertical-log-cabins/
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Log Home Construction - Stacking Log Walls, Framing & Building Techniques

a) Log Assembly (SDT)
Using smaller trees and assembling

them into larger structural members
has also gained popularity in the past
decade.
Using Small Diameter Timber (SDT)

instead of larger logs that can take
decades and sometimes a century to
grow is seen as being better for the
environment.
http://www.reclamationadministration.com/2015/02/12/structural-products-
small-diameter-timbers-michaela-harms/
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a) Log Assembly
The smaller trees are removed from

forest to make room for larger trees and
reduces competition for natural
resources such as minerals, water and
sunlight. The process is called forest
‘thinning’.
In forestry, thinning is the selective removal of trees, primarily undertaken
to improve the growth rate or health of the remaining trees. Overcrowded
trees are under competitive stress from their neighbors. Thinning may be
done to increase the resistance of the stand to environmental stress such
as drought, insect infestation, extreme temperature, or wildfire.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thinning
https://www.archdaily.com/884875/agri-chapel-yu-momoeda-architecture-office

https://www.archdaily.com/884875/agri-chapel-yu-momoeda-architecture-office
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Atikameksheng Anishnawbek Fire Arbour, Lapointe Architects

Pictou Landing Health Center, NS, Richard Kroeker Design
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a) Logs
http://www.timberwolfhandcrafted.com/timber-cove-retreat/

b) Timber
Timbers are
large squared
lengths of wood
used for building
construction
https://www.naturallywood.com/resource/ubc-mass-timber-buildings/
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b) Timber
The manufacturing process

to convert trees into timber
for use in construction is
almost as simple as logs
construction, except that the
logs need to be sawn and
possibly planed and sanded
to a specified size.
https://i.pinimg.com/originals/53/fa/c7/53fac74ab88cbc51e72c70205b1e5a8f.jpg

b) Timber
Solid timber construction is used for

residential, commercial, educational, and
religious buildings, among others.
Commonly used species of wood:
Douglas fir, pine, spruce, oak, and hemlock
It is different from light wood-framed buildings:
Uses fewer, larger members

Fastening methods is also different and
they require more complex connection and
https://www.vermonttimberworks.com/blog/steel-connections-and-timber-frames/
fasteners.
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b) Timber
Traditional method of connecting heavy timber

structural members
Uses interlocking wood joints cut into wood

members
Finished joint demonstrates hand
craftsmanship and natural beauty of wood

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b) Timber
Heavy-timber construction is very

common in British Columbia, where
large Douglas-fir trees grow.
Kicking Horse Chalet, Golden BC, Lapointe Architects

b) Timber
But in the past few decades, the use of

heavy-timber in construction has gained
popularity in eastern Canada as
shipping costs have come down.
Caledon House, Lapointe Architects
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Timber framing VS stick or light wood framing

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Raising the Timber Frame Home

c) Light Wood Framing
Light wood framing is a

System of construction
made up of dimensional
lumber and engineered
wood. In this system of
construction many small
and closely spaced
members are assembled
together by nailing.
Caledon House, Lapointe Architects
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The wood used in light wood

framing must be cut into
specific lumber sizes and
planed and sanded in order
to be used in light-frame
construction.
https://i.pinimg.com/originals/53/fa/c7/53fac74ab88cbc51e72c70205b1e5a8f.jpg

Logs sawn into lumber are

cut to increments of 2” for
lumber, and 1” for planking.
https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/247838785724187473/?nic_v2=1a4qZaYXo
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9/17/2022

Once the lumber has been sawn

and sanded, it is ready for drying.
In order to be used for construction https://medium.com/@coalhut/kiln-dried-wood-

explained-87314e23ab3f
in Ontario, the OBC states that
lumber must contain no more than
19% moisture content.
9.3.2.5. Moisture Content

(1) Moisture content of lumber shall be not more than
19% at the time of installation.
https://www.lesprom.com/en/trade/Lumber_21/22_mm
_x_100_mm_x_4000_mm_GR_R_S_Spruce-Pine-
Fir_SPF_Lumber_7173/

If lumber is not dry enough, it can

crack and warp,
https://drywall101.com/en/articles/taping/screwpop
It can also contribute to the growth of
mold in wall assemblies,
And once the lumber does dry, it can

cause nails and screws to become
evident and ‘pop’, as the wood dries
and twists in the assemblies…
https://www.carolinatimberworks.com/why-do-timbers-
split-and-crack/
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9/17/2022

There are two ways to dry

lumber:
Lumber can be stacked in

https://palletenterprise.com/view_article
organized piles with strips of /4194/Do%E2%80%99s-and-
Don%E2%80%99ts-for-Drying-Lumber-
woods between to allow the and-Pallets
lumber to air dry outside…
https://journeymansjournel.wordpress.com/2016/10/23/air-dried-
vs-kiln-dried/

…or lumber can dried in a

kiln or in a vacuum chamber,
which is essential a large
oven with large fans…
https://www.britannica.com/science/wood-plant-tissue/Treatments
22
9/17/2022

Once the lumber has achieved the

required moisture content, it can be
shipped to the construction site.
With a few exceptions, light wood

framed buildings are essentially
assembled on site, with the lumber
cut to fit every condition.
https://theconstructor.org/building/wood-frame-construction/28347/

c) Wood framing construction system
Balloon framing
The balloon framing was the earliest

wood framing system that used full-
length studs that ran continuously for
two stories from foundation to roof.
 The tall, hollow spaces between studs

acted as multiple chimneys in a fire,
spreading the blaze rapidly to the
upper floors, unless they were closed
off with wood or brick fireblocking at
each floor line.
Course Required Textbook
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c) Wood framing construction system
Platform framing
“In this system, a floor platform is built.

Loadbearing walls are erected upon it. A
second-floor platform is built upon these
walls and a second set of walls upon
this platform. The attic and roof are then
built upon the second set of walls. “
https://www.flickr.com/photos/mitopenco
urseware/3048367956

As a student of architecture you will

need to know the name and
understand the purpose of many
wood framing members.
Note that the name of many

framing members are the
same/similar whether the
construction material is wood, steel
or concrete.
https://www.britannica.com/technology/light-frame-construction
24
9/17/2022

In this picture you see the

name of the principal
structural members that are
used in wood frame
structures.
https://br.pinterest.com/pin/319896379767407752/?amp_client_id=CLIE
NT_ID(_)&mweb_unauth_id={{default.session}}&simplified=true

Memorize the name and purpose of the

following structural members used in light-
wood framing (as shown on the previous
illustrations):
 Stud – small vertical post (usually 2x4 or
2x6) spaced 12”, 16” or 24” o/c that is
the main structure in a wood stud wall,
• Trimmer stud – slightly shorter stud, next to
opening and supports the header,
• King Stud – a full length stud placed beside
an opening
• Cripple Stud – short stud below and top of
opening
• Corner Studs Arrangement - a very specific
placement of 3 studs to form a corner and
allow for insulation
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Memorize the name and purpose of the

following structural members used in
light-wood framing (as shown on the
previous illustrations):
 Sill (or sole) Plate – located on top of
the foundation wall, and supports the https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/373798837795830975/
floor joists
 Top & Bottom Plates – studs rest on a
single bottom plate, and are topped
by a double plate
https://www.finehomebuilding.com/project-
guides/framing/anatomy-of-a-load-bearing-wood-
framed-wall

 Posts – 3 or more studs fastened together to
support a heavy load from a truss or beam
 Floor Joist – a narrow but relatively deep
horizontal structural member placed on edge,
used to support a floor and generally spaced at
12”, 16” or 24” o/c,
 Double joist – two joists fastened together
around openings in a floor or roof
 Rim Joist – a floor joists that is located at the
perimeter of a floor
 Header – 2 structural members fastened
together and placed over an opening, to act as
a lintel,
 Ceiling joist – a narrow but relatively deep
often horizontal structural member placed on
edge, used to support a ceiling load only, and
generally spaced at 12”, 16” or 24” o/c, https://www.pinterest.co.kr/pin/316800155040640870/
26
9/17/2022


 Common Rafter – a narrow but relatively deep
sloping structural member placed on edge, used to
support a roof load only, and generally spaced at
12”, 16” or 24” o/c,
 Ridge board – a narrow but relatively deep single
horizontal structural member placed on edge at the
peak of a roof and used to connect two roof rafters
together,
 Collar tie – a narrow but relatively deep horizontal
structural member placed on edge, used to connect
two roof rafters at approximately the mid-span of the
roof rafters, designed to prevent rafters from
pushing out at the bottom and reduce the span
of the rafters.

Wall Framing-Studs
Typically 2 X 4 stock
2 X 6 provide space for
additional insulation
Generally spaced 16 in. on
center
Load-carrying capacity of a
wall and size of its studs
determine spacing used.
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Ceiling Joists
Supported on exterior walls
and load-bearing interior
partitions
Carry finish ceiling materials
and insulation
If subject to other loads,
architect will size them
accordingly.
May be trimmed to follow
rafter shape

d) Veneers
https://wisewoodveneer.com/learning-center/what-is-wood-veneer/
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d) Veneers
Veneers are thin slices of wood

cut directly from a log.
http://mespina.ir/how-plywood-is-made/
Veneers can be glued to other

cheaper wood to make it appear
better (i.e. walnut veneer glued to
spruce plywood).
https://www.bairdbrothers.com/b34-Walnutb-Cabinet-
Grade-Plywood-7-ply-b48-12-x-96-12b-sheet-size-
bG2Sb-P4004.aspx

d) Veneers
The majority of veneers are

glued together to form a sheet of
plywood.
Each layer of veneer in plywood

is laid perpendicular to the
previous one, to create a strong
and solid sheet of wood, that is
resistant to cracking, warping or
shrinking.
https://www.rona.ca/en/plywood-birch-c2-18-mm-x-48-x-96-51206858
29
9/17/2022

d) Veneers
There are several ways to cut wood veneer, each resulting in a

different style of wood grain…
https://heitink.us/learn-about-wood-veneer/

d) Veneers
In construction, softwood
plywood is mainly used as
sheathing for floors, walls
and roofs… Roof
joists
Wall sheathing
https://www.nachi.org/osb-plywood.htm
https://www.hometips.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/house-
framing-platform.gif
30
9/17/2022

e) Engineered Lumber
https://www.apawood.org/structural-composite-lumber

d) Engineered Lumber
As explained before,
beams and sheathing are
made of various types of
engineered wood
products…
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281452250_Wood-Based_Composite_Materials-Panel_Products_Glued-
Laminated_Timber_Structural_Composite_Lumber_and_Wood-Nonwood_Composite_Materials
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Engineered woods are manufactured

by binding together wood veneers,
strands, particles or fibres with
adhesives.
The wood material used is often

https://resource.co/article/fire-prevention-
waste product from the lumber becoming-business-prevention-wood-recycling-
industry-11339
process (wood chips and sawdust).
https://www.cdrecycler.com/article/recycled-wood-
composite-strength/

There are several types of engineered

lumber products:
 Oriented Strand Board (OSB),
 Particle Board,
 Medium Density Fiberboard (MDF),
 Parallel Strand (PSL),
 Laminated Strand (LSL),
 Finger jointed,
 Glue-laminated timber,
 Cross Laminated,
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 Oriented Strand Board (OSB),
OSB is a wood structural panel that is

manufactured from thin rectangular
‘chips’ of wood that are pressed
https://www.redbuilt.com/products/i-
together with moisture resistant glue. joists/
OSB is primarily used as a sheathing

materials for floors, walls and roofs,
but is also becoming more common in
the webs of engineered joists.
https://www.homedepot.com/p/1-2-4-ft-
x-8-ft-Oriented-Strand-Board-
660663/100072564

 Particle Board
Particle board is manufactured from

wood chips, sawmill shavings and
sawdust and a synthetic resin or glue,
Particle board is primarily used in

furniture and millwork and is often
covered with wood veneer or melamine.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_board#/media/File:Particleboard.jpg
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9/17/2022

 Medium (and Hard) Density Fiberboard
(MDF & HDF),
MDF & HDF are wood panels manufactured

from sawdust and small wood shavings that
are mixed with resin and wax, compressed
under high heat and pressure, then sanded
to form a flat stable panel.
MDF can be made to be water and/or fire

resistant, is easy to paint, and is primarily
used in furniture, millwork and trim.
http://bylumberimport.com/en/mdf-hdf/fiberboard-
hdf.html

 Parallel Strand Lumber
(PSL),
Parallel Strand lumber is

manufactured with long wood
veneer strands laid parallel to
each other with glue as a binder.
PSLs are very strong and

therefore are used primarily to
create small and large structural
members such as posts joists
and beams. https://www.fastepp.com/concept-
lab/material/parallel-strand-lumber-psl/
34
9/17/2022

https://www.fastepp.com/concept-
lab/material/parallel-strand-lumber-psl-6/

 Laminated Strand Lumber (LSL),
Laminated Strand Lumber are

manufactured with flaked wood strands
that have a high length-to-thickness ratio.
The strands are organized together into a
large mat and glued together under
pressure.
LSLs are very strong and therefore are

used primarily to create small and large
structural members such as studs, rim https://www.techsupport.weyerhaeuser.com/hc/en-us/articles/204692344-TimberStrand-LSL-
joists, beams, headers and some millwork.
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9/17/2022

 Finger-Jointed wood,
Finger-Joints are used to join small pieces

of wood together with glue to make larger/
longer pieces of wood. This makes use of
wood that would otherwise be too small to https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/file
be useful. s/forest/Finger_joined_750.jpg
Finger-Jointed wood is used for wall

studs, in glue-laminated beams and for
trim and moulding.
https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/file
s/forest/Finger_joined_750.jpg

 Glue-laminated Timber,
Glue-laminated Timber are large pieces

of wood glued together in parallel to
make even larger beams and columns.
Glue-laminated timbers have been in
used since the 1960’s and have the http://buildipedia.com/knowledgebase/division-06-
wood-plastics-and-composites/06-10-00-rough-
advantage of being able to be formed carpentry/06-18-00-glue-laminated-construction/06-18-
00-glue-laminated-construction
into various curved forms if so desired.
Glue-Laminated timber is used

primarily to manufacture large spans
beams and arches.
https://a3511.wordpress.com/2018/10/10/glulam-a-
new-twist-to-traditional-wood-construction/
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Glulam Assembly

 Cross-laminated Timber (CLT),
Cross-laminated Timber are large pieces

of wood glued together in perpendicular
layers (similar to plywood) to create larger
beams, columns and walls, floor and roof
https://www.woodworks.org/experttip/designing-cross-
panels. laminated-timber-clt-panels-gravity-load-applications-
floor-roof-panels-use-clt-layups-defined-ansi-prg-320-
standard-basis-design/
Cross-laminated timbers is a recent
innovation in wood products and is fast
becoming popular due to its relatively low
cost, high strength and the ability to speed
up the erection of buildings.
https://buildingresiliencecoalition.org/making-the-
cut-is-cross-laminated-timber-safe/
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9/17/2022

 Cross-laminated Timber (CLT),
Cross-laminated Timber buildings are being

engineered taller and taller, especially when
combined with a concrete stair and elevator
core.
Recently, concerns about the potential for the

product to delaminate (get unglued) due to
excessive shear forces (such as experienced
by floor panels) has raised concerns about the
products durability, as well as how the product
will react in a real-world fire.
https://buildingresiliencecoalition.org/making-the-cut-is-
cross-laminated-timber-safe/
https://www.dezeen.com/2019/03/19/mjostarne-
worlds-tallest-timber-tower-voll-arkitekter-norway/

CLT is used for surfaces such as walls, floors, and floor separation.
Glulam is primarily used for the loadbearing frame in a building such as
rafters, beams, or columns.
https://www.researchgate.net/post/What-are-the-advantages-of-cross-laminated-timber-compared-to-glulam-and-solid-wood
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10 story CLT building in London, UK
Sloped building roof– Wood as the main structural elements
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Roof – Structure – Roof Rafters
Roofs rafters are small to

medium-sized pieces of lumber
that are spaced closely together
to support a roof load only (not a
ceiling load).
Roof rafters are rarely used as

the principle roof support system
in a house today, but are
commonly used as a secondary
or minor roof support system,
primarily for dormers and porch https://www.britannica.com/technology/light-frame-construction
roofs.
Roof – Structure – Roof Rafters
Roofs rafters must be

used together with other
roof structural members,
including collar ties, ridge
joist or ridge beams,
ceiling joists, outriggers,
and fascia boards.
https://www.britannica.com/technology/light-frame-construction
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5. Roof – Structure – Roof Joists
While rafters support only the

weight of the roof and the live
loads, roof joists support
the weight of the roof, the
live load and the ceiling.
A roof joist can be either flat

or sloped.
Roof
Roof joists can be constructed joists
from lumber or engineered
lumber and are now more
common in new houses than
roof rafters are.
Arts and Craft House, Lapointe Architects
Roof – Structure – Roof Joists
The red arrow indicates

roof joists, which are
supported by the timber
truss.
Springwater House, Lapointe Architects
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5. Roof – Structure – Roof Joists
This house includes engineered

wood roof joists (red arrow)
supported on a frame of structural
steel beams and columns.
This house has flat roofs, so the

roof joists are also flat.
As in the previous examples, there

is no attic between the ceiling and
the roof.
Blythdale House, Lapointe Architects
Roof – Structure - Trusses
Gang-nail plate
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Truss-gang-nail-
plate-with-single_60801086978.html
The majority of roofs for houses

in Canada are constructed with
pre-engineered wood roof
trusses, assembled with ‘gang-
nail’ metal plates, and sloping
from ridge to eave.
Skiff Cove House, Lapointe Architects
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The advantages of using a pre-

engineered roof trusses are many,
including the following:
• smaller dimensional lumber is
used, saving money on
materials,
• longer spans can be achieved
than with regular lumber only,
• trusses are generally pre-
manufactured, resulting in a
speedier erection of the roof
structure, also saving money.
https://unhappyhipsters.com/types-of-trusses/
The disadvantages of using a pre-

engineered roof trusses are few but
can sometimes matter greatly. The
disadvantages include:
• large trusses are difficult to
transport to remote communities,
• cranes are usually required to
raise the trusses,
• and most importantly, the attic
space becomes largely unusable
due to the web members spacing.
https://rmuk.co.uk/different-types-of-roof-trusses/truss-delivery/
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As students of architecture you must be able to identify and describe the

highlighted roof truss components by the end of Semester One.
https://i.pinimg.com/originals/66/70/c2/6670c2ae512ada2bf26a201f6eccd7e7.gif
Roof trusses come in many

shapes. As a matter of fact, there
is no limit to the shape of a roof
truss, other than its cost, and the
ability to ship it to a site.
There are several basic common
shapes of trusses used by the
design and construction industry,
illustrated on the right.
https://www.diydoctor.org.uk/projects/roof_trusses.htm
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On the right are additional,

more complex roof trusses
that are less common than
those shown in the previous
illustration.
https://www.diydoctor.org.uk/projects/roof_trusses.htm
https://www.bestwaytoframe.com/sites/default/files/uploads/a
ttachments/node/15622/truss_config_flyer.pdf
45
9/17/2022
Parallel chord trusses are

composed of an upper and
lower chord member that
are parallel to each other.
This type of truss can be
used for cathedral ceilings,
flat roofs and floors.
The web members are
sometimes made of metal.
https://www.bestwaytoframe.com/sites/default/files/uploads/a
ttachments/node/15622/truss_config_flyer.pdf
Production of wooden truss structure
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Thank You!
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Joists, Beams, Lintels & Trusses
Module outlines:
Unit 3 :Wood Buildings 1. The difference between Joists, Beams, Truss and Lintels
2. Joists – Definition and Types of joists,
Beam, Joist , Truss and 3. Beams - Definition and Types of beams,
Lintel 4. Lintels - Definition and Types of lintels.
5. Trusses- Definition and Types of Trusses
6. 6. Sizing lumber framing members,
7. Sizing steel beams and lintels.
Revised September 2021
Joists, Beams, Lintels & Trusses Joists, Beams, Lintels & Trusses
1. The differences between joists, beams and lintels 1. The differences between joists, beams and lintels
 Joists are a series of closely spaced  Lintels are small structural elements that
structural element that supports a small support the weight of a wall above an
intermediate load from a floor, ceiling or opening such as a door or window.
roof.
 Beams are large widely-spaced structural

elements that supports a series of smaller https://www.flickr.com/photos/40295335@N00/with/8352770444/
structural elements like joists and
columns,
 Lintels are small structural elements that

support the weight of a wall above an
opening such as a door or window.
https://www.woodaware.com/construction-products/pictorial-guide
https://www.pinterest.fr/pin/352195633343700010/
9/30/2021
1. Definition of Joists, Beams, Lintels & Trusses 1. Definition of Joists, Beams, Lintels & Trusses
Engineered
Floor Joist
Engineered Beam
https://www.rona.ca/en/workshop/guides/wall-ceiling-structural-materials
2. Joists 2. Joists
There are several types of structural joists:

A joist is a structural element that supports a
small intermediate load.
 A floor joist – supports a floor, and is almost always flat, except at ramps.
 A joist is smaller than the beam that
 A roof joist – supports the load on a roof and a ceiling and can be sloped
supports it,
Floor or flat.
 A joist typically supports a limited vertical joists
https://selfbuild.ie/advice/how-much-will-your-floors-cost/  A ceiling joist – can be flat or sloped, and supports the weight of the ceiling
load, and should be restrained from
but not a floor, such as an non-accessible attic.
twisting at the ends by providing strapping,
bridging and/or blocking,
 A rafter – is typically sloped, and supports the load from a roof only.
Rafters are used in combination with ceiling joists and collar ties.
 A collar tie – provides intermediate support between rafters and improves

their strength.
9/30/2021
2. Joists 2. Joists
Joists can be composed of

This image describes several types of materials and
some of those wood shapes including:
framing members…
 Lumber joist
Roof https://pacific-homes.com/2017/06/29/a-
joists  Engineered Lumber joist guide-to-choosing-your-floor-framing-system/
 Open Wood Web Joist
 Open Metal Web Joist
 Steel joist
https://www.buildwithbmc.com/bmc/Trusses-I-
https://www.cecobuildings.com/blog/the-
Joists-Engineered-Lumber/I-Joists-
advantages-of-a-long-bay-roof-system/
Rimboards/Trus-Joist-TJI-Joist-
https://www.hometips.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/house-framing-platform.gif 110/p/TJI11016
2. Joists 2. Joists
Types of Joists include (cont.):

Types of Joists include:
 Engineered Lumber joists –
 Lumber joist – lumber is cut from various types of lumber,
a tree into various sizes, typical plywood and engineered
2x2, 2x3, 2x4, 2x6, 2x8, 2x10 and sheathing are combined
2x12. Only 2x6 to 2x12 are used together to create economical Nordic I-Joists - Top and bottom chords are made of lumber, while the web is
OSB (Oriented Strandboard)
as joists. and/or stronger joists. https://coastalforestproducts.com/engineered-wood-products/nordic-i-joists/
 the wood used to make

engineered lumber
includes simple lumber to
flakes of wood…
TJI floor joists – top and bottom chords are made of laminated layers of plywood, while web is OSB
https://www.fp-supply.com/st-louis-trusjoist-tji-i-joists.html
https://i.redd.it/vs16ocyos8r21.jpg https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/247838785724187473/?nic_v2
=1a4qZaYXo
9/30/2021
2. Joists 2. Joists
Types of Joists include

(cont.):
Types of Joists include (cont.):
 Open Metal Web Joist –
 Open Wood Web Joists – are are made from both
assembled from various sizes lumber or engineered
of lumber and joined together lumber and galvanized
with complex glued joints. steel braces used to join
the upper and lower
chords.
https://prospanewp.com/open-web-joists
https://www.merronbrook.co.uk/products-and-services/floor-joists/
2. Joists 2. Joists
Types of Joists include

(cont.):
 Steel joists – are made Strapping, Bridging and

from thin galvanized steel Blocking
sheets and rolled and/or
bent into shapes similar to Joist should be restrained
a lumber joist. from twisting at the ends by
providing strapping, bridging
and/or blocking,
https://www.ispansystems.com/projects/haven/
https://www.diychatroom.com/threads/joist-bracing-blocking-qs.81493/
9/30/2021
2. Joists 2. Joists
Strapping
Strapping is the process of

installing wood (or, in
advanced installations,
another material)
perpendicular to the joists.
The strapping serves as the
nailing surface for the
drywall.
https://www.jlconline.com/how-to/framing/strapping-ceilings_o
2. Joists 2. Joists
Bridging
Solid Blocking/Bridging
Rows of cross-bridging
between the floor joists that A solid member placed
helps prevent joists from between adjacent floor joists
twisting when they're loaded. near the center of the span to
It also helps to make sure prevent joists or rafters from
concentrated loads are twisting.
shared between multiple
joists
https://i.pinimg.com/originals/7f/3c/5d/7f3c5d8a4ec551b77ba33614cfbc6a75.jpg
http://alohonyai.blogspot.com/2018/04/geometry-of-joist-bridging.html https://www.completedesign.cc/client-resources/dictionary-of-construction-terminology/666-solid-bridging
9/30/2021
3. Beams 3. Beams
 A beam is almost always larger than the

joists that it supports,
 A beam can be supported by columns or

piers, part of a loadbearing wall, or
another beam.
 A beam is typically (but not always)

composed of one to five structural
elements.
https://constructionmentor.net/wood-beams/#jp-carousel-2725 https://www.woodaware.com/construction-products/pictorial-guide
Wood
Beam
Floor
Joist
3. Beams 3. Beams
There are several types of beam

designs, including:
There are several types of
beam designs, including:  A dropped beam – the joists sit on
top of the beam, resulting in a
 Dropped beam,
‘bump’ below the ceiling, i.e. the
beam is visible. https://scottmcgillivray.com/frame-around-ductwork-5-easy-steps/
 Flush beam,
 Joists can be simply nailed or
 Cantilevered beam.
screwed to the beam ( or wood
plate), therefore do not require joist
hangers.
https://plasticinehouse.com/deck-beam-spacing/
https://www.finehomebuilding.com/2015/07/14/how-to-install-a-load-bearing-beam
9/30/2021
3. Beams 3. Beams
There are several types of beam designs,

There are several types of beam designs, including:
including:
 A flush beam – joists frame into the side
 A dropped beam can be left exposed of the beam, generally concealing the
or can be concealed in drywall. beam within the joist cavity.
Engineered joists framing into the side of a wood beam
https://www.anthonyforest.com/ewp/power-beam.shtml
Engineered joists framing into the side of a steel beam

https://www.contractortalk.com/threads/sides-of-dropped-beam-as-raceway-in-crawlspace.95388/ https://www.finehomebuilding.com/2018/10/10/houses-by-design-beams-on-a-budget https://www.finehomebuilding.com/2020/04/08/steel-with-wood-framing
https://plasticinehouse.com/deck-beam-spacing/
3. Beams 3. Beams
A flush beam – the joists are most

often supported by a metal joist
There are several types of beam designs,
hanger, nailed to a wood beam or top
including:
plate, or welded to a steel beam.
https://civilmint.com/cantilever-beam/
 A cantilevered beam – a portion of a
beam that extends beyond its support.
 Cantilevers can help counter the load on

a beam on the opposite side of the
support.
Cantilevered
Beam
https://www.leevalley.com/en-gb/shop/hardware/outdoor- https://civilmint.com/cantilever-beam/
hardware/structures/102291-ozco-joist-hangers-for-outdoor- https://www.openjoisttriforce.com/wood-to-steel-connections-making-sure-its-done-
right/
structures?item=01S1848
9/30/2021
3. Beams- Types of Cantilevers 3. Beams
Beams can be composed of several types of materials and shapes including:
 Built-up Lumber beam,
 Timber (solid lumber) or log beam,
 Box-beam,
 Engineered Wood beam
(Structural Composite Lumber)-SCL
 Glue-laminated beam,
 Flitch beam,
https://3dwarehouse.sketchup.com/model/6a9a2b62-ffd8-4054-92c9-2b93e5ee98f8/Beam-Types
 Steel Beam.
https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/STEAM-Cantilever-Activity-Powerpoint-3629189
3. Beams 3. Beams
Types of Beams include:
 Built-up Lumber beam – three to five  Built-up Lumber beam – the

ply’s of lumber are glued and/ or location of the joints in a built-up
screwed together to create a bigger wood beam are very specific, and
stronger beam. https://www.renovation-headquarters.com/lumber-2.html
are described in the Ontario
Building Code, sentence 9.23.8.3.
https://weare49north.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/49North-Building-Solutions-Built-Up-Wood-Beams-Information-Sheet.pdf
https://www.countryplans.com/builtupbeam.html
9/30/2021
3. Beams 3. Beams
Types of Beams include: Types of Beams include:
 Timber (solid lumber) or log  Box beam – a beam composed of

beam – a large single piece of solid wood upper and lower chords
rectangular or cylindrical (log) sandwiched between several layers https://constructionmentor.net/wood-
beam, used in its full dimension. of plywood or thin wood, beams/#jp-carousel-2725
 Box-beams can span large distance

compared to their dead weight,
 Box-beams were popular in the

1960s-1970’s, and are used today
mostly in decorated locations.
Kicking Horse Chalet, Lapointe Architects https://www.wooduniversity.org/glossary
3. Beams 3. Beams
Types of Beams include: Types of Beams include:
 Engineered Wood beam (Structural Composite  Engineered Wood beam (Structural Composite
Lumber (SCL)– various forms of wood veneer, Lumber (SCL)–
chips and strands are bonded together with
Laminated Strand Lumber (LSL) Laminated Strand Lumber (LSL)
moisture resistant adhesives to create a larger https://cwc.ca/how-to-build-with-wood/wood-  They have many advantages over sawn https://cwc.ca/how-to-build-with-wood/wood-
stronger structural member. products/structural-composite/laminate-
veneer-lumber/
conventional lumber including higher products/structural-composite/laminate-
veneer-lumber/
strengths, dimensional stability, and resistant
to moisture.
Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) Parallel Strand Lumber (PSL) Parallel Strand Lumber (PSL)
https://www.barrenjoeytimber.com.au/laminated- https://cwc.ca/how-to-build-with-wood/wood- https://cwc.ca/how-to-build-with-wood/wood-
veneer-lumber products/structural-composite/parallel-strand-lumber/ products/structural-composite/parallel-strand-lumber/
9/30/2021
Wood KERTO® laminated veneer lumber (LVL) – Production Process

Laminated Strand Lumber Factory Tour
3. Beams 3. Beams
 Glue-laminated beam (Glulam) – several pieces of

engineered lumber are glued, screwed or bolted
together to create a larger stronger structural
 Flitch beam – steel plates are
member. https://constructionmentor.net/wood-
beams/#jp-carousel-2725 bolted between pieces of wood,
which combined are stronger
than a wood beam only, but
lighter than a steel beam.
 This type of beams can be

used where timber or lumber
alone can not support the
span. https://soa.utexas.edu/headlines/flitch-beam
http://howtobuildahouseblog.com/wp- http://www.uslumber.com/MainSite/Store1/StoreCategoryProductList/Product
content/uploads/2012/08/Laminated-Wood- List/1654
Beam.jpg
9/30/2021
3. Beams 3. Beams
 Steel Beam – a beam composed

of steel and rolled or welded into
shape.
 For residential construction, steel

beams are most often used in
basements
http://studio-tm.com/constructionblog/?cat=224
https://www.pinterest.se/pin/405816616425421836/ https://www.reddit.com/r/Carpentry/comments/ntqnq1/uneven_floors_4_years_aft
er_flitch_beam_installed/
4. Trusses 4. Trusses
The majority of wood trusses are

light roof trusses of nominal 2-inch
(38-mm) lumber joined by toothed
plates.
For larger buildings, however, heavy

timber trusses may be used. Their https://www.zeelandlumber.com/most-common-types-of-roof-trusses/
joints are made with steel bolts or
pins and welded steel plate
connectors, split-ring connectors, or
other proprietary connection
hardware.
https://www.timber-technologies.com/wood-products/titan-truss/
9/30/2021
Sawn, laminated, and structural

composite timbers may be used,
sometimes in combination with steel
members.
Many shapes of truss are possible,

and spans of more than 100 feet
(30 m) are easily achieved.
https://www.redbuilt.com/products/open-web-trusses/
https://www.timber-technologies.com/wood-products/titan-truss/
Wood Trusses are usually engineered by the truss manufacturer’s engineer,

meeting all OBC structural loading requirements.
Steel Rods
Extracted from Course Textbook- Fundamental of Building Construction

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/66/70/c2/6670c2ae512ada2bf26a201f6eccd7e7.gif
Center Splice
9/30/2021
Roof trusses come in many

shapes and there is no limit
to the shape of a roof truss, On the right are several
other than its cost, and the other roof truss types,
ability to ship it to a site. confirming that just about
any shape is possible…
There are several basic
common shapes of trusses
used by the design and
construction industry,
illustrated on the right.
https://www.bestwaytoframe.com/sites/default/files/uploads/attachmen
https://www.diydoctor.org.uk/projects/roof_trusses.htm ts/node/15622/truss_config_flyer.pdf
4. Trusses 4. Trusses (Span to Depth Ratio)
Factors affecting span to depth

Parallel chord trusses are ratio of wood trusses:
composed of an upper and
lower chord member that 1- Live loads
are parallel to each 2- Dead loads
other.
3- Types of material and size of
This type of truss can be the compressive and tensile
used for cathedral members
ceilings, flat roofs and
floors. 4- Type of connections
The web members are 5- Environmental loads

sometimes made of metal. https://www.bestwaytoframe.com/sites/default/files/uploads/attachmen
https://www.archdaily.com/804403/university-of-british-columbia-
engineering-student-centre-urban-arts-architecture
ts/node/15622/truss_config_flyer.pdf
9/30/2021
How long a load

is expected to act
on a structure
4. Trusses (Span to Depth Ratio) 4. Trusses (Span to Depth Ratio)
For wood trusses consisting of dimensional lumbers:

The most economical flat truss for a roof is provided when the
depth of the truss is 7% of its span.. This number can decrease
up to 5% in composite trusses.
Wood Roof Truss Span Tables - Cascade Manufacturing ...

http://www.cascade-mfg-co.com ›
Production of wooden truss structure Joists, Beams, Lintels & Trusses

5. Lintels
http://www.kbcabinetmaking.com.au/unit6_installation_re
quirements/section2_construction_features/lesson2_exte
rnal_walls.htm#nogo
9/30/2021
5. Lintels 5. Lintels
A lintel is a structural element that supports a Types of Lintels include:

vertical load over a window, a door or other
opening.  Timber Lintel,
 A lintel is often the smallest of the three types of  Lumber Lintel,

horizontal structural elements
 Steel Lintel,
 A wood lintel is typically (but not always) composed of
one to two structural elements, whereas a wood beam is
typically composed of 3 to 5 ply’s of wood lumber.  Masonry Lintel.
 A lintel can also be composed of a stone or brick arch, or

a steel angle,
 A wood lintel is typically supported by columns, which

are typically composed of two or three wood studs, while https://futurebuild.co.nz/products/hy90/
masonry and steel lintels are supported by adjoining https://definecivil.com/lintel-beam/
masonry.
LVL Lintel
Types of Lintels include:
 Timber Lintel – rarely used today and Types of Lintels include:

most often found in older masonry
buildings,  Lumber Lintel – a lumber lintel for a
wood framed building is typically
 Timber lintels are also used in new constructed of 2 plies of lumber placed
timber buildings, but may be hard to on its edge. (3 or more plies of lumber
distinguish from a timber beam… are considered a beam in the OBC).
http://www.kbcabinetmaking.com.au/unit6_installation_re
quirements/section2_construction_features/lesson2_exte
rnal_walls.htm#nogo
https://dailycivil.com/what-is-lintel-types-of-lintels-and-uses-in-building/
9/30/2021

 Masonry Lintels/ arches – ‘real’ loadbearing
 Steel Lintel – a primed or masonry arches are rarely used today
galvanized ‘L’ shaped flat, curved except in historic buildings. Instead steel
or angle steel used to support lintels are used to transfer loads to
the weight of masonry over a adjoining walls.
window or door opening.
 Understanding the types of masonry arches
is important to be able to understand
historic architectural styles…
https://www.stressline.net/steel-lintel-types-an-overview/
http://books-for-brickwork.blogspot.com/2011/07/pitmans-
volume-14-segmental-arch.html
Lateral Force Resistance and Shear Walls Lateral Force Resistance and Shear Walls
“In light wood frame building, To resist

A shear wall is a wall that counteracts the overturning, hold-downs are installed to
effects of lateral loads such as wind and prevent the structure from lifting off the
earthquakes. foundation.”
The lateral force resisting system of the
building must resist sliding, overturning, and
wracking.
In wood frame building, you must add the

required building component to ensure the
building can resist lateral forces..
Extracted from Course Text Book– Fundamental of Building Construction- P182

9/30/2021
“A wall without sheathing or bracing

has no useful resistance to
wracking. Because the nailed
connections between studs and
plates are flexible, the wall can
easily deform. In areas of high wind
force or earthquake risk, plywood or
OSB sheathing panels tightly nailed
to the framing create shear walls
and provide the necessary rigidity.”
https://www.bmp-group.com/products/steel-framing-accessories/wind-brace
Diagonal
Steel Bracing
https://mitek.ca/products/hardy-frame/ Extracted from Course Text Book– Fundamental of Building Construction- P186
9/30/2021
Thank you
Examples- Innovation in wood buildings
Innovation in wood buildings Innovation in wood buildings

Clamart Sport Centre- France Clamart Sport Centre- France
Clamart Sports Center is made  The technical solution

out of sustainable wood, tucked linked the façade and
under a giant green roof. roof together in a
continuous structure.
Designed by Gaetan Le Penhuel
Architecture, the building houses  unusual dimensions and
four schools and a huge curved wide opening in the
wooden shell supported by roof for the track and
structurally efficient laminated field area
wooden beams.
 very few pieces of
The shape of the building follows wood used were
the curves of the landscape and identical.
the Surface area is130 m x 40 m =
approx. 5,200 m²  Complex geometry and
https://archello.com/story/60132/attachments/photos-videos/1 double curved in
certain area of the roof https://www.cadwork.com/cwen/Projects/Spotscenter_Clamart
9/30/2021

 This material choice enabled

 Laminated Wood Lumber greater architectural liberty,
(LVL) used in this building allowing wide spans, and
optimising the wooden
 All the design process was structure itself.
done in 3D, which was
necessary due to the complex  The form of the beams in turn
shape of the building (taking enabled optimising the
3,000 hours of design work material as much as possible
and producing the 4,000 and also limited waste due
construction drawings) to precise cutting.
 The innovative use of Kerto®  The stability of the building
LVL enabled the widest was achieved by a grillage
possible freedom of curvature frame structure made of LVL
to support the architectural beams. https://www.cadwork.com/cwen/Projects/Spotscenter_Clamart
vision of the complex. https://www.cadwork.com/cwen/Projects/Spotscenter_Clamart

 The structure transfers the Clamart Sports Center is

loads from roofing, while made out of sustainable
delivering the desired wood, tucked under a
architectural form. giant green roof.
 Certain areas in the structure

were reinforced in order to
optimize the cross sections Designed by Gaetan Le
and reduce the material cost Penhuel Architecture, the
of the diagonals. building houses four
schools under a lush field
 The hollow cavity of the and a huge curved
beams was used to hide most wooden shell supported
of the steel plates and by structurally
embedded metal fasteners efficient laminated
such as brackets, bolts and wooden beams.
https://www.cadwork.com/cwen/Projects/Spotscenter_Clamart
dowels. https://www.cadwork.com/cwen/Projects/Spotscenter_Clamart
9/30/2021

Clamart Sports Center is Clamart Sports Center is

made out of sustainable made out of sustainable
wood, tucked under a wood, tucked under a
giant green roof. giant green roof.
Designed by Gaetan Le Designed by Gaetan Le

Penhuel Architecture, the Penhuel Architecture, the
building houses four building houses four
schools under a lush field schools under a lush field
and a huge curved and a huge curved
wooden shell supported wooden shell supported
by structurally by structurally
efficient laminated efficient laminated
wooden beams. wooden beams.
https://www.cadwork.com/cwen/Projects/Spotscenter_Clamart https://www.cadwork.com/cwen/Projects/Spotscenter_Clamart
‫ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻧﯽ‬Indu
‫‪9/30/2021‬‬
‫‪Indu‬ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻧﯽ‬ ‫‪Indu‬ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻧﯽ‬

‫‪9/30/2021‬‬
‫‪Indu‬ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﺳﺎﺧﺘﻤﺎﻧﯽ‬ ‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻭ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﻫﺎی ﻣﻬﺎﺭ ﺑﻨﺪی‬

‫‪9/30/2021‬‬
‫ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻭ ﺳﻴﺴﺘﻢ ﻫﺎی ﻣﻬﺎﺭ ﺑﻨﺪی‬
‫‪Thank you‬‬
2021-09-30

Sizing lumber framing members
A. OBC Span Tables:
For small buildings designed under Part 9 of the OBC (Ontario Building Code), the
minimum sizes of joists, beams and lintels are described in SubsectionPad
9.23.8.
Beams to Support Floors, 9.23.9. Floor Joists and Article 9.23.112.3. Lintel
footingspans
Unit 4: Sizing lumber framing members and Sizes.
The OBC also includes dozens of span tables for various structural members at the
Maziar Asefi (PhD, March, PMP, MRAIC) end of Part 9, titled Table A-1 to Table A-37.
You will need to familiarized themselves with these tables and must be able to
answers questions using the span tables.
https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332
Sizing lumber framing members Sizing lumber framing members
A. Additional OBC information:
In order to properly lumber framing members for a wood–framed building

under Part 9 of the OBC, you will need to ensure the building does not
exceed the following limitations:
Section 9.23. Wood Frame Construction

9.23.1. Application
9.23.1.1. Limitations
(1) This Section applies where wall, floor and roof planes are generally comprised of
lumber frames of small repetitive structural members, or engineered components, and
where,
(a) roof and wall planes are clad, sheathed or braced on at least one side,
(b) the small repetitive structural members are spaced not more than 610 mm o.c.,
(c) the walls do not serve as foundations,
(d) the specified live load on supported subfloors and floor framing does not exceed 2.4
kPa, and
(e) the span of any structural member does not exceed 12.20 m.
(2) Where the conditions in Sentence (1) are exceeded for wood construction, the design of
the framing and fastening shall conform to Subsection 4.3.1. Housing and Small Building- Illustrated Guide
OBC 2012, 9.23.1.1. sourced at https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332
(Orderline.com)
2021-09-30
A. Additional OBC information A. Additional OBC information
Additionally, Part 9 of the OBC states that the Span Tables at the end of Finally, Article 9.23.4.2. states that spans for joists, rafters and beams can
Part 9 can only be used for residential spaces, or the specified live loads do be determined from specific Span Tables at the end of Part 9:
not exceed the live loads for residential spaces:
9.23.4. Maximum Spans 9.23.4.2. Spans for Joists, Rafters and Beams
9.23.4.1. Application (1) Except as required in Sentence (2) and Article 9.23.13.10., the spans for wood joists and
(1) Spans provided in this Subsection for joists, beams and lintels supporting floors shall apply rafters shall conform to the spans shown in Tables A-1 to A-7 for the uniform live loads shown in the
only where,
Tables.
(a) the floors serve residential areas as described in Table 4.1.5.3., or (2) Spans for floor joists that are not selected from Tables A-1 and A-2 and that are required
(b) the uniformly distributed live load on the floors does not exceed that specified for residential to be designed for the same loading conditions, shall not exceed the design requirements for uniform
areas as described in Table 4.1.5.3.
loading and vibration criteria.
(2) Spans for joists, beams and lintels supporting floors shall be determined according to
Subsection 4.1.3. where the supported floors, (3) Spans for built-up wood and glued-laminated timber floor beams shall conform to the
(a) serve other than residential areas, or spans in Tables A-8 to A-11.
(b) support a uniform live load in excess of that specified for residential areas. (4) Spans for roof ridge beams shall conform to the spans in Table A-12 for the uniform snow
load shown.
OBC 2012, 9.23.1.1. sourced at https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332 OBC 2012, 9.23.1.1. sourced at https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332

Sizing lumber framing members Clear Joist Span
The distance from the sill plate to the face of beam (The length of the joists
without any direct support).
B. Sizing Floor Joists

2021-09-30

Clear Joist Span Sizing lumber framing members
B. Sizing Floor Joists:
In order to better
understand these
sample exercises,
please refer to Table
A1 in Part 9 of the
Ontario Building
Code.
Note the following:

 Types of wood
 Wood Grade,
 Joist size,
 Strapping/ bridging
Table A-1, OBC 2012,. sourced at https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332
B. Sizing Floor Joists – B. Sizing Floor Joists –

Sample Question 1: Sample Question 1:
What is the maximum What is the

span for a Spruce- maximum span for:
Pine-Fir (SPF) floor
joist, No. 1 grade, • Spruce-Pine-Fir (SPF)
floor joist
with strapping,
spaced at 16” o/c • No. 1 grade,
(406 mm) and that is • with strapping,
2x10 (38x235)? • spaced at 16” o/c (406 mm),
• that is 2x10 (38x235)?
Answer next page…
Table A-1, OBC 2012,. sourced at https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332 Table A-1, OBC 2012,. sourced at https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332
2021-09-30

What is the What is the maximum

maximum span for: span for a Larch floor
joist, Select Structural
• Spruce-Pine-Fir (SPF) grade, with strapping
floor joist
and bridging,
• No. 1 grade, spaced at 24” o/c
• with strapping, (610 mm) and that is
• spaced at 16” o/c (406 mm), 2x12 (38x286)?
• that is 2x10 (38x235)?
Answer next page…
Maximum span = 3.96 m

What is the maximum What is the minimum joist
span for: size for a SPF floor joist,
• Larch floor joist No.1 and No. 2 grade,
• Select Structural grade, with bridging, spaced at
• with strapping and bridging, 12” o/c (305 mm) and
• spaced at 24” o/c (610 mm),
that is spanning 4.3 m?
• that is 2x12 (38x286)?
Answer next page…
Maximum span = 4.92 m
2021-09-30

What is the minimum
floor joist size:
What is the maximum joist
spacing for a Fir floor joist,
• SPF floor joist No. 3 grade, with
• No.1 and No. 2 grade, strapping, 38x184 (2x8)
• with bridging, floor joist, that is spanning
• spaced at 12” o/c (305 mm),
3.5 m?
• Spans 4.3 m?
Answer next page…
Minimum floor joist

size = 38x235 (2x10)
B. Sizing Floor Joists –

Sample Question 4:
What is the maximum

joist spacing for a:
• Fir floor joist C. Sizing Built-up Wood

•
•
No. 3 grade,
with strapping, Beams
• 2x8 (38x184) joists,
• Spanning 3.5 m?
Minimum joist
spacing =
12” (305 mm)

2021-09-30
Supported Joist Length (SJL)- Supported Length Supported Joist Length (SJL)- Supported Length
Half the sum of the joists span on both sides of a beam including the width
of the beam
(The length of the joists supported by the beam. The remaining length of
the joists will be supported by the foundation walls.)

Supported Joist Length (SJL)- Supported Length Sizing lumber framing members
C. Sizing Built-up Wood Beams:
In order to better understand

these sample exercises, please
refer to Table A-8, A-9 & A-10 in
Part 9 of the OBC Code for built-
up wood beams supporting not
more than one, two or three
floors.
Note the following:

 Types of wood
 Wood Grade,
 Supported Length,
 Size of B-U Beam

2021-09-30

C. Sizing Built-up Wood
Sample Question 5: Beams:
What is the maximum span for a Sample Question 5:

built-up wood beam supporting
one floor, made with select What is the maximum span
structural grade Hem-Fir grade for a Hem-Fir B-U wd beam
wood, with a floor joist supported supporting one floor…
length of 4.2 m, for a 4-38x235 • Hem-Fir species
built-up beam? • Select Structural grade,
• Floor joist supported length of 4.2 m,
Answer next page…
• 4-38x235 built-up beam,
Maximum Span =
3.87 m


Sample Question 6:
Sample Question 6:
What is the minimum number
of plies of a built-up wood What is the minimum number
beam made of 2x12s (38x286), of plies of a built-up wood
supporting one floor, if the beam made of 2x12s
species of wood is SPF, No. 1 supporting one floor…
and No. 2 grade, with a floor
joist supported length of 5.4 m,
• SPF species
and a span of 3.4m?
• No. 1 and No. 2 grade,
Answer next page… • Floor joist supported length of 5.4 m,
• Span of 3.4 m,
Minimum 4 plies of
38x286 (4-2x12)

2021-09-30
C. Sizing Wood Lintels:
In order to better
understand these sample
exercises, please refer to
Table A-13, A-14 & A-15 in
D. Sizing Wood Lintels Part 9 of the Ontario
Building Code.
Note the following:

 Lintel Supporting,
 Lintel Size,
 Exterior Wall / Interior Wall,
 Specified Snow Load.
C. Sizing Wood Lintels: C. Sizing Wood Lintels:
What is the maximum span What is the maximum

of a SPF built-up wood span of a SPF built-up
lintel supporting a roof, wood lintel…
ceiling and 1 storey, made
of 2-2x12 (38x286), located • supporting a roof, ceiling and 1
storey
in an exterior wall and
• made of 2-2x12 (2-38x286),
supporting a snow load of
• located in an exterior wall.
2.5 kPa?
• supporting a snow load of 2.5 kPa.
Answer next
page… Maximum Span = Table A-15, OBC 2012,. sourced at https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332
1.96 m
2021-09-30
E. Sizing Steel Beams

Supporting Floors in
Dwelling Units:
In order to better
E. Sizing Steel Beams understand the following
Supporting Floors in sample exercises, please
Dwelling Units refer to Table 9.23.4.3. in
Part 9 of the Ontario
Building Code.
Note the following:

Table 9.23.4.3., OBC 2012,. sourced at https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332
 Beam Description,
 No. of Storeys supported,
 Supported Joist length.
E. Sizing Steel Beams

Supporting Floors in E. Sizing Steel Beams
Dwelling Units: Supporting Floors in
Dwelling Units:
Sample Question 8:
Sample Question 8:
What is the minimum size
of a steel beam What is the minimum size
supporting two storeys of of a steel beam
a dwelling unit, if the supporting two storeys of
supported joist length is a dwelling unit, if…
4.2 m, and the span • the supported joist length is
between supports of the 4.2 m Table 9.23.4.3., OBC 2012,. sourced at https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332
beam is 6.4 m? Table 9.23.4.3., OBC 2012,. sourced at https://www.ontario.ca/laws/regulation/120332 • span between supports of
the beam is 6.4 m
Answer next page… W250x33

2021-09-30
Thank you
10/27/2021
Unit 5: Steel Frame

Construction-Part 1
Maziar Asefi (PhD, March, PMP, MRAIC, BCIN (H&SB))
Steel Frame Construction

Definition
“Steel frame is a building technique

with a "skeleton frame" of vertical steel
columns and horizontal I-beams,
constructed in a rectangular grid to
support the floors, roof and walls of a
building which are all attached to the
frame.”
https://www.buildusingsteel.org/
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_frame
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Steel Framing Characteristics

Advantages
• Light in proportion to its strength
• Strong & Stiff
• Quick to erect
• Precise & predictable material
• Rapid construction and repetitive building
frame
• Recyclable
Disadvantages
• Tendency to corrode - depending on the
environment https://constructionreviewonline.com/installations-
• Loss of Strength in High Temperatures (fires) materials/top-5-construction-products-in-use-today/
structural steel begins to soften around 425°C

and loses about half of its strength at 650°C.
Steel Framing Material
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Steel
• Steel is any material in a

range of alloys of iron that
fundamentally contains
about one to two percent
carbon material.
• Ordinary structural steel, called

mild steel, contains less than
three-tenths of 1 percent carbon.
https://agmetalminer.com/2021/04/27/metalminer-webinar-metalminer-
experts-to-share-insights-on-stainless-steel-market/
Cast & Wrought Iron  Steel

Cast Iron (till mid 1800s)
• Ordinary cast iron contains 2 to 4 percent
carbon and greater quantities of impurities
than steel.
• First used in structure in late 1700s
(Bridges in England that are still in use)
• Brittle, difficult to work with
Wrought Iron
• wrought iron contains even less carbon than

most steel alloys.
https://www.hisour.com/cast-iron-architecture-28877/
• were used for framing industrial
buildings in Europe and North America in
19th century
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https://www.frommers.com/blogs/passportable/blog_posts/eiffel-tower-in-paris-to-be-painted-
a-new-color-for-2024-olympics
Eiffel Tower (Completed 1889)

•18,000 pieces of wrought iron (“steel
grade”)
•2,500,000 rivets
4 men to install a rivet;
•one to heat the rivet, one to hold it,
•one to shape the head,
•one with sledgehammer
3/15/1888 9/14/1888 12/26/1888 3/12/1889

Construction time: Foundation (5mo), Tower (21mo)
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Cast , Wrought Iron and Steel
Comparison
Carbon content is a crucial determinant of
the properties of any ferrous (iron-based)
metal:
 Too much carbon makes a hard but brittle
metal, like cast iron
 While too little carbon produces a
malleable, weaker material, like wrought
iron.
https://in.pinterest.com/pin/559853797429561933/
Cast , Wrought Iron and Steel
Cast iron and wrought iron can be

used to create a variety of things and
is typically used for decorative
architectural items such as fencing as
shown in the picture
https://mechaniclove.com/twisted-iron-fence/
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Steel strength
Material Property
 Yield Strength (Psi)
The yield strength (YS) is a material property and is the

stress at which a material begins to deform plastically and
will not returns to its original shape when the applied stress
is removed.
 Ultimate Tensile Strength (Psi)
Ultimate tensile strength is measured by the maximum

stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or
pulled before breaking.
For example A36 steel (used in the construction of Steel

frames) has yield strength of 36600 psi And Ultimate
ensile strength of 58000 to 79800 psi
Relationship between stress and strain
6
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Tensile Test
Production of Structural Shapes
Main Types of structural steels in Building Construction

includes:
• Hot-rolled steels
• Cold-formed steels
The hot rolled steel shapes are formed at elevated

temperatures while the cold-formed steel shapes are formed
at room temperature.
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Production of Structural Shapes (Hot-rolled)
Production of Structural Shapes:
• Hot Steel passes through a

series of rollers
• Cut to Length & Cooled
• Numerous Standard shapes
are produced(sizes)
https://fractory.com/hot-rolled-steel-cold-rolled-steel/
Production of Steel from Iron Ore
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Steel Alloys
Steel Alloys used in construction:
ASTM A36 steel, was predominant type of steel

used in building frames for many decades.
Today:
• ASTM A992 is used for standard wide- flange
structural shapes (50000,65000psi)
• ASTM A36 steel may still be used for angles,
channels, plates, and bars.
• ASTM A572 used for very high-strength
components
https://eaglesteel.com/product/wide-flange-beams/
ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials

Source: Fundamental of Building construction book- P: 402
Steel Alloys
Weathering Steel
Weathering steel (or Corten steel) is

a family of low carbon steels which
were developed to eliminate the
need for painting, and form a
stable rust-like appearance after
several years‘ exposure to weather-
It has copper in it.
As a result, weathering steel is

commonly used in outdoor
applications or environments where
normal steel would be inclined to
rust.
https://br.pinterest.com/pin/817614507327586888/
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Steel Alloys
Weathering Steel
ASTM-A588 for structural shapes and

ASTM- A606 for thin sheet.
https://www.csteelindia.com/corten-b-steel-plate-supplier-exporter.html
Corten Steel
https://ajmarshall.com/famous-buildings-corten-steel/ https://www.dezeen.com/2016/06/18/crescent-office-sanjay-puri-
surat-india-weathering-steel-facade/
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How to apply CORTEN STEEL
Steel Alloys
Galvanized Steel
Galvanizing is the process of applying a protective coating to

steel or iron. The coating is made from zinc and is used to halt the
formation of rust. Galvanization is important because it provides
long-lasting protection for steel and iron products.
https://www.galvanizing.org.uk/facades/
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Gavanized vs Stainless Steel
Standard structural steel shapes
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Standard structural steel shapes
Structural Shapes – Wide Flange

Wide-Flange shapes are used for
most beams and columns
(superseded the older American
Standard (I-beam)shapes many
decades ago.
Size Range
• Depth; 4” to 44”
• Weights per linear foot of
member range from 8.5 to
655 pounds
• Used - Beams & Columns https://www.metalsdepot.com/steel-products/steel-beams
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Wide Flange Designations
In North America Steels beams are

usually identified by Depth in inches
and Weight in Pound.
Example: The designation for wide-

flange shape begin with the letter W.
W12x26
12 inches (305 mm) deep that weight

26 pounds per length of foot (38.5
kg/m)
Wide Flange W = wide flange

14 = nominal depth
W14 x 90
90 = #/lf
14 WF 90 use: beam and column
Standard S = standard
Beam 18 = nominal depth
70 = #/lf
S18 x 70 use: beam, not column
18 I 70
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Steel Angles
Steel Angles
USED:
• Short beams supporting light loads

• External - Lintels https://freimans.com/metal-vs-timber-why-its-better-to-use-timber-trusses/
• Connectors
• Veneer / Skin Support
• Edge support (edge angle)
• Diagonal bracing
• Making Open Web Steel Joist (OWSJ)
https://www.cut2sizemetals.com/stainless-steel/angle/san/
Steel Angle Designations
L4 X 4 X 1/2
Thickness
L = Angle Designation
4 X 4 = Size of the legs (inches)
1/2 = Thickness of the legs (inches)
NOTE: Legs can be equal or unequal Size
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Steel Sections:
Angle L 5 x 3 x 5/8
L = angle
5 = length of one leg
3 = length of another leg
5/8 = nominal thickness
Channels (C Shaped) Designations

Channels
Used:
Truss members, bracing, lintels, etc.
Designations C 9 X 13.4
Dept
C = Channel Designation
h
9 = Nominal Depth (inches)

13.4 = Weight / ft. (lbs.)
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Steel Sections:
Channel C 8x11
C = channel
8 = nominal depth
weight = 11.5 #/Lf
Use: Truss members, bracing, lintels, etc.
Commonly Used Steel Shapes and Sizes
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Open Web Steel Joist (

Among the many structural steel products fabricated from hot- and cold-rolled
shapes, One of the most common is the open-web steel joist (OWSJ), a
mass-produced truss used in closely spaced arrays to support floor and roof
decks.
https://www.canam-construction.com/en/construction-products/steel-joist/
Open Web Steel Joist
Common Uses
• Floor Support
• Roof Support
Joist Spacing Depends

on;
• Load
• Span capability of deck
• Typically 2 to 10 feet
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Glossary of Terms
Extracted from Steel Joist Institute- https://steeljoist.org/
Glossary of Terms
Extracted from Steel Joist Institute- https://steeljoist.org/
19
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Steel Joist Used for Floor Support
https://www.constructionspecifier.com/steel-deck-design-covered-in-latest-e-book/
Steel Joist Used for Roof Support

Joist Seat
Joist Girder
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Joist Seat Welded to Support Beam
https://www.seaa.net/news/open-web-steel-joist-safety
Joist Seat bolted to Support Beam
https://lsc-pagepro.mydigitalpublication.com/publication/?i=573624&article_id=3329236&view=articleBrowser
21
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Bridging should
be securely
Joist Bridging anchored to end
wall.
Horizontal Bracing Diagonal Bracing
Extracted from Building Construction Illustrated Book- P-206
Open Web Steel Joist- Series
A K series joist has a web

consisting of a single bent
bar, running in a zigzag
pattern between the upper
and lower chords.
https://www.revitcity.com/downloads.php?action=view&object_id=15536
LH and DLH series (Deep long
span jopist) joists have
heavier web and chord
members and are used for
longer span conditions and
are capable of supporting
larger loads.
https://www.revitcity.com/downloads.php?action=view&object_id=15536
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Open Web Steel Joist- Series
Open Web Steel Joist- Span to Depth
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Open Web Steel Joist- Span to Depth
https://www.andrew.cmu.edu
• Open-web steel joists may be supported by a bearing wall of masonry or

reinforced concrete
• or by steel beams or joist girders, which are heavier versions of open-web joists.
https://archinect.com/forum/thread/121120407/stl-angle-at-roof-deck http://www.redbirdengineeringsales.com/Joist
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• Open webs permit the passage of mechanical services.

• Ceiling may be attached to bottom chords or be suspended if additional
space for services is required;
• ceiling may also be omitted to expose joists and floor deck.
Suspended ceiling Ceiling attached

Mechanical Services
Open Web Steel Joist- Spacing
Spacing of joists depends on:

2' to 10' (610 to
3050) spacing
• The magnitude of floor load
4' (1220) spacing
• The spanning capability of the common in large
decking material buildings.
Joist span should
not exceed 24 x
• The load- carrying capacity of joist depth.
the joist It means if your
span is 24 meter
the minimum
• The floor construction depth depth of the joist
desired. should be 1 meter
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Open Web Steel Joist- Spacing
Horizontal or diagonal
bridging is required to
prevent lateral movement
of joist chords.
Bridging is spaced from 10' to
20' (3050 to 6095) o.c.,
depending on joist span and
chord size.
Weld or bolt
bridging to clip Horizontal
angles secured to bridging angles
masonry wall or are welded or
steel edge beam. bolted to top and
bottom chords.
Joist and Beam Connection
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NjtH9NEJPqQ
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Anatomy of OWSJ
Joints in steel members
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Joining (fastening) Steel Members
Rivet Bolt Weld
Rivets
A rivet is a steel fastener consisting of:
 A cylindrical body and

 A formed head.
 A tail
It is inserted while hot, through holes in
the members to be joined, and hot-
worked with a pneumatic hammer to
produce a second head opposite the first.
As the rivet cools, it shrinks, clamping

the joined pieces together and forming a
tight joint.
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Rivets
Connection stages
(A)A hot steel rivet is inserted through holes in the

two members to be joined.
(B, C) Its head is placed in the cup-shaped

depression of a heavy, hand-held hammer. A
pneumatic hammer drives a rivet set repeatedly
against the body of the rivet to form the second
head.
(D) The rivet shrinks as it cools, drawing

the members tightly together.
Bolts
Types:
Carbon Steel Bolts (common bolt)

• Similar to ordinary machine bolts
• Lower Strength, low shear resistance
High Strength Bolts

• Heat treated for greater strength
• Higher shear resistance
• Can also be used in Friction Connections
• Can be used with or without washers
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High Strength Bolts – Friction Connections
Load indicator
Washer
 Load transferred between

members by friction
 Members clamped together
 Must be Tightened consistently

and reliably
Installation - Bolts
• Bolted connections are done

with pneumatic torque wrenches
to arrive at desired bolt tension.
• The size of the angles and the

number and size of the bolts are
determined by the load that the
connection must transmit from
one structural member to the
other (for example beam to
column)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hajq_P4q0TY
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Verification of Required Tension
 Calibrated wrench method

In this method a special torque
control wrench is used to tighten
the bolts.
 Tension Control Bolt

Correct tension is reached when
end breaks off.
A tension-control bolt
Tension Control Bolts
Tightening a tension-control bolt
(A) The wrench holds both the nut and the

splined body of the bolt and turns them against
one another to tighten the bolt.
(B) When the required torque has been

achieved, the splined end twists off in the
wrench.
(C) A plunger inside the wrench

discharges the splined end into a container.
31
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Load Indicator Washers

Wrench grips both the nut & bolt
Washer with Protrusions (Gap)
Protrusions flatten as Bolt is tightened

Visually inspected to ensure that
protrusions are flat (gap closed)
https://www.fastorq.com/uncategorized/load-indicating-washers/
Load Indicator Washers
Load Indicator Washers with a

Visible Dye that squirts out
when the washer has sufficiently
flattened
https://www.thesteelsupplyco.com/blog/direct-tension-indicator-washers
32
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Welding
Welding
Welding offers a unique and valuable capability to the structural designer:
 It can join the members of a steel frame as if they were a monolithic whole.
 Welded connections, properly designed and executed, are stronger than the
members they join.
https://www.aws.org/resources/detail/aws-d1k-subcommittee-revises-d16-
welding-code-for-2017
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Welding VS. Bolting

Welding vs Bolting (Both can achieve similar
performance)
• Welding
• labor intensive (especially in
the field) Requires a highly
skilled/certified craftsman
• Verification of Installed Quality -
inspection, X-ray, etc
• Bolting - Quick, easy, and less labor intensive
& skill req’d
• Not uncommon to see both
https://www.eq-house.com/bolted-vs-welded-connections/
Welded fabrications
in the shop -- Bolted
in the field
Typical welds used in steel Frame construction
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Typical welds used in steel Frame construction
Details of Steel Framing

Type of Connections
35
10/27/2021
Steel Frame Construction

Transitional elements including angles, plates, or tees are usually
required for connecting the steel frame members together.
You can see an example of simple bolted beam to column

connection in the following pictures:
Types of Connection-Sheer Connection
 Shear connection
• Bolts only in web, not the flanges
• Transmits only shear (vertical forces)
• Not capable of transmitting
bending moment (bending forces)
• Accomplished with:
clip angles & bolts/welds
Shear Connection
36
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Types of Connection-Sheer Connection
https://structville.com/2018/03/structural-design-of-steel-fin-plate-connection.html
Types of Connection-Moment Connection
 Moment Connections
• Transmit both shear & moment

(bending forces)
• Flanges must be connected to
the column by bolt or welding
• May require column stiffener
plates for better distribution of
forces into the body of the
column (frequently used)
Welded Moment Connection
37
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Types of Connection-Moment Connection
Stiffener plate
Rectangular
backup bars
Welded and bolted Moment Connection
Beam Systems
38
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Lateral Stability / Resistance
Short Direction
One-way Beam System
• Each pair of external

columns supports a long-
spanning beam or girder.
• Suitable for long, narrow
buildings
• when a column-free space
is desired. Extracted from Building Construction Illustrated Book- P-119
• Lateral force resisting systems are required in both

directions, but lateral forces tend to be more
critical in the short direction.

one-layer system
decrease floor depth
Short Direction
Two-way Beam System
Girder
• Span range for beams is 20'

to 32' (6 to 10 m). beam
• Above this range better to

use OWSJ due to reduced
weight.
6 to 10m
• Beams are spaced 6' to 15'
(1.8 to 4.5 m), depending
on the magnitude of the 1.8 to 4.5m
applied load and spanning Two-layer system increase floor depth
Space for Mechanical services
capability of the floor deck. Extracted from Building Construction Illustrated Book- P-119
• Girders can increase lateral stability of the

structure
39
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Primary beam
Triple Beam Systems
• When a large, column-free

space is required, long-
spanning plate girders or
trusses can be used to carry
the primary beam, which in Secondary beam
turn support a layer of
secondary beams. Extracted from Building Construction Illustrated Book- P-119
Plate Girders or
Trusses
Thanks you!
40
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Agenda for Today--- October 27 2021
9:00am- 9:15 Peer Network Program (Presented by Janella Lasam)

9:15am-10:20 Lecture (Steel II)
10:30am- 11:00am Lecture (Steel II)
11:10pam-12:00pm – Q&A and In-class Exercise (ICE-5)
ICE-5- Study the course textbook (Fundamental of Building Construction-

PP429-456) and make 5 multiple choice questions– and read the entitled ”
Review on Study of Space Frame Structure System” and Make 3 multiple
choice questions (with answers (Mark the correct answer and add reference)
Submit by 11:59pm tonight..
Unit 6: Steel Frame

Construction-Part 2
Maziar Asefi (PhD, March, PMP, MRAIC, BCIN (H&SB))
1
10/27/2021
Steel Frame Structures:

Lateral Stability / Resistance-

To understand the roles of shear and moment
connections in the building structure, it is
necessary to understand the means by which
buildings are made stable against the lateral
forces of wind and earthquake.
Five basic lateral force resisting systems

(LFRSs) are used, either alone or in
combination:
 Braced frames,
 Shear walls,
 Moment-resisting frames
 Core Structures
 Braced Tubes
https://ccpia.org/types-of-lateral-force-
resisting-systems-in-commercial-buildings/
2
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Braced Frame
 A braced frame uses diagonal bracing to create stable triangular
configurations within the framework of the structure.
 With this system, stability is afforded by the bracing, and

connections between beams and columns need not resist
rotational forces. Rather, they resist shear forces.
Source: Fundamental of Building Construction Book- P-419
Moment Frame
Moment-resisting frames rely on stiffer moment connections

between beams and columns to impart lateral stiffness to the
building frame as a whole.
https://www.pacosteel.com/smart-moment-frames/
3
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Shear Wall
Shear walls are stiff, solid walls

made of:
 Reinforced concrete
 Steel plate
 Less frequently, reinforced
concrete masonry.
Like braced frames, they permit the

use of shear connections between
beams and columns elsewhere in
the structural frame.
Examples of shear walls
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_plate_shear_wall https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-implementation-of-shear-walls-in-steel-
structures_fig1_285430738
4
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Shear Core
Core structures concentrate the lateral force

resisting system at the center of the structure.
They may be made of shear walls or braced
frames.
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Position-of-SBCW-joints-in-a-structural-system- Source: Fundamental of Building Construction Book- P-419

35_fig1_334720463
Braced Tube/Tube Structure
Tube structures move the lateral force resisting system to the exterior
perimeter of the structure. They are made of braced frames, or less
frequently, moment resisting Frames.
5
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Shear wall/ Core strucure
Stairwell Shear Panels
Concrete Moment Connections Core Shear Panels w/ Steel Frame
Structural Steel Design Drawings
6
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Structural Steel Design Drawings
In the design of the structural frames,

Engineers:
Begin with the horizontal structures first

(Calculating horizontal loads first)
before moving onto the vertical structures
of a building (Calculating Vertical loads)
They also start at the top and work their
way down because of the following:
https://slidetodoc.com/structural-drawing-structure-and-material-o-o-o/
Horizontal Structures
Horizontal structures of the building serve three

important purposes:
carrying the live and dead loads of the building.
They must resist bending and transfer the loads
to the column or wall structures as shear stress.
They function as diaphragms to connect the

lateral loads (wind and earthquake) acting on
the outer envelope to whatever shear resistance
system is being used.
https://www.aisc.org/why-steel/architect/engineering-basics/loads/
7
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Framing plan- Steel Frame structure
Beam
Girder
Opening for elevator

,stairways, Mechanical
Shaft
Heavier Beam
Vertical Structures
Once the floor structures of a building have

been determined, the structural engineers will
design vertical structural members.
Typically, the columns are getting bigger,
stronger, and heavier as they move down the
building.
Base plate information is also provided so that
on site engineers know what size, shape, and
connection is needed to connect that base
plate to the foundation.
https://qdjiahexin.en.made-in-
china.com/product/tKimFTNGaPph/China-Structural-Steel-Beam-
Welding-Fabrication-Supplied-by-Qingdao-Steel-Structure-
Designer-and-Manufacturer.html
8
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Column Schedule Plan- Steel Frame structure
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Column-schedule-for-the-3-story-building-
frame_fig2_275337604
Column Schedule Plan
https://docplayer.net/50136520-
Customizing-the-graphical-column-
schedule-adding-parameters.html
9
10/27/2021
Framing plan+ column layout- Steel Frame structure
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Framing-plan-used-for-the-3-story-building-
frame_fig1_275337604
Erection Sequence for a steel frame system
 Erect Columns
 Install beams and girders
 Plumb structure
 Complete (weld or tighten) all connections - including diagonal bracing
 Grout column base plates
 Install edge angles & decking (or netting/plank) Start next tier
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Column Base Plate
Column Base Plate
• Distribute Loads
• Attachment to Fdn.
• Often Shop Welded
• Holes must match
Set Column to Proper Elevation
Leveling Plate
 set in grout prior to column
erection
Leveling Nuts
 nuts set to elevation prior to steel
erection
Shims
 metal shims set to proper
elevation
(a washer or thin strip of material used
to align parts, make them fit, or reduce
wear.) Source: Fundamental of Building Construction Book- P-430
11
10/27/2021
Steel leveling plate
Steel leveling plate
12
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Erecting Second floor column (second tier)
https://skyciv.com/technical/steel-connections-for-beams-and-columns/ https://min.news/en/home/edca44114b1a1d72550e87c82f7b0079.html
Steel Frame building: Floor and Roof Systems
13
10/27/2021
Metal Decking
 Metal decking is made of thin sheets of steel that have been
cold-formed into a corrugated shape to increase strength
and stiffness.
 The spanning capability of the deck is determined mainly by
the thickness of the sheet from which it is made and the
depth of the corrugations.
Thickness of the sheet
Depth & spacing of the corrugations

Depth
Singular or Cellular
Metal Decking- Form Decking
Thickness 0.7-2mm
Form decking serves as permanent
formwork for a reinforced
Form deck is metal decking that
Depth 13-64 mm
acts as permanent formwork. It
supports concrete slab until the
slab can support itself and its live
load.
Form deck does not participate in

the structural behavior of the floor
once the concrete has hardened.
https://in.pinterest.com/pin/101964379040272491/
14
10/27/2021
Metal Decking- Composite Metal Decking
 Composite decking serves as tensile

reinforcement for the concrete slab. Depth 38-76 mm Thickness 0.7-2mm

 Embossed rib patterns, holes, or welded
wires and studs are added to mechanically
interlock concrete and deck.
http://ar%20at%20the%203rd%20floor%20slab%20on%20deck
%20Facing%20South-East%20(800x600).html
Metal Decking- Composite Metal Decking
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352012419300384 https://www.steelconstruction.info/Design_of_composite_s
teel_deck_floors_for_fire
15
10/27/2021
Metal Decking- Cellular Decking
 Cellular decking is manufactured by

welding a corrugated sheet to a flat steel
sheet, forming a series of spaces or https://www.cordeck.com/metal-decking/cellular-
raceways for electrical and composite-floor-deck/3-0-cellular-composite-floor-deck/
communications wiring; special cutouts

are available for floor outlets.
Metal Decking- Roof Deck

Roof deck is used without
concrete topping. Its corrugations
are usually more closely spaced
to better support the types of roof
insulation boards commonly
placed on top.
Depth 38-178 mm
Thickness 0.7-2mm
https://www.kingspan.com/meati/en-in/product- Source: Fundamental of Building Construction Book- P-438

groups/insulation/applications/cool-metal-deck-flat-roof
16
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Metal Deck installation
Steel Space Frame Structures
17
10/27/2021
There is often a tendency for

architects, and possibly more so
engineers, to think in terms of planar
structures such as beams, trusses and
portal frames when considering
methods of spanning space.
However, in many cases there are
advantages to be gained from
thinking in three dimensions and
adopting spatial structures for medium
to long spans. This is particularly true
where heavy point loads or moving
loads are to be supported.
https://jslybm.en.made-in-
china.com/product/ySlnxBCoLMYK/China-Steel-Structure-
Source: Chilton, J, (2000), Space Grid Structures Space-Frame-Grid-Structural-Coal-Storages-Shed.html
A space frame or space structure

(3D truss) is a rigid, lightweight,
truss-like structure constructed
from interlocking struts in a
geometric pattern.
This type of structure can be used

to span large areas with minimal
internal support.
https://constructionor.com/space-frame-structure/ https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/316096467580110603/
18
10/27/2021
The strength of a space frame

structure is due to the inherent
stiffness of the triangle and flexing
loads that are transmitted along the
length of each strut in the form of
tension and compression loads.
https://civiljungle.com/space-structure/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=28uJypERDXA
Types of Space Frame Structures
Why triangulation make a strong

structure?
When a force (the load) is applied

to one of the corners of a triangle,
it is distributed down each side.
The two sides of the triangle are
squeezed (act in Compression).
The third side of the triangle is
pulled, or stretched sideways (act
in Tension).
https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-
resources/backgrounders/why-a-triangle-a-strong-shape
19
10/27/2021

The combination of several triangles can crease a stable, strong
structures that can be used in space frame structures for covering
long spans..

The combination of several triangles can crease a stable, strong
structures that can be used in space frame structures for covering
long spans..
20
10/27/2021
Why two-way spanning structures?

A space frame structure is usually a two-way spanning
structure.
 To understand the benefit of using a two- way

spanning structure consider a woven canvas
webbing often used for seats of stools or to support
chair cushions.
 If webbing strips are used only in one direction, a
load applied to one strip will cause it to sag and
transfer load to only two sides of the supporting
frame.
 However, if the webbing strips are interwoven in two
orthogonal directions the loaded strip is partly
supported by all of the others. This reduces the sag
of the loaded strip and distributes the applied load
more evenly to all sides of the frame.
https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/backgrounders/why-a-triangle-a-strong-shape
Why two-way spanning structures?
 A load applied to a simple one-

way spanning beam or plane
truss, must be transmitted
through the structure directly to
its supports.
 If, however, a grid of connected http://www.columbia.edu/cu/gsapp/BT/BSI/GRAVSYS/grav1.html
intersecting beams or trusses is

formed in the horizontal plane, a
vertical load applied to any one
beam or truss will be distributed,
in part, to all the other elements
in the grid and thus to all of the
supports.
Source: Chilton, J, (2000), Space Grid Structures

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Space Frame Structures
Since the loads can be taken

by the members in three
dimensions, the corresponding
forces in space latticed grids
are usually less than that in
planar trusses, and hence the
depth can be decreased in a
space frame.
Lan, T.T. “Space Frame Structures "Structural Engineering

Handbook, 1999, CRC Press
Space Frame Structures

22
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Plane Frame and Space Frame Differences
Advantages of Space Frames
 It is light weight. It is mainly due to fact that material is distributed

spatially in such a way that the load transfer mechanism is primarily
axial—tension or compression. Consequently, all material in any
given element is utilized to its full extent.
 The units of space frames are usually mass produced in the factory so
that they can take full advantage of an industrialized system of
construction.
 A space frame is usually sufficiently stiff in spite of its lightness. This is

due to its three- dimensional character

23
10/27/2021
https://www.safsteel
structure.com/news
/three-layer-steel-
space-frame/
Space Frames: Types and Geometries
Single Layer Grid:
 All elements are in one single layer

 Rigid connection are usually used in
between the elements
http://www.lakhlani.com/interesting-structures.html Lan, T.T. “Space Frame Structures "Structural Engineering

24
10/27/2021
Double Layer Grid:
Double layer grids consist of two planar

networks of members forming the top
and bottom layers parallel to each other
and interconnected by vertical and
inclined web members.
Double layer grids are characterized by

the hinged joints with no moment or
torsional resistance; therefore, all
members can only resist tension or
compression.
https://www.setareh.arch.vt.edu/safas/007_fdmtl_21_spatial_s
tructure.html

Double Layer Grid:
Double layer grids are usually composed of basic elements such as:
 a planar latticed truss

 a pyramid with a square base that is essentially a part of an octahedron
 a pyramid with a triangular base (tetrahedron)
Lan, T.T. “Space Frame

Structures "Structural
Engineering Handbook, 1999,
CRC Press
25
10/27/2021
Triple Layer Grid:
 Placed in three parallel lines

connected by diagonals.
 They are mostly used for large
spans
https://civiconcepts.com/blog/space-frame-structures
Space Frames: Method of Support
Method of Support
The choice of the most advantageous

support locations for the space grid depend
on:
 The plan form of the structure

 Architectural considerations.
 Structural efficiency.
Depending on the grid configuration, it is

https://www.lfspaceframe.com/news/three-
possible to support either top or bottom node construction-methods-of-space-frame-structure/
joints.
26
10/27/2021
Method of Support
 Support along perimeters
• This is the most commonly used support

location. The supports of double layer grids
may directly rest on the columns or on ring
beams connecting the columns or exterior
walls.
• Care should be taken that the module size

of grids matches the column spacing.
https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/space-
frame-4561822091.html

Method of Support
 Multi-column supports
For single-span buildings, such as a sports hall, double layer grids can be
supported on four intermediate columns as shown in Figure a. For buildings such
as workshops, usually multi-span columns in the form of grids as shown in Figure b
are used. Sometimes the column grids are used in combination with supports
along perimeters as shown in Figure c.
Lan, T.T. “Space Frame

Structures "Structural
Engineering Handbook, 1999,
CRC Press
27
10/27/2021
Method of Support
 Three-sided support space frame structures
The three-sided support space frame is used

when one side axis of a rectangular building
must be designed as an open gate and
passage due to production needs, or one side
of the building is not suitable for load-bearing
components due to the requirements of the
building function.
https://andysteelstructure.en.made-in-
china.com/product/vKYnZyWxLNcl/China-Prefabricated-Steel-Space-
Frame-Aircraft-Hangar.html
New Hangar for Skyone Maintenance Services
The structure comprises two 90

meter wide clear span bays with
the capacity to cater for two wide
body or 4 narrow body aircraft at a
time.
The main hangar is spanned by a

steel space frame constructed
from 500 tonnes of high grade
steel.
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10/27/2021
Double Layer Grid: Method of Support
 ‘Tree’ supports
An alternative method of reducing both

maximum vertical deflections and member
forces in the space grid is to use ‘tree’ supports
instead of individual columns. This is commonly
achieved by providing a square-based
inverted pyramid of ‘branches’ at each
support location.
29
10/27/2021
https://www.rikysongsu.com/blog/2017/4/26/stuttgart-airport https://www.steelconstruction.info/Visually_expressed_structural_forms
Space Frames: Grid Configurations
Grid Configurations:
The most common grid
configurations for space frame
structures include:
 Squares
 Rotated Squares
 Triangles
 Hexagons
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10/27/2021
 Square on square
 Square on square offset
 Square on diagonal square
 Triangle on triangle offset
 Triangle on hexagon
https://forum.kerbalspaceprogram.com
 Square on square
where the upper chord grid is
directly above the lower chord grid
and the web members connect the
layers in the vertical plane between
the upper and lower grids. When
viewed in plan only the top square
grid is seen.
Source: Chilton, J, (2000), Space Grid Structures https://www.geometrica.com/en/latestnews/space-frame
31
10/27/2021
 Square on square offset
where the top chord grid is offset, usually by
half a grid square in both directions, relative
to the lower chord grid.
In this configuration the web members
connect the intersection points in the upper
grid with the adjacent intersections in the
lower grid and a continuum of tetrahedral
and half-octahedral cells is generated. This is
the most commonly used configuration. https://www.setareh.arch.vt.edu/safas/005_ae_part1_02_s
os_o.html
 Square on diagonal square
where the lower chord grid is set at
45° to, and is usually at a greater
spacing than, the top chord grid.
Again the web members connect
the intersection points on the top
and bottom grids. A further
alternative version of this grid
configuration is diagonal on square
where the upper grid is at 45° to the
lines of support and the lower grid is
parallel to the supports.
Source: Chilton, J, (2000), Space Grid Structures https://www.setareh.arch.vt.edu/safas/005_ae_part1_07_sod.html
32
10/27/2021
 Triangle on triangle offset
where both chord grids are
triangular but the intersections in the
lower grid occur below the centers
of alternate triangles in the upper
grid. In this case also, the web
members connect the intersection
points on the top grid with the
adjacent intersections in the lower
grid.
Source: Chilton, J, (2000), Space Grid Structures https://www.setareh.arch.vt.edu/safas/005_ae_part1_10_t

ot.html
 Triangle on hexagon
where the upper (denser) grid is
triangular and the lower (more
open) grid is hexagonal
33
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Space Frames: Barrel Vault
Barrel vault Space frame structure
Barrel vault space structure allows

a structural design to incorporate
arching theory and the use of steel
offers great blending strength so
that long clear spans and low rise
barrel vaults are possible
In this type of structure, a series of
arches placed side by side – It can
span an area of between 60-120m
with double layer space frame
system.
https://hindustanalcoxlimited.wordpress.com/2019/03/19/b
arrel-vault-space-structure-a-space-frame-application/
https://www.nicepng.com/ourpic/u2w7r5u2w7r5w7i1_a-
double-layer-braced-barrel-vaults-barrel-vault/
Space frames: Barrel vault
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Space_frame
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Space Frames: Materials
Most space grid systems for

building structures are
manufactured from steel,
although aluminum has been
used fairly extensively and timber,
concrete and reinforced plastics
have also been used.
Experimental structures using
bamboo poles have been
investigated and glass has also
been incorporated into space
trusses.
https://www.archdaily.com/889335/bamboo-
Source: Chilton, J, (2000), Space Grid Structures amphitheater-space-structure-bambutec-design
Space Frames: Covering
http://www.saevfors.se/Space_Frames.html
35
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Space Frames: Example: Bamboo Pavilion
 The Digital Bamboo pavilion explores

the innovative combination of a bio
material with digital fabrication.
 Customized computational tools
were developed to design the
connections
 Connections were manufactured
using 3D printing technology.
The structure covers more than 40 sqm

with a total weight of only 200 kgs.
https://dbt.arch.ethz.ch/project/digital-bamboo/
Space Frames: Covering/Cladding
 The structure covers a large area,

cantilevering almost 5 meters in
three directions whilst requiring
minimal support.
 The main load-bearing system is

defined by a space frame structure
reinforced by post-tensioned cables.
 The geometry of the pavilion,

consisting of more than 900 bamboo
elements, was form-found using
specifically developed digital tools.
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10/27/2021
The bamboo elements are

connected via a new system
based on automated 3D printing
technology.
 The shading panels of the pavilion

are designed through a custom
computational process and
fabricated through add-on 3D
printing of a recyclable UV resistant
thermoplastic on a lightweight lycra
textile.
 3D printing stiffens and shapes the

fabric into flexible bespoke panels.
The composite elements are locally
reinforced reducing the amount of
material used.
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Space Frames: Space Grid Systems
Space grid systems can generally be

divided into two types:
Those that are assembled from

discrete members running
between node joints (often
referred to as ‘piece-small’
systems),
Those that are assembled from
factory prefabricated modules.
Source: Chilton, J, (2000), Space Grid Structures http://hilalsteel.com/space-frame/
Space Grid Systems: ‘Piece-small’ systems

The ‘piece-small’ systems primarily
differ in the jointing method.
Use circular or square hollow tube
members because of their better
performance in resisting the forces
present in space trusses (normally
pure axial tension or compression)
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Circle-
Aluminum-Square-Tube-Truss-Space_1702767839.html
38
10/27/2021
Triodetic nodes (or hubs) are extruded in

generally cylindrical sections with
longitudinal profiled slots ready to receive
the crimped ends of the members
Typical Unistrut node showing the cold- formed

members bolted to the node plate
39
10/27/2021
Standard Mero KK node with 18 threaded holes

and machined bearing surfaces at angles of45°,
60° and 90° relative to each other.
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Nodal-assemblage-of-joint-and-
Source: Chilton, J, (2000), Space Grid Structures bars-in-a-space-frame_fig2_233564414
Space frame assembling
40
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Space Grid Systems: Covering
Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
Composite Members with Adhesive
Bonded Sleeve Joints for Space
Frame Structures
https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/%28ASCE%29MT.1943-5533.0001737
41
10/27/2021
Space Grid Systems: Cladding and glazing
The three different variants for the connection

between knot and frame member.
https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/12/4/965/htm
42
10/27/2021
The three different variants for the connection

between knot and frame member.
Depending on the space grid

system used, cladding and
glazing elements may be
supported directly by the top (or
occasionally the bottom) chord
members.
Source: Chilton, J, (2000), Space Grid Structures https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=69L9TzZJrKc
43
10/27/2021
Space Frames: Covering
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1018363916300034
44
10/27/2021
Cladding panels can also be

attached to space frame
structures by brackets, or stools,
at the node joints for purlin fixing.
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Circle-
Aluminum-Square-Tube-Truss-Space_1702767839.html
https://www.tetrasteel.com/en/projects/projecting-and-protective-roofs/protective-roof-for-bologna-logistic-center-
entrance/
45
10/27/2021
https://www.flickr.com/photos/harlowirish/2714892450
https://architizer.com/blog/inspiration/collections/grimshaw-etfe/
46
10/27/2021
https://architizer.com/blog/inspiration/collections/grimshaw-etfe/
https://www.cnxzlf.com/why-us/facilitated/
47
10/27/2021
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/space-frame-glass-skylight-roof-with_60192709879.html
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Types-of-steel-and-concrete-composite-cable-space-
Gasii/d6e1dc823c3794887d79683194b09a5918533f27
48
10/27/2021
Space Grid Systems: Covering
Example: Heydar Aliyev Cultural Centre
Heydar Aliyev Cultural Centre, a

mixed-use venue including a
conference hall, library, and museum
in the city of Baku, Azerbaijan.
Zaha Hadid designed this building and

the skin of the building is a space frame
system. the cladding is a curtain wall
system comprised of various specially
fabricated panels.
49
10/27/2021
http://buildipedia.com/aec-pros/from-the-job-site/zaha-hadids-heydar-aliyev-cultural-centre-turning-a-vision-into-
reality
http://buildipedia.com/
aec-pros/from-the-job-
site/zaha-hadids-
heydar-aliyev-cultural-
centre-turning-a-vision-
into-reality
50
10/27/2021
https://www.pinterest.c
a/omobolap/seminar-
c-part-3/
https://www.eoi.es/blog
s/imsd/project-
management-heydar-
aliyev-cultural-center/
51
10/27/2021
https://researchportal.bath.ac.uk/files/136838173/1_s2.0_S2352710215300279_main.pdf
The cladding and Ceiling materials have been used

in Heydar Aliyev center are Glass Fiber Reinforced
Concrete (GFRC) with Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic
(GFRP).
https://www.pinterest.ca/omobolap/seminar-c-part-3/
52
10/27/2021
https://cerenozsu.wordpress.com/tag/heydar-aliyev/#jp-carousel-2903
https://cerenozsu.wordp
ress.com/tag/heydar-
aliyev/#jp-carousel-2903
53
10/27/2021
Heydar Aliyev Center Construction TimeLapse
Example: Lynx Bus Station
The platforms at Lynx bus station are

protected from the elements by
undulating space-frame roofs clad in
metal panels.
The canopies were clad with

approximately 88,000 square feet of
corrugated decking creating signature
waves against the Orlando skyline.
https://www.archdaily.com/catalog/us/products/17244/metal-panels-in-lynx-central-
omnimax/186149?ad_source=neufert&ad_medium=gallery&ad_name=open-gallery
54
10/27/2021
https://www.archdaily.com/catalog/us/products/17244/metal-
panels-in-lynx-central-omnimax
https://www.specialty-structures.com/portfolio-reader/lynx-bus-station.html
https://www.specialty-structures.com/portfolio-reader/lynx-bus-station.html
55
10/27/2021
Example: Qizhong Stadium
Qizhong Stadium
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JpN6GAouo2Q
Qi Zhong Centre Court Stadium

constructed in Shanghai, China in
2005 is a tennis hall with a
capacity of 15,000.
The roof is divided into eight parts,

and all of them rotate horizontally.
It takes 8 minutes for the roof to
open.
https://www.si.com/tennis/2015/09/23/atp-shanghai-masters-1000
56
10/27/2021
https://www.gettyimages.ca/detail/news-photo/the-roof-opens-during-the-
official-opening-of-qizhong-news-photo/55840689
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Deformation-of-roof-at-certain-
instant-a-SHW2-from-X-directional-b-El-Centro-from_fig2_225111979
57
10/27/2021
https://www.gettyimages.ca/detail/news-photo/the-roof-opens-during-the-official-opening-of-qizhong-news-
photo/55840689
Example: Sofi
Stadium, USA
This skeleton substructure

attaches to the stadium’s
base structure and
precisely positions the
outer skin, while providing
the strength that enables
it to remain stable.
58
10/27/2021
The stadium's outer

surface consists of 34,789
perforated anodized
aluminum panels
https://www.metalarchitecture.com/articles/the-space-frame-in-action-sofi-stadium
59
10/27/2021
Example: IBM Pavilion glass space frame structure
• The pavilion was a

transparent vaulted
composite structure, 48m
long by 12m wide.
• polycarbonate moulded
pyramids were fixed
together to form three-pin
arched bays.
http://www.engineering-
timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id=727 https://www.metalarchitecture.com/articles/the-space-frame-in-action-sofi-stadium
https://www.pinterest.ca/cynthialing92/ibm-travelling-pavilion/ https://www.pinterest.de/pin/314407617721446653/
60
10/27/2021
Example: Strong Museum expansion project
http://rochesterrigging.com/ProjectDescription.aspx?id=29
61
10/27/2021
Example: Strong Museum expansion project
http://rochesterrigging.com/ProjectDescription.aspx?id=29
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0143974X0900145X
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Topology-of-200-
bar-3D-roof-truss_fig5_238112690
62
10/27/2021
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/3D-view-of-the-arena-roof-truss-
model-The-lines-in-blue-represent-truss-elements_fig1_320585886
https://continuingeducation.bnpmedia.com/courses/the-steel-institute-of-
new-york/adapting-to-change-arenas-rely-on-steel/3/
63
10/27/2021
Barrel space frame installation
Space Frame installation
64
10/27/2021
Timber space frame-Installation
Thanks you!
65
2023-11-08
Midterm exam
6 Students =90+
31 students = 80+
29 students = 70+
12 students =60+
6 students = 50+
1
2023-11-08
Unit 7: Concrete
Construction-Part 1
Maziar Asefi (PhD, March, PMP, MRAIC, OAA (Intern), BCIN (H&SB))
Concrete:Definition & Ingredients

Concrete is a rocklike material produced by mixing
coarse and fine aggregates, Portland cement, and
water and allowing the mixture to harden.
Concrete is extremely versatile in form. It is a
wonderfully “plastic” material and is able to be formed
into many shapes.
Ingredients
• Portland Cement
• Course Aggregate (Gravel and Crushed stone)
• Fine Aggregate (sand) https://www.thespruce.com/types-of-concrete-joints-845022
• Water
• Admixtures (optional)
2
2023-11-08
Concrete Properties
 Versatile
 Pliable when mixed
 Strong & Durable
 Does not Rust or Rot
 Does Not Need a Coating
 Resists Fire
Portland Cement
Portland cement is manufactured

through a closely controlled chemical
combination of calcium, silicon,
aluminum, iron and other ingredients.
It’s mixed and heated, and then ground
finely again.
https://www.exportersindia.com/sidney-import-and-export/loose-portland-
cement-5443213.htm
3
2023-11-08
Cement Types-Strengths
Type I - Normal (most applications)
Type IA - Normal, Air entraining
Type II – Moderate resistance to sulphate attack (such as salt)- are

used where the concrete will be in contact with water that has a high
concentration of sulfates.
Type IIA – Moderate resistance, Air entraining
Type III – High early strength (hardens more quickly than the other
types and is employed in situations where a reduced curing period is
desired)
USED FOR:
• COLD WEATHER
• PRECAST CONCRETE
• ACCELERATED CONSTRUCTION - HIGH RISE
Type IIIA – High early strength, Air entraining
Air-entraining cement contains ingredients that create small

bubbles during the mixing process and is more workable when
finishing the concrete. https://tutorialstipscivil.com/material/type-
of-cement/
Type IV – Low heat hydration (slow drying)

HAS A LOWER HEAT GENERATED DURING
HYDRATION and it USES for:
• MASSIVE STRUCTURES
• LARGE MATS
• DAMS
Type V – High resistance to sulphate attack
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https://www.quora.com/What-is-type-2-cement
Type I - Normal (most applications)
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Cement Strengths
Type III – High Early strength Type IV – Low Heat of Hydration

Type IV is a low heat of hydration
cement (massive construction) cement for use where the rate and
amount of heat generated must be
minimized (Dams)
11
Water for Concrete

The water used must be free of organic material, clay or salt. It also shouldn’t
have any sulfates, acids, or alkalis. Typically, builders use potable water from
municipal water sources, or wells.
Before you mix these ingredients, you

must consider the water-cement ratio -
that’s a calculation of how much water
you need to mix with a certain portion
of cement to produce a desired
volume of concrete.
The water-cement ratio helps control

the strength, durability, and
watertightness of hardened
concrete. A typical water-cement ratio
would range from 0.45 to 0.60. https://bestsupportunderground.com/water-cement-
ratio/?lang=en
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Aggregate
You also have to consider how much aggregate
you’ll need. Gravel and sand aggregate should
typically represent 60-80 per cent of the concrete
volume.
Types of aggregate:
•Coarse aggregate is usually crushed stone, gravel,

or blast-furnace slag, featuring a particle size of
more than six millimeters. The size of coarse
aggregate in reinforced concrete is also limited by
the size of the sectional area and spacing of the
reinforcing bars, as the concrete must flow around
these in the form and leave no gaps or voids.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xh-HSeLyYd0
•Fine aggregate is sand with a particle size of less
than six millimeters.
13
Properties of concrete Aggregates
Aggregates make up:
 Three-quarters of the volume of

concrete, The strength of a concrete is
heavily dependent on their quality.
Aggregates for concrete must be:
 strong,
 clean,
 resistant to freeze-thaw deterioration,
 chemically stable,
 and properly graded for size distribution.
https://www.concretenetwork.com/aggregate/
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Lightweight Concrete
lightweight concrete is produced using porous and
lightweight aggregates including Clay, Shale, Slate,
Volcanic Pumice, Ash, or Perlite.
Structural Lightweight Aggregate:

• Density approx. 80% of reg. concrete
• Reduces dead weight
• Often made from shales
Nonstructural Lightweight Aggregate:
• Density 20-25% of regular weight

• Purpose: Insulating material - under roofs
https://ozinga.com/product/lightweight-aggregate/
15
Admixtures (Used to Alter Concrete Properties)

• Air-entraining admixtures
• increase workability
• freeze thaw
• lighter mix, insulating value
• Water-reducing admixtures
• reduce water needed
• increase strength
• High range water-reducers - superplasticizers
• Accelerating & retarding admixtures
• cold and hot weather concreting
• Fly ash
• increases strength, decreases permeability
• reduces mixing water, improves pumpability
• Workability agents
• Fibrous admixtures https://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/concret
e_admixtures/types.html
• short fibers; often glass, steel, or polypropylene
• Coloring agents
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Requirements for Quality Concrete
 Proper Selection of Materials

TYPE OF CEMENT
SIZE AND GRADATION OF AGGREGATES
CLEAN WATER
ADMIXTURES
 Correct proportioning, mixing, & material transport

RIGHT QUANTITIES
PROPER MIXING & TRANSPORT
 Careful placing and consolidation
 Skillful finishing
 Adequate curing https://glvt.ca/services/concrete/
17
Concrete slump
The concrete slump test is an empirical test that measures workability
of fresh concrete. The test measures consistency of concrete in that
specific batch (Acceptable slump for normal application should be 4
inches or less)
https://www.humboldtmfg.com/blog/concrete-slump-testing/
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Concrete slump
The test is carried out using a mould known

as a slump cone or Abrams cone.
The cone is placed on a hard non-
absorbent surface. This cone is filled with
fresh concrete in three stages.
Each time, each layer is tamped 25 times
with a rod of standard dimensions.
The mould is carefully lifted vertically
upwards, so as not to disturb the concrete
cone.
https://maxi.co.uk/what-concrete-slump/concrete-slump-test/
19
Slump Testing
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Concrete Compressive Strength

Compressive Strength of concrete is
Measured in pound-force per square inch
(psi).
Primarily Determined By:

• Amount of Cement
• Water-Cement Ratio
• Other influencing factors:
o Admixture(s)
o Aggregate Selection & Gradation
https://www.shutterstock.com/search/concrete+compressive+strength
Strength Ranges: 2000 - 22,000+ psi

COMMON - 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000psi
21
Measurement of compressive strength

Compressive strength is measured by breaking cylindrical concrete specimens in
a compression-testing machine. Compressive strength is calculated from the
failure load divided by the cross-sectional area resisting the load and reported in
units of pound-force per square inch (psi) or megapascals (MPa).
Test cylinders curing and then strength tested (Upper right)
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Measurement of compressive strength
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/concrete-
cylinders-compressive-strength/2234/
Test Cylinders Filled with a Sampling of the Concrete Mix
23
Test of Concrete compressive strength
24
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Comparative ultimate strength properties of four common structural materials
Source: Course Textbook- Allen E. (2013), Fundamental of Building Construction.
25
Concrete Placement
 Deposit in Formwork
• Direct From the Truck
• MUST BE ABLE TO GET CLOSE
• Bucket
• METAL BUCKET - 1-2 CY
• LIFTED WITH A CRANE
• Pump
• PUMPS CONCRETE FROM GREAT DISTANCES
• CHOICE DEPENDS ON CONDITIONS, COST (LABOR AND
EQUIPMENT
• Concrete Conveyer
 Consolidate Mix
VIBRATOR – USING LONG RUBBER SHANK W/ METALIC TIP
 Apply Finish (if Required)
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Concrete Placement
Placement Today – Direct From the Transit Mixer
27
Concrete Placement
Concrete Bucket Being Filled
28
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Concrete Placement
Placement of a Wall with a Crane & Concrete Bucket
29
Concrete Placement
Placement with a Concrete Pump
30
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Concrete
ConcretePlacement
Placement
Placement with a Concrete Conveyor
https://www.forconstructionpros.com/concrete/equipment-products/concrete-
pumps/article/21046527/moving-concrete-to-create-indiana-infrastructure
31
Concrete Segregation
Segregation - Segregation means separation of designed fresh concrete
ingredients from each other (the coarse aggregate works its way to the
bottom of the form and the water and cement paste rise toward the top)
non-uniform mix.
Results - Non-uniformity & Unsatisfactory properties
Common Causes
• Excessive Vibration
• Dropping From Excessive Heights
• Moving Concrete Horizontally for a long distance
Improperly Consolidated – “Honeycomb”
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33
34
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Extensive Reinforcing Can Make Placement Difficult
35
Cold Joint
A cold joint is a plane of weakness in

concrete caused by an interruption or delay
in the concreting operations.
It occurs when the first batch of concrete

has begun to set before the next batch is
added, so that the two batches do not
intermix– In other words cold joint
happens between hardened concrete and
fresh concrete.
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/cold-joint-in-concrete/7448/
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Concrete Curing
Concrete Curing:
Concrete cures by hydration- the
chemical bonding of the water and
cement. It should be kept wet and
reach its desired compressive
strength after 28 days.
https://www.wrmeadows.com/newly-released-dual-action-acrylic-
curing-compound/
37
Concrete Curing
Concrete Must be kept moist (new concrete should be kept

moist for at least three days while curing)
• DRYS OUT - REDUCED STRENGTH

• REMEMBER, AS LONG AS MOISTURE IS PRESENT - THE
CONCRETE CONTINUES TO HYDRATE
Methods to Keep concrete Moist:
• Application of Water
• Covering
• Curing Compound
https://civildigital.com/curing-concrete-purpose-curing-curing-methods/
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Concrete Curing
39
Curing in Extreme Temperature
Underside of Slab being protected during cold weather
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Curing in Extreme Temperature
Top of Slab being protected during cold weather
41
The growth of compressive strength in concrete over time
Compressive strength, percent of 28-day

moist-cured concrete
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Concrete Formwork
Formwork is temporary or permanent molds into which concrete or
similar materials are poured.
 Temporary Structure
 Shapes and supports wet

concrete
 Must be designed to support:

• Concrete & Reinforcing &
• Construction Loading
• Be easily stripped once
concrete is cured https://www.thebalancesmb.com/safety-installation-and-removal-of-formwork-844783
43
Concrete Formwork
Concrete Formwork
Quality of the finished concrete surface depends on:

• Quality of the form material
• Structural Strength (including the form tie and framing spacing)
https://www.concreteconstruction.net/products/concrete-construction-equipment-
tools/architectural-formliners_o
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Concrete Formwork
https://civiconcepts.com/blog/types-of-formwork
Types: Wood, Metal, Plastic/Fiberglass, Cardboard

45
Concrete Formwork
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Concrete Reinforcing
Concrete is:
– GREAT IN COMPRESSION
– POOR IN TENSION
Why do we use Steel for improving the Tensile

Strength of concrete:
•Similar Coefficient of thermal expansion

•Chemical Compatibility
•Adhesion Of Concrete To Steel
Steel Location https://www.facilitiesnet.com/flooring/contributed/Moisture-Not-Always-to-
“Place reinforcing steel where the concrete is

Blame-When-Concrete-Slabs-Cause-Flooring-Problems--42739
in tension”
47
Steel Reinforcing Bars
Sizes
• Eleven Standard Diameters - 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9, 10, 11, 14, 18
• Number refers to 1/8ths of an inch
Example: for #3 :
Nominal diameter is 0.375 inches
Rebar is graded to show the amount of tensile
strength
Grades
• 40, 50, 60
• The number shows the Steel Yield
Strength (in thousands)
Example: Grade 40 has a minimum yield
strength of 40,000 PSI https://www.alro.com/divsteel/metals_gridpt.aspx?gp=0324
&gpn=Rebar&Mat=CARBON%20STEEL&Type=Other
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American standard sizes of reinforcing bars
49
Reinforcing Markings
Reinforcing bar contains markings that provide information about the
size, grade and steel alloy of the rebar.
https://www.crsi.org/index.cfm/steel/identification
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Reinforcing Supports
The most common way of spacing reinforcing bars is through the use of
reinforcing bar supports. These supports come in a variety of
configuration and can be made of meal, concrete, plastic-reinforced
cement or other materials.
https://engineer-educators.com/topic/location-for-reinforcing-steel/
51
Reinforcing Supports
https://www.walcoom.com/products/engineeringmaterials/concrete-reinforcing-
mesh/reinforcing-bar-support.html
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Reinforcing “Special” Coatings
We can use Galvanized or Epoxy Coatings when the bars are

exposed to Salts or Sea Water!
Epoxy Coating
53
Welded Wire Fabric (WWF)

Welded wire fabric:
As an alternative to conventional reinforcing bars,

reinforcing is also produced in sheets or rolls of welded
wire reinforcement (WWR), also called welded wire
fabric (WWF). Standard sheets range in size from 10 to
20 feet (3.1 to 6.1 m) in length and up to 8 feet (2.4 m)
in width.
• Grid of “wires” spaced 2-12 inches apart (50 to 300

mm)
• Specified by wire gauge and spacing
• Typical Use - Horizontal Surfaces
• Comes in Mats or Rolls
• Advantage - Labor Savings
https://masonrydepotny.com/product/con
crete-wire-mesh-light/
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Welded Wire Fabric (WWF)

Welded wire fabric:
The reinforcement style of WWF, is specified

by:
 The spacing of the wires and
 The wire sizes and types.
For example, the style designation

6×12–D12×W5 indicates welded wire
reinforcement with D12 longitudinal wires
spaced at 6 inches (150 mm) and W5
transverse wires spaced at 12 inches (300
mm).
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/welded-wire-fabric-concrete/30421/
55
Reinforcing Fabrication “Process”
Shop Drawing Preparation

DETAIL EVERY STRUCTURAL MEMBER
REINFORCING SIZED & LOCATED
DETAILS ON BENDING, HOOKS, STURRIPS,
PIECE MARKED/LABELED
TIME TO PREPARE - DEPENDS
Shop Drawing Review & Approval

STRUCTURAL ENGINEER
REVIEWS FOR DOCUMENT COMPLIANCE
TIME TO REVIEW - DEPENDS
Cut, bend, bundle, & tag
Ship to jobsite
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Reinforcing Installation
• Hoist bundles to desired location
• Place and Secure (tie)

Splicing
When the length of reinforcement bar has
to be extended in reinforced concrete
structural member, splicing is used to join
two reinforcement bars to transfer the
force from one bar to the joining bar. The
forces are transferred from one bar to the
other through bonds in concrete
Splicing Methods
• Overlapping
• End to end; weld or mechanical splice
57
Threaded
Connector
Cadweld
Grouted
Sleeve
Clamping /
Alignment
Sleeve
Flanged
Lapped Coupler
Source: Course Textbook-
Allen E. (2013), Fundamental
of Building Construction. MECHANICAL SPLICES
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Wall Reinforcing being secured with Wire Ties
59
Long Bridge Pier Requiring Reinforcing Splicing
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Closeup of Mechanical Splice
61
Reinforcing a Simple Concrete Beam
Location of Forces:
Bottom in tension
(Reinforcement required)
Top in compression B
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Purpose of Hooks at the end

of Reinforcing:
At the ends of the beam, some stress

remains in the steel, but there is no
further length of concrete into which
the stress can be dissipated. This
problem is solved by bending the ends
of the bars into hooks, which are
semicircular bends of standard
dimensions.
Hooks
63
https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/design-doubly-reinforced-concrete-beams-
example/212837/
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Cross section of a rectangular concrete beam
The concrete cover provides

a full embedment for the
reinforcing bars and protects
them from fire and corrosion.
65
Reinforcing Stirrups
Stirrup: A steel bar bent into a "U" or box shape and installed
perpendicular to, or at an angle to the longitudinal reinforcement,
and properly anchored. Stirrup is used to resist shear and diagonal
tension stresses in a concrete structural member.
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https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/reinforced-concrete-beam-detailing-according-aci-code/22168/
67
https://dassrebar.com/products/links-stirrups/
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Reinforcing a Continuous Concrete Beam
In a continuous concrete beam:

• At Mid-span - Bottom is in
Tension
• At Beam Supports - Top is in
Tension
69
Reinforcing a Continuous Concrete Beam
1" (25) clear

minimum
Cast-in-place concrete beams are

almost always formed and placed
along with the slab they support. Rule of thumb for estimating depth of
a concrete beam: span/16
Because a portion of the slab acts 1-1/2" (38) minimum cover required to
as an integral part of the beam, the protect steel reinforcement from fire
and corrosion
depth of the beam is measured to Beam width should be equal to or

greater than width of supporting
the top of the slab. column.
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Concrete Slabs
71
Concrete Slab
One - Way Slabs
 works best for bays that are not square.
 One-way slabs must be provided with shrinkage–
temperature steel (a set of small-diameter reinforcing bars
set at right angles to, and on top of, the primary reinforcing
in the slab).
 Their function is to prevent cracks from forming parallel to
the primary reinforcing because of concrete shrinkage,
temperature-induced stresses, or miscellaneous forces that
may occur in the building
Two - Way Slabs

 Two-way slabs, which work best for bays that are square or
nearly square,
 They are reinforced equally in both directions and share the
bending forces equally between the two directions.
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One-way slab-Variety
One-way solid slab with One-way solid

beams and girders slab with slab bands
One-way concrete joist system (rib Wide-module joist system with joist
slab) with joist bands bands.
73
One-way slab
One - Way Slabs
A one-way slab is uniformly thick, reinforced in one direction, and cast integrally with parallel
supporting beams.
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One-way slab
75
One-Way Joist Slab

One-Way Joist Slab
A joist or ribbed slab is cast integrally with a series of closely spaced joists, which in turn are
supported by a parallel set of beams. Designed as a series of T-beams, joist slabs are more suitable
for longer spans and heavier loads than one-way slabs.
3" to 4 -1/2" (75 to 115mm) slab depth

Rule of thumb for total depth: span/24
Distribution rib is formed perpendicular
to the joists in order to distribute 5" to 9" (125 to 230) joist width
possible load concentrations over a
larger area: Pans are reusable metal or fiberglass
one required for spans between 20' molds
and 30' (6 and 9 m), and not more
than 15' (4.5 m) o.c. for spans over 30' Pans are reusable metal or fiberglass
(9 m). molds
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One-Way Joist Slab
https://structurepoint.org/pdfs/Wide-Module-Pan-Skip-Joist-Spandrel-Torsion-Concrete-Floor-Design-Detailing.htm
77
Two-Way Slab and Beam

Two-Way Slab and Beam
A two-way slab of uniform thickness may be reinforced in two directions and cast integrally with
supporting beams and columns on all four sides of square or nearly square bays. Two-way slab and
beam construction is effective for medium spans and heavy loads, or when a high resistance to
lateral forces is required. For economy, however, two-way slabs are usually constructed as flat slabs
and plates without beams.
4" (100) minimum slab depth; rule of thumb

for slab depth: slab perimeter/180
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Two-Way Flat Plate

Two-Way Flat Plate
A flat plate is a concrete slab of uniform thickness reinforced in two or more directions and
supported directly by columns without beams or girders. Simplicity of forming, lower floor-to-floor
heights, and some flexibility in column placement make flat plates practical for apartment and hotel
construction.
5" to 12" (125 to 305) slab depth

Rule of thumb for slab depth: span/33
Suitable for light live to moderate loads over

relatively short spans of 12' to 24' (3.6 to 7 m)
79
Two-Way Flat Slab

Two-Way Flat Slab
A flat slab is a flat plate thickened at its column supports to increase its shear strength and moment-
resisting capacity.
6" to 12" (150 to 305) typical slab dept.

Rule of thumb for slab depth: span/36
Drop panel is the portion of a flat slab

thickened around a column head to
increase its resistance to punching shear.
Minimum projection of drop panel: 0.25 x
slab thickness
Minimum width of drop panel: 0.33 span
Column capital may be used in place of or

in conjunction with a drop panel for Suitable for relatively heavy loads and spans
increased shear resistance. from20' to 40' (6 to 12 m)
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Two Way Elevated Framing System
• The two-way fat slab , is usually used for heavily loaded buildings such
as storage and industrial buildings.
• The formwork is completely flat except for a thickening of the concrete to
resist the high shear forces around the top of each column.
• Typical depths for the slab itself range from 6 to 12 inches (150 to 300 mm).
81
Two-Way Slab with Beam
https://structurepoint.org/pdfs/Two-Way-Concrete-Floor-Slab-with-Beams-Design-Detailing.htm
82
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Two-Way Waffle Slab

Two-Way Waffle Slab
A waffle slab is a two-way concrete slab reinforced by ribs in two directions. Waffle slabs are able to
carry heavier loads and span longer distances than flat slabs.
3" to 4 -1/2" (75 to 115) slab depth

Rule of thumb for total depth: span/24
5" or 6" (125 or 150) rib width
Square metal or fiberglass dome forms are

available in 19" and 30" (485 and 760) widths
For greater shear strength and moment-

resisting capacity, solid heads at column Suitable for spans of 24' to 54' (7 to 16 m);
supports are formed by omitting dome longer spans may be possible with
forms; size depends on span and load posttensioning.
conditions.
83
Waffle slab Details
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Waffle_slab
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Waffle slab Details
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Waffle_slab
85
Waffle slab Pros and Cons

Advantages Disadvantages
 Waffle slabs are able to carry heavier loads and
 Construction requires strict
span longer distances than flat slabs.
supervision and skilled labour.
 Suitable for spans of 7m – 16m ; longer spans
 The casting forms or moulds required
may be possible with posttensioning.
for precast units are very costly and
 It is also economical as the amount of concrete
hence only economical when large
and steel is reduced as compared to flat slabs.
scale production of similar units are
Saving 15% concrete and 10% steel as
desired.
compared to traditional T beams.
 Headroom is reduced , hence
 These systems are light in weight and hence
increased storey height.
considerable saving is ensured in the framework
 Due to waffle ceiling , it creates
as light framework is required.
problem in lighting facilities and
 Coffered underside is usually left exposed for
hanging pipes or ducts.
visual appearance.
https://www.fantasticeng.com/2020/06/waffle-slab-or-flat-grid-advantages-dis.html
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Waffle slab construction procedure
87
Waffle slab Patterns
https://in.pinterest.com/arunprabakaran219/waffle-slab/ Yale University Art Gallery designed by Louis Khan

https://www.modlar.com/photos/4992/yale-university-art-gallery-interior/
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https://confederationcentre.com/plan-your-visit/
Confederation Centre of the Arts
89
Waffle slab Patterns- ODD House
https://www.archdaily.com/619928/odd-house-1-0-odd/552e7d21e58ecebf540002dc-7_parking_area-
jpg?next_project=no
90
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Waffle slab Patterns- ODD House
https://www.archdaily.com/619928/odd-house-1-0-
odd/552e7d21e58ecebf540002dc-7_parking_area-jpg?next_project=no
91
Waffle Slab Patterns
https://www.archdaily.com/619928/odd-house-1-0-odd/552e7d21e58ecebf540002dc-
7_parking_area-jpg?next_project=no
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Wooden Waffle slab- Canada’s National Arts Centre,

https://capitalmag.ca/2017/11/20/feature-canadas- Ottawa, By Diamond Schmitt completed in 2017
national-arts-centre-view-the-past-see-the-future/
93
Waffle slab Patterns-International Airport in Mumbai, India, Designed by SOM
https://https://www.airport-technology.com/projects/chhatrapati//
94
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Waffle slab Patterns-International Airport in Mumbai, India
95
Waffle slab Patterns-International Airport in Mumbai, India
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Smart Waffle slab
Smart Slab of DEFAB HOUSE
The Smart Slab is part of the DFAB HOUSE

designed by a group of researchers from ETH
Zurich. The Smart Slab rests on the double-curved
Mesh Mould wall and supporting the two-story
robotically-assembled timber units above. In
addition, on the perimeter, it interfaces with the 15
Smart Dynamic Casting facade mullions.
https://dbt.arch.ethz.ch/project/smart-slab/
97
Smart Waffle slab
Smart Slab of DEFAB HOUSE
 The geometry of the Smart Slab is structurally

optimized for its challenging load-case
 Includes cantilevers of up to 4.5 meters
 The material is distributed in a hierarchical grid of
curved ribs, which vary between 30 and 60 cm in
depth.
 The interstitial surfaces stabilize the grid and are
only 1.5 cm thick.
 The slab only weighs 15 tonnes, almost 70% less
in comparison to a conventional solid concrete
slab.
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Smart Waffle slab
Smart Slab of DEFAB HOUSE-3D Printing
 For the formwork of the Smart Slab, different 3D

printing technologies were used to efficiently take
advantage of their unique capabilities. Binder
jetting was used for the most part, while fused
filament deposition was used for locally
integrating building services within the slab.
 Laser-cut plywood formwork panels were
integrated to define the geometry of the upstand
ribs. This is because the upstand ribs only
contain flat surfaces which do not require the
high-resolution of 3D printing.
99
Smart Waffle slab
100
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Smart Waffle slab
Smart Slab of DEFAB HOUSE-Integration
 The formwork facilitates the accurate provision of

functional voids within the slab for electrical
conduits, water ducts, light fittings, fire sprinklers
and rebar form ties, as well as for the accurate
spatial curving of the post-tensioning ducts.
 The integration of building services during
prefabrication streamlines assembly on site and
considerably reduces construction tolerances.
101
Smart Waffle slab
102
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Smart Waffle slab
103
Smart Waffle slab
104
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Smart Waffle slab-Assembly and Production
105
Thank you
106
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Agenda for Today--- November 17th 2021

9:00am-9:10 – Peer Network Program (Janella)
9:10am-10:00 Lecture Concrete II- Part 1)
10:10am- 10:50 am Lecture (Concrete II- Part 2)
11:00pam-12:00pm – Q&A and Group Discussion
NO ICE this week– Only Discussion and Q&A (Aim: Preparation for final submission of assignment II
next week)
Unit 8: Concrete II– Prefab &

Advanced Concrete fabrication
Technology
Maziar Asefi (PhD, MArch, PMP, MRAIC, OAA (Intern), BCIN (H&SB))
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Concrete Slab- School library in Gando, Burkina Faso
Concrete Slab in Gando
 Traditional clay pots were used in the ceiling to

ensure, after their removal, light and air to
circulate.
https://www.archdaily.com/262012/in-progress-school-library-gando-kere-
architecture
https://www.archdaily.com/262012/in-progress-school-library-gando-kere-
architecture
2
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HOLEDECK assembly
Holedeck Waffle Slab-Features
3
2021-12-05
Waffle slab Drawings
https://in.pinterest.com/arunprabakaran219/waffle-slab/ https://studfile.net/preview/4592752/page:22/
Waffle slab
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Waffle slab as Foundation System
Reinforcing Concrete Columns
Vertical Bars
• Carry Compressive & Tension
Loads
Ties - Small bars wrapped around the

vertical bars
• Help prevent buckling
• Circular or Rectangular
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Conventional Reinforcing Concrete
Reinforced Concrete Members

 Part of the member in compression
 Part of the member in tension
Over half of the concrete

 Not carrying any load,Holding reinforcing in position & providing protective cover
Prestressing
Theory; “Place all the concrete of the

member in compression” (take
advantage of concrete’s compressive
strength of the entire member)
Advantages
• Increase the load carrying
capacity
• Increase span length, or
• Reduce the member’s size
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Pre-stressing
Pre-stressed concrete is concrete that has had

internal stresses introduced to counteract, to
the degree desired, the tensile stresses that will
be imposed in service.
The stress is usually imposed by tendons of

individual wires, cables , or bars of high
strength alloy steel.
These cables are tensioned (stretched) to https://www.civilquery.com/prestressed-concrete/

approximately three-quarters of their ultimate
strength
Forms of Pre-stressing steels
Wires
A pre-stressing wire is a single unit made of steel. The
nominal diameters of the wires are 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.0 and
8.0 mm. The different types of wires are as follows.
1) Plain wire: No indentations on the surface.

2) Indented wire: There are circular or elliptical indentations
on the surface.
https://www.diytrade.com/china/pd/16674631/LOW_RELAXATION_1860MPA_PRESTR
ESSED_CONCRETE_STEEL_WIRE_STRAND.html
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Strands
A few wires are spun together in a helical form to form a pre-

stressing strand. The different types of strands are as
follows.
1) Two-wire strand: Two wires are spun together to form
the strand.
2) 2) Three-wire strand: Three wires are spun together to
form the strand.
3) 3) Seven-wire strand: In this type of strand, six wires are
spun around a central wire.
https://civilengineeringrad.wixsite.com/constructingworld/single-post/pre-stressing-
concrete
The central wire is larger than the other wires.
Tendons
A group of strands or wires are placed together to form a

pre-stressing tendon. The tendons are usually used in post-
tensioned members.
https://www.klineengineered.com/blog/2016/1/20/top-10-biggest-mistakes-made-in-post-
tensioned-concrete-design
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Pre-stressing - Pre-tensioning
Prestressing may be achieved either by pre-

tensioning or by post-tensioning.
To pretension concrete the steel is first tensioned in

a frame or between anchorages external to the
member.
The concrete is then cast around it. After the
concrete has developed sufficient strength the
tension is slowly released from the frame or
anchorage to transfer the stress to the concrete to
which the tendons have by that time become
bonded.
https://www.constructioncost.co/post-tensioning-concrete-slabs-in-building.html
Pre-stressing – Pre-tensioning
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-pretension-and-post-tension-in-structural-members
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Pre-stressing – Post-tensioning
• Cables positioned prior to concrete placement

• Once the concrete cures to its required
strength, the tensioning is released. The steel
cables reacting to the release, transfer the
tensile stresses into the concrete, rendering
an even stronger structural component.
• Generally performed at the jobsite
Bonded and Unbounded Post-tensioning Tendon
Bonded Tendons
With bonded systems the tendons are positioned inside

of ducts which are filled with grout after stressing. This
introduces a compatibility between the prestressing
steel and concrete which means that after bonding any
strain experienced by the concrete is experienced by the
prestressing steel.
Bonded post-tensioned concrete: unstressed pre-
stressing steel is placed with in the concrete and then
tension stressed after concrete has harden to required
strength.
tensioned-concrete-design
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Bonded Post-tensioning Tendon

Process
 Concrete is casted around a curved duct (usually
corrugated), to allow room for the Tendon to be
inserted.
 After the concrete has hardened the tendons are
pulled in tension and then wedged.
 The duct is then injected with gout
Advantages
 Tendons are less likely to de-stress in accidents

 Tendons can be easily 'weaved' allowing more
efficient designs
 Higher ultimate strength due to bond generated
between the strand and concrete
 No issues with maintaining the anchor tensioned-concrete-design
Bonded and Unbounded Post-tensioning Tendon
Unbonded Tendons
Unlike bonded, un-bonded provides tendons freedom of

movement by coating each tendon with grease and
covering it with a plastic sheathing.
http://noorps.com/page.php?7
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Post-tensioning Installation process
 Install (position) unstressed steel strands

• Often Draped
• Positioned to follow tensile forces
 Place and Cure Concrete
 Stress steel stands with hydraulic jack

• From one or both ends of the stand
 Anchor the ends of the stands
 Trim cables (& patch)

Post-tensioning Installation
Post-tension Cable Strands
https://www.indiamart.com/vr-creation-surat/post-tension-wires-cables.html
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Plastic-sheathed to prevent bonding to concrete
Draped to be positioned in Tension area of slab
https://www.klineengineered.com/blog/2016/1/20/top-10-biggest-mistakes-made-in-post-tensioned-concrete-design
13
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Posttensionsing Installation
Hydraulic Jacking Machine to Stress Cables
Pre-stressed concrete
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Concrete Shells
Concrete Shells
A concrete shell, also called “thin shell” concrete

structure, is self-supporting systems, often with
no interior columns or exterior buttresses.
The shells can take several forms mainly:
 Flat plates
 Domes.
 Ellipsoids
 Cylindrical sections
https://www.innovaconcrete.eu/what-is-concrete-shell-architecture/
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Concrete Shells
The shell designer seeks forms to carry the

applied loads in axial compression with minimal
bending forces.
The simplest way to create a structure which is in

pure compression is to invert the shape of the
hanging chain (catenary) (This has been extracted
from Hooke’s Law), which by definition is in pure
tension and free of bending.
Catenary: a free hanging chain from two points
https://concretedomestructures.weebly.com/analysis-of-domes.html
Concrete Shells
The form of the ideal arch will depend on the

applied loading. For a chain of constant weight
per unit length, the shape of a hanging chain
acting under self-weight is a catenary.
But if the load is uniformly distributed

horizontally, the ideal arch would take the form
of a parabola, and the chain would take
different geometries according to the loading.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00158-019-02304-9
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Concrete Shells
The span/rise ratio (L/d) can vary widely,

though most shell structures occur in the
range of
2 < L/d < 10..
Therefore, even a simple two-dimensional

arch has infinite possible forms which would
act in pure compression under self-weight,
depending on the distribution of weight and
the rise of the arch.
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fbuil.2020.00007/full
Concrete Thin Shells
Concrete thin shell structure is a three-dimensional spatial

structure that constructed from one or more curved slabs
or folded plates.
load-carrying behavior of concrete thin shells depends on:
 Nature of the applied load

 The manner in which thin shells are supported
 The geometry of thin shell forms.
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ARCH-241-!-!-!-!-!-!-Analysis-of-Thin-Shell-
!/36a9de4cf3af3c03f05fb0e135c370f38fbb77d7/figure/4
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Concrete Shells: Folded Plates
This type of concrete shell structure is made up of thin

flat slabs. These slabs are rigidly jointed together along
their edges to construct a three-dimensional structure.
sharp angles prevent lateral buckling in every plane.
These type of shell structures:
 Spans up to 30m with only 60mm thickness.

 Reduce material and construction cost.
 Do not require additional supporting beams along
mutual edges
https://www.flickr.com/photos/mako_pictu/5369855461
Concrete Shells: Folded Plates
Load Distribution:
A folded plate structure has a two way action in

transmitting loads to its support:
 Each plane behaves as a beam in the longitudinal

direction.
 Transverse strips behave as a continuous beam
supported at fold points.
 Vertical diaphragms or rigid frames stiffen a folded
plate against deformation of the fold profile.
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Folded Plate Types
There are three types of folded plates including:
 Prismatic folded plates

Includes planar rectangular thin slabs joining along their
longitudinal edges
 Non-prismatic folded plates

Includes non-rectangular thin slabs joining along their
longitudinal edges
 Faceted folded plates

consists of triangular or polygonal planar thin slabs
joining along their edges to form thin plate structure.
https://civiljungle.com/folded-plate/
Folded Plate Types
Folded plate variations
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-03676-8_45
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Folded Plate Examples
Yokohama Intl Passenger

Terminal, Japan ,
completed in 2002,
The strength of the

materials minimizes the
need for vertical supports
and allows for a mostly
open floor plan, while the
height of the structure
allows for a spectacular
variety of ceiling conditions
in the interior spaces.
https://www.japan-architecture.org/yokohama-international-passenger-terminal/
State Farm Center,

Illinois University
Diameter: 120m
Capacity:16000 seats
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State Farm Center,

Illinois University
State Farm Center,

Illinois University
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Cylindrical barrel Vaults
Barrel vaults are deep concrete beams with

considerably thin web member that can be
designed using conventional reinforced
concrete design.
https://slideplayer.com/slide/11429864/
https://twitter.com/designboom/status/1238615938435514369
Concrete Barrel Vault Examples
Kimbell Art Museum, Luis

khan, 1972
The weight for each vault is
directed through four corner
columns measuring
0.185sqm.
The vaults are interrupted at
the top by Plexiglas skylights
and require concrete struts
that connect the shells at 3-
meter intervals.
https://www.eubankroofing.com/project/kimbell-art-museum/
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Kimbell Art Museum, Luis khan
The building consist of 16 vault. The

span of each bay is 6m wide and 30.6m
long. Height is also 6m. Thickness of
the sell is 100mm.
https://www.thousandwonders.net/Kimbell+Art+Museum
Early sectional sketch of the cycloid shells by Louis Kahn

https://www.stirworld.com/see-features-the-lyrical-alliance-between-concrete-and-light-by-louis-kahn-and-august-komendant
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Prefabricated concrete structures
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Precast Concrete
Structural precast concrete elements

including slabs, beams, girders, columns and
wall panels are cast and cured in factories,
transported to the construction job site and
erected as rigid components.
Precast Concrete slabs
Solid Flat Slab (width vary)--- Short span and

minimum slab depth
Hollow core slab (61,122,244 cm)
Double Tee (244, 305 cm)
Single Tee (244,305 cm)
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Precast Concrete slabs
Precast Concrete slabs- Hollow Core
Slabs profiles & spans:
150 mm profile -8.5 m span

https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/precast-concrete-slabs-8455869033.html
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Precast Beams, Girders
Mild Steel Reinforcing
Precast concrete beam

and girder shapes
Stirrup to bond to a sitecast

concrete topping
Precast Concrete Beams
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-
difference-between-a-rectangular-
beam-and-a-T-beam
Span/depth Ratio= 16-20
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https://www.archiexpo.com/prod/pretersa-
prenavisa/product-124637-1520753.html
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Precast Concrete Wall
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Precast Concrete Wall
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/precast-concrete-walls- https://jvi-inc.com/insulated-precast-concrete-wall-
types-connections-advantages/37998/ panels/
Assembly Concepts for Precast Concrete Buildings
Supporting precast slabs on:
1- A precast concrete Skeleton

2- On precast loadbearing wall panel
3- On a combination of both of them
1
3
2
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Methods of Attachments: Precast Concrete Members
Attachment Methods
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Attachment Methods
Prefabricated Concrete Columns
A simple base detail for precast

concrete columns.
The main principle involved in
making column connections is to
ensure continuity and this can be
achieved by a variety of methods.
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Prefabricated Concrete Columns
Beam to Beam through Column
• A post-tensioned, structurally
continuous beam to column
connection
• Passing a tendon from a pocket in the

top of one beam, through the column
to a pocket in the top of the other
beam.
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Beam to Column Connection
Beam to Column- Topped slab

Topped hollow-core roof slabs supported on beams are joined to a column with vertical rod.
34
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Untopped Hollow core Slab
Untoped hollow core slabs are

connected to beam
Topped Double-Tee Floor slabs
Topped double-tee floor slabs are supported by Source: Course Textbook- Allen E. (2013), Fundamental of Building Construction.
inverted-tee beams in this detail
35
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A cutaway view of a topped double-tee slab.
A cutaway view of a topped

double-tee slab.
A cross section through a topped hollow-core slab.
A cross section through a topped

hollow-core slab.
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A cross section through a topped hollow-core slab.
Opening in Hollow Core Slab
For openings with a width bigger than 40cm (maximum 120cm), they need a beam
to be casted on site.
37
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A typical detail for the slab–wall junctions
Precast construction using load-bearing walls
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Manufacture of Precast Concrete
Manufacture of a double Tee Slab:
1- weld plate with v-shaped anchoring bars

are placed. Prestressing strands and wire
fabric shear reinforcement are installed.
2- the top surface of the concrete is

straighten by a machine
3- cut Prestressing strand
4- The slab is lifted.
Manufacturing bed: 125-250m
Concrete wall Production
39
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Precast Concrete - Transportation
40
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Hollow core slab production
https://www.nbmcw.com/product-technology/precast/gamuda-selects-slipformer-s-liner-
technology-from-echo.html
Hollow-core slab connection-Steel Beam
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0143974X99000498
41
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Fabric Formed Concrete
Fabric formwork is fabric that is used to

confine and shape fluid concrete until it sets.
its function is complete once the concrete
has set.
A huge range of shapes can be created in

fabric formwork.
Fabric formwork is almost always filled with

plain concrete (may be with fiberglass), with
a maximum aggregate size most commonly
between 4mm and 10mm depending on the
application.
https://proserveltd.co.uk/technology/fabric-formwork-explained/
https://sites.google.com/site/fabricformedconcret
e/introduction/fabric-formwork
42
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The common textile used for fabric
formwork is a plastic geotextile (usually a
geotextile fabric made of woven
polypropylene fibers is used) and Lycra.
When the textile shape is filled with the

concrete mix it adopts the most efficient
form possible, as the textile can only carry
forces effectively through tension,
so varying the amount of fabric at any

particular point in the formwork gives the
opportunity for architects and engineers to
explore new degrees of efficiency of
construction and new aesthetic possibilities.
https://sites.google.com/site/fabricformedconcrete/introduction/fabric https://www.dioncosales.com/Geotextiles-and-
-formwork Erosion-Control-Fabric.html
In comparison to a solid formwork, fabric

formwork does not need any support other
than a rigid frame for the fabric to be stapled
on to prior to pouring –
It also reduces the total amount of materials

needed and increases the ease and speed
of construction.
The geotextile fabric is permeable; this

means that any excess water and air
bubbles in the mix can freely dissipate
through the formwork.
https://sites.google.com/site/fabricformedconcrete/introduction/fabric https://www.dezeen.com/2016/06/06/six-examples-fabric-cast-
-formwork concrete-architecture-design/
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The flexible fabric material are sometimes pre-

tensioned in the formwork and assorted interior
supports were added.
Depending upon the configuration of these

interior support conditions, three dimensional
funicular tension curves were produced in the
fabric as it deformed under the weight of the
wet concrete
https://sites.google.com/site/fabricformedconcrete/introduction/fabric https://www.holcimfoundation.org/awards/1st-cycle/north-
-formwork america/Winners
The fabric casting of concrete involves pouring

cement into a textile mold, usually held in
shape by a wooden frame.
The technique was pioneered by the University

of Manitoba's Centre for Architectural
Structures and Technology(CAST) and 20th
century Swiss engineer Heinz Isler, who used
it as part of his work developing super-thin
concrete building shells.
https://www.dezeen.com/2016/06/06/six-examples-fabric-cast-
https://www.holcimfoundation.org/projects/material-reduction-efficient-fabric-
concrete-architecture-design/
formed-concrete-canada
44
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Fabric Formed Concrete-Example
Designers Ron Culver and Joseph Sarafian

used concrete casting techniques by adding
robots.
This project were Carried out at the University

of California and involved pouring a concrete
and fibreglass mixture into Y-shaped Lycra
sleeves stretched into position by six-axis
robots.
https://www.dezeen.com/2016/06/06/six-examples-fabric-cast-
concrete-architecture-design/ https://www.dezeen.com/2016/05/19/ron-culver-joseph-
sarafian-fabric-forms-cast-concrete-robotic-arms-construction-
method-of-the-future/
The designers preprogrammed the stretching

movements using Grasshopper3D and
Kangaroo software, allowing each of the
pieces to be designed to fit together.
Once the concrete is set, the fabric is then

stripped away, leaving minimal waste. The
pieces take approximately 45 minutes to
harden and are fixed together using a 3D-
printed coupler to create larger assemblies that
can be used as decorative facades or even
load-bearing structures.
https://www.dezeen.com/2016/05/19/ron-culver-joseph-sarafian-fabric-
forms-cast-concrete-robotic-arms-construction-method-of-the-future/
https://www.dezeen.com/2016/05/19/ron-culver-joseph-
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https://parametric-architecture.com/interview-with-joseph-sarafian-of-form-found-design/
Fabric Formed Concrete-Example-Mars Pavilion
This Pavilion is a proof of concept for

integrating robots into the construction
industry.
Industrial robot arms manipulate fabric

sleeves, creating an adjustable formwork
into which concrete is poured.
Every component is unique to exhibit the

flexibility of the workflow. The overall
geometry is designed to be a compression
structure.
https://www.architectmagazine.com/project-gallery/mars-pavilion
https://www.dezeen.com/2016/05/19/ron-culver-joseph-
46
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Fabric Formed Concrete-Example-Mars Pavilion
https://www.architectmagazine.com/project-gallery/mars-pavilion
MARS Pavilion Documentary
47
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Robotic Variable Fabric Formwork
Self-supporting cladding system
https://www.formfounddesign.com/form-found-facade
48
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Fabric form concrete wall
https://www.pinterest.at/pin/63331938483747288/
https://futuresplus.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/wb9b6uda5eqh9o9i.jpg
49
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Fabric form for making a beam
https://www.holcimfoundation.org/projects/material-reduction-efficient-fabric-formed-concrete-canada
50
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Fabric Formed Concrete Deck
51
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Concrete Canvas
Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete (GFRC)
52
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Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete (GFRC)
GFRC is a specialized form of concrete. It is

a cement-based composite material
reinforced with alkali-resistant glass fibers.
The fibers serve a purpose similar to the

reinforcing steel in reinforced concrete, and
they also add tensile and impact strength. As
a result, GFRC can be used to produce
strong, lightweight architectural concrete
products including building panels, structural
elements, building façade and furniture.
https://technologyinarchitecture.wordpress.com/2018/05/22/gl
https://www.architectmagazine.com/project-gallery/mars-pavilion ass-fiber-reinforced-concrete-gfrc/
Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete (GFRC)-Examples
Nanjing International Youth

Cultural Centre / Zaha Hadid
Architects
The facade is composed of a complex

mix of glass curtain wall panels,
glass-fiber reinforced concrete
(GFRC) and perforated aluminum
panels.
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Nanjing-Youth-Olympic-
Centre-Completed-2014-Architect-Engineer-Zaha-Hadid-
Nanjing_fig5_320420146
53
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https://www.researchgate.n
et/figure/Prototype-A-
topology-optimization-of-a-
slab-with-three-
supports_fig1_327793571
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Prototype-B-topology-optimization-of-a-slab-with-four-supports_fig5_327793571
54
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https://www.archdaily.com/262012/in-progress-school-library-gando-kere-architecture
Binder Jetting
55
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Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete (GFRC)- Ultra-thin concrete roof
Researchers from ETH Zurich have

built a prototype of an ultra-thin, curved
concrete roof using innovative digital
design and fabrication methods.
The self-supporting, doubly curved
shell roof has multiple layers
https://phys.org/news/2017-10-prototype-ultra-thin-concrete-
roof.html
Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete (GFRC)- Ultra-thin concrete roof
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ki1EcBCurqc
56
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Ultra-thin concrete roof-ETH Zurich
Ultra-thin concrete roof-Example
57
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Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete (GFRC)- LRT Station in Calgary
The canopy of the LRT Station in Calgary,

designed by Stantec Architecture were cast
from ultra-high performance concrete and
are only 19 mm thick.
http://strudes.com/markets/commercialNew.html
The shells were injection- molded, a

technique in which the concrete is cast
in a fully enclosed mold rather than in a
conventional open- sided form
58
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The precast canopy components were

individually cast and consist of half-
shells, columns, tie beams and struts.
The right and left half-shells, along with

the tie beams, were pre-assembled in
the plant, then transported to the site
and set on temporary scaffolding
59
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Binishells- Concrete Construction Technology
Thank you
60
2021-12-05
Heavy Light - Fabric Formed Concrete Structures : Building Technology
61
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Unit 9A:Innovation, Transformation &

Advanced Structures
in Architecture
Instructor: Maziar Asefi, PhD, M.Arch, PMP
1
2023-12-03
What are emerging technologies
Emerging technologies are technologies whose

development, practical applications, or both are still
largely unrealized, such that they are figuratively
emerging into prominence from a background of
nonexistence or obscurity.
These technologies are generally new but also include
older technologies that are still controversial and
relatively undeveloped in potential.
Application of Emerging technologies
New Buildings
Building Rehabilitation
Revitalization of Historic Buildings
Responsive Facade
….
2
2023-12-03
Emerging technologies- New and Old Buildings
Examples
3
2023-12-03
Material and Digital Fabrication

Louvre Museum Abu Dhabi- Jean Nouvel
Another main work by the architect, which will connect
high technology and Islamic art.
The dome is a symbol of spirituality!
4
2023-12-03
Building the Louvre Abu Dhabi
10
5
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Retractable Membrane roof Buchs- Switzerland
The “Metzgergasse” in Switzerland

was redeveloped as part of the
urban pedestrian area and
designed as a special meeting
place for all kinds of events. For
weather protection, the 11m wide
and 50m long lane in the heart of
the city was equipped with an
convertible textile canopy. Within
5 minutes the street area can be
completely covered by the
automatic driven membrane roof
of 525sqm.
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The foldable roof membrane slides along

4 parallel rails. In a sequence of dynamic
elements, the textile fabric spans
between ridge and valley belts in an
average height of 6.5m above street
level.
The membrane was converted of a PTFE
fabric, corresponding highest quality
standards. Polytetrafluoroethylene
(Teflon) is chemically inert and absolutely
UV resistant, natural color is white. This
aesthetic architectural fabric is also
characterized by high translucency of
38% and is manufactured by the Swiss
SEFAR AG.
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Retractable Membrane- Vienna

Austria
Retractable Membrane roof over the courtyard of the city hall in Vienna
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Movement and Digital Fabrication- Kinetic

Arab World institute in Paris
With its hundreds of variations of the
same ornament, the Arab institute in
Paris is worth visiting even after thirty
years.
From outside, the metallic iris
diaphragms respond to the intensity
of the sun shining on the south
façade by opening and closing
automatically resemble an
unapproachable shield of sparkling
silver.
15
The institute features radical high-tech walls

emblazoned with mechanical apertures that
respond to sunlight by narrowing to reduce
solar exposure or dilating to allow daylight to
suffuse the interior.
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Building Rehabilitation
• It wasn’t until 1994 that full
restoration began. The building
elements were almost completely
taken out except the outer walls,
including all changes made during a
minimal restoration in the 1960s.
• Respect for the historic aspects of

the building was one of the
conditions stipulated to the
architects, so traces of historical
events were to be retained in a
visible state.
• The cupola of the original building,

which had also been heavily
damaged in the war, was
demolished.
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Building Rehabilitation and Restoration

The Reichstag is now the second most visited
attraction in Germany, because of the huge glass
dome that was erected on the roof as a gesture to
the original 1894 cupola, giving an impressive view
over the city, especially at night.
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Rehabilitation of BC Place Stadium

Considering the structural
performance of the existing stadium
bowl and the desire for a landmark
design in downtown Vancouver,
a lightweight cable-membrane
structure has been chosen for the
roof which works according the
spoked wheel principle. At the
perimeter the cables are connected
to 36 iconic masts located on top of
the existing structure.
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Rehabilitation of BC Place Stadium
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• Built in the shape of the human eye, this is one of the structures
within the City of Arts and Sciences in Valencia, Spain. Designed
by architect Santiago Calatrava.
• The “pupil” is the hemispherical dome of the IMAX theatre and the
“eyelid” can open and close by using hydraulic lifts to operate
the steel and glass shutter.
• Calatrava wanted to bring water back to the area by creating a

reflecting pool which also serves as a stunning artistic display at
night when the lighting creates an image of a whole eye.
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Kinetic and Responsive Building Façade

A kinetic façade is one that changes dynamically rather
than being static or fixed, allowing movement to occur on
a building’s surface. This helps to create what the architect
Buckminster Fuller called a ‘skin-like articulation’ effect,
and is an extension of the idea that a building's envelope is
an active system rather than just a container.
A kinetic façade can be used to manage light, air, energy,

and even information. They can act to reduce solar gain as
well as allowing the passage of fresh air into the building,
helping to alter the interior environment.
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Advanced Structure and Creativity

Transformable structures (facades)
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Some examples
The Possibilities for incorporating

Creativity into Architectural Design
Projects
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Origami-Folded plates
It is true that Origami’s history goes back to the 17th century AD,
it has not just evolved into a modern art form, but also a
challenging geometrical research topic and interesting chance
of structural implementation.
Folding and packaging patterns are primarily used for space

structures like deployable solar cell arrays o reflector antenna.
Moreover, a remarkable tendency can be observed to apply
these patterns for architecture, too.
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33

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Transformable structures (Hoberman)-
Winter Olympic 2002- In Salt Lake City
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Transformable structures (Retractable Roofs)
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Transformable structures (Shadow Machine-Calatrava)-
NewYork
Twelve slender 'fingers' made of molded pre-cast concrete, each eight-meter

long and weighs 600 kilograms were mounted on a rear support panel. Each
finger has full articulated motion, powered by eccentric drives mounted on the
rear panel.
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Transformable structures (Rolling Bridge-UK) (Architects
Heatherwick Studios)
London's spectacular Rolling Bridge unfolds across Grand Union Canal

every Friday at noon. A conventional opening bridge mechanism relies
on a single rigid element and lifts up to let boats pass.
The bridge consists of eight triangular sections hinged at the walkway
level and is connected above by two part links that collapse towards
the deck under the control of hydraulic pistons.
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Transformable structures (Rolling Bridge-UK)
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Transformable structures (Intelligent and Responsive
arches)
43

Responsive Trusses
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Advanced Structure
and Creativity
Responsive Trusses
45

Responsive Trusses
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Responsive Trusses
47
Reciprocal Frames-Definition
The term ‘Reciprocal frame structure’ defines a type of
three-dimensional lattice structure that has application for
a variety of architectural uses especially for the roof of a
building.
A reciprocal structure may include a closed circuit of
mutually supporting bars which are supported at their
outer end by means of a secondary structure. A minimum
of three bars are required to create a reciprocal frame.
All the elements play the same role, without any differences in terms of structural hierarchy.
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Bending-Active Reciprocal Structures

Bending-active reciprocal structures consist of elastically
curved beam members. Since these flexible members are
usually very thin compared to those in conventional, rigid
reciprocal structures, their curvature will largely define the
structural height of the bent beam member.
Figure shows how this allows developing the same geometry
with much thinner beam profiles.
Where rigid components often require complex cut-outs to
compensate for the different inclinations of the beams at the
connections, the flexibility of bending-active components
allows developing tangential, in-plane connections (for
example simple bolted connections).
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Single and double layer bending active reciprocal

structures
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Regular and non-regular geometries
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Tessellation - Reciprocal
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The Roundhouse Findhorn (Scotland)
The Roundhouse, Findhorn, designed by Graham Brown

is a family home built to house three generations
together with studio space for an architectural practice.
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Reciprocal Frames-Categories-Connected
Connected multiple-unit reciprocal structures (CMR)

consists of a number of reciprocal frames (RFs),
connected to each other at the outer end by a
radiating bar.
The uniqueness of a CMR system is that each RF unit can
be performed individually, bringing more flexibility to
An example
of their application.
connected
multi-
reciprocal
unit
structure,
Picture from
(Popovic et
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Reciprocal Frames-Categories-Integrated
One of the properties of this system, is that each

end of the bars is connected to only two other bars
in the module and therefore it reduces the number
of joints that are usually used in conventional space
structures, for example, the geodesic dome.
An example of
Integrated multi-
reciprocal unit
structure, pictures
from (Popovic et
al, 1998)
55
Reciprocal Frames
The frame for the double reciprocal roof

(http://sculptingearth.wordpress.com)
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Reciprocal Frames
57
Reciprocal Frames
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Example of Interconnected layered Reciprocal
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62
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Extension of Euskalduna Conference Centre and Concert

Hall
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Extension of Euskalduna Conference Centre and

Concert Hall
The roof structure

configured as a reciprocal
frame, had to respond to
several requirements and
intentions:
First of all, it had to adapt

to irregular floor plan
geometry and to reflect
visual continuity or
irregularity, in accordance
with architectural
intentions.
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Forest Park Proposal by Shigeru Ban
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70
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Questions to start--Use of tensile elements--

why?
Can Turning compressive stress into
tensile stress help reducing the
material use ?
Is It possible to reduce material use
by allowing a material to work in
tension instead of compression
Can tension be substituted for
compression?
71
Use of tensile elements-- why?
Is it possible to reduce
material use by allowing a
material to work in tension
instead of compression?
A example:
A tensile aluminum rod with
60 percent less in material
can even function much
better in tension in
comparison to a
compressive aluminum rod.
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To be considered in form-finding
Because all tension lines,

strings, wires, cable, have
some degree of elastic
stretch, tensegrity structures
themselves are elastic and
springy depending on:
The tightness of the pre-
stressing
And the characteristics of
the tension material
And the structure's
geometrical form.
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Variety of Forms (6 Struts)
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Cable Dome
Tensegrity Cable Dome
A typical cable dome
consists of ridge cables,
diagonal cables, hoop
cables, vertical struts, an
inner tension ring and an
outer compression ring.
To ensure the structural
feasibility, continuous
cables are often
subjected to tension and
individual struts subjected
to compression.
The rigidity of the dome is
a result of self-stress
equilibrium between
cables and struts.
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Tensegrity Dome
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Tensegrity Dome
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Tensegrity Dome
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Tensegrity Dome
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Tensegrity Dome
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Tensegrity Dome
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Tensegrity Dome
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Tensegrity Dome
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Transformable Tensegrity Arch
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Foldable Tensegrity Footbridge
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SMP in Tensegrity Structures-Georgia Tech University
The experimental result shows the deployment

process
89
SMP in Tensegrity Structures-Georgia Tech University-2017
The shapes defined by the

cables can also be covered
by flexible materials
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MOOM Tensegritic Membrane Structure
91

kazuhiro kojima led a team of 70 architectural students at the Tokyo University of Science in
the design and creation of an experimental, lightweight, load-bearing structure for a
temporary pavilion.
The 26-meter long, up to 7.5-meter-wide and 4.25-meter-high volume is self-supporting and is
comprised of solely two components: metal bearing elements and a delicate elastic
polyester skin, only 0.7-mm thick.
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93
The concept
behind this
Pavilion is based
on origami
tessellation
called Water
bomb
Tessellation.
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Reconfigurable Tensegrity structure
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Thank you!
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Unit-9B-Tectonic, Structure and

Material in Architecture
Maziar Asefi (PhD, MArch, BArch, PMP, MRAIC)
Questions??!!
Why do we need to learn about tectonics?

What does tectonic thinking mean in architecture?
How could we make a relationship between design and construction?
Is it something that every designer needs to go for?....
What process should we follow to make a tectonic architecture?
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PART 1
DESIGN…….. ?!?@?$
What is Design?
“Design in architectural practice is a
process of connecting all the parts and
details that are included in the concepts
of durability, utility, and beauty into a
convincing, buildable entity.”
Jadwiga Krupinska, What an Architecture Student Should Know, 2014
https://www.laurenceking.com/blog/2018/09/11/idea-generation/
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Construction??
What is Construction?
construction is not just a product, but
also as a process of making a Product.
Construction is the process of bringing
our thoughts, idea and finally our design
into reality….
Translating ideas…..
Translating specification and
instructions…..
Joining elements and
components……
Act of Unification....
construction….
Construction is not just a matter of on-

site activates of installing materials
and components..
Construction is not just about getting

your hands dirty….
It is not just about heavy lifting….
https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-architects-transforming-way-experience-art
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Where are we in
construction….
Most designers or students of

architecture are not thinking of
the construction of their
ideas….design….while they are
designing…
They just design for the sake of
design…..
Why this happened……(I mean

the exclusion of Architect… from
the process of construction..
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What Exists at the Intersection of Design

and Construction?
In order to be able to connect

the design to construction we
need a medium and that
medium can be tectonics…..
https://www.patrikschumacher.com/Texts/Tectonic%20Articulation_Making%20Engineering%20L
ogics%20Speak.html
tectonics….??
?! Definition
https://archello.com/project/tectonics-of-transparency-the-wall
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Tectonics./.?! Some definition…
So TECTONICS
examines “the interwoven relationship
between space, function, structure, context,
symbolism, representation, and construction. “
Hull, C., & Willett, W. J. (2018). Data Tectonics: A Framework for Building Physical
and Immersive Data Representations. 1-9.
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Tectonics./.?! Some definition…
Tectonics in architecture
is defined as "the science
or art of construction,
both in relation to use
and artistic design."
Source: https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/78804
https://www.flickr.com/photos/scott1723/10885709043/in/set-72157637727130164
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https://medium.com/design-manifestos/design-
manifestos-nader-tehrani-of-nadaaa-7e176e532eac Source: https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/78804
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PART 2
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Part 2 - Examples
Tectonics in relation to form, ornamentation and material

Tectonics in Relation to Material, structure, function and environment
Tectonics in Relation to Joints, Details and space
Tectonics in relation to construction technique and digital tools
Tectonics in relation to structure, design and geometry
15
Tectonics in relation to form,

ornamentation and material
Office Building in Istanbul-Tago
Architect
https://www.archdaily.com/109538/office-building-in-istanbul-
tago-architects/50074bff28ba0d4148001b9a-office-building-in-
istanbul-tago-architects-photo?next_project=no
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Tectonics in relation to form,

ornamentation and material
Office Building in Istanbul-Tago
Architect
17
Tectonics in Relation to Material
Walter Jack: Crushed Wall. concrete installation,

Heartlands, Cornwall
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Tectonics in Relation to Material,

structure, function and environment
https://www.archdaily.com/
19
Tectonics in Relation with Joints,

Details and Space
https://arch5541.wordpress.com/2012/09/16/material-focus-gc-prostho-museum-kengo-kuma/
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Tectonics in Relation with Joints,

Details and space
Human Scale
Lightness
Familiar to user
Book-Tectonic-96
21
Tectonics in Relation with joints and

Details
Book-Tectonic-96
22
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Tectonics in Relation to Form,

Structure and Function
Miami Skyscraper- Zaha Hadid
https://www.feliseeber.com/downtown-miami-condos-condos/One-Thousand-Museum.htm
23
https://www.dezee
n.com/2020/02/28/
one-thousand-
museum-tower- Tectonic Articulation – Making Engineering Logics Speak
zaha-hadid- Patrik Schumacher, London 2014
architects-miami/
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https://www.dezeen.com/2020/02/28/one-thousand-museum-tower-zaha-hadid-architects-
miami/
25
Tectonics in Relation to design ,

construction and material through
digital technology
Dongdaemon Design centre -Zaha Hadid- Seoul
Tectonic Articulation – Making Engineering Logics Speak Tectonic Articulation – Making Engineering Logics Speak
Patrik Schumacher, London 2014 Patrik Schumacher, London 2014
26
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Tectonics in Relation to design

intention construction and material
through digital technology
Dongdaemon Design centre -Zaha Hadid- Seoul

27
PART 3
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Tectonics in relation to details,

geometry, structure and material
Nova Project- Artech Architects
Nova is a transformable round

canopy designed for the
courtyard of Tabriz Art university
The main design requirements
were:
Ease of assembly and
disassembly
Ability to easily expand and
retract
Must be functional in different
stages of transformation
Innovative and monumental
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“Architecture is
the thoughtful
making of
space….”
Louis Khan
Thank you…………
39
20

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2022-09-08

Relationship between Structure and

Architecture and Structure--Think???

What factors affect and shape today’s architecture?

As students of architecture, why do we have to embrace

Finally: Why is the relationship between architecture and

Goals – Architecture- Architects

Relationship between Architecture and structure

Initial Steps (Common Expectations from our design)

Innovative or Advanced Structures

Relationship between architecture and structure

Different types of relationship can be imagined

To total disregard of structural requirements in

Relationship between architecture and

Relationship between architecture and

Structure respected and may be dominated:

Structure respected(Ornamentation of structure)

In this type of relationship, the form

Farnsworth House designed by Mies van

The exposed-steel structure of the

structure as ornament is another

technically in several respects:

Another example in this category

Structure as Architecture (structure without ornament)

In this type of buildings, no compromise

Structure as Architecture (structure without ornament)

Timber lattice dome: https://www.simonsellars.com/nebula-

Ultra-thin concrete shell- ETH Zurich- (Thickness of 5 centimetres)-

Airport hanger: Nervii – concrete shell

Structure as Architecture (structure without ornament)

In these building, the technology

given minimal stylistic treatment.

Millenium Dome- London– Rogers

Structure as Architecture (structure without ornament)

One is the provision of adequate

Structure as Architecture (with ornament??)

Structure as Architecture (structure without ornament)

Structure as Architecture (structure without ornament)

Athens Olympic park- Calatrava—

In this group: the structural

In this type of relationship the

Structure Ignored…in the form making process

In this types of building structure

An example of that is Chapel

Structure Ignored…in the form making process

Imperial War Museum designed

Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao,

Structure Ignored…in the form making process

First, because the form will almost certainly

Heydar Aliyev Centre in Baku, Designed by Zaha Hadid.

Structure Ignored…in the form making process

In all of the buildings considered in

https://www.dw.com/en/highlights-of-the-guggenheim-museum-bilbao/g-41315940- Bilbao Museum by Gehry

Examples showing the relationship between

Material, Architecture and Structure

Walter Jack: Crushed Wall. concrete installation,

Material, Architecture and Structure

Material, Architecture and Structure

Material, Architecture and Structure

Material, Architecture and Structure

Material, Architecture and Structure

Tectonics in Relation with joints and

Material, Architecture and Structure