⚠️CRIM 2-MIDTERM REVIEWER NORMS

is a rule for behavior to guide a conduct

DEVIANCE Norms are statement that regulate behavior
is an act na masama sa paningin ng society According to Merriam-Webster, NORMS is a principle of right action
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binding upon the members of a group and serving to guid, control, or

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What’s make man being a human? regulates proper and acceptable behavior.
Be a rational being ( knowing the right from wrong )
THORSTEN SELLIN ( 1938 )
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Posited the concept of conduct norms which Belongs under the
MOGA
conscious level
Sabi niya To be consider truly human you must posses this 4
CONDUCT NORMS refers to the norms that are defined by the groups to
which the individual belongs.
Physical potential - having a concrete body, capable of physical activity (
physically fit ) LISA ROUNDY ( 2013 )
Mental ability - think critically, rational In her study stated that social norm is the accepted behavior that an
Communication skills - ability to read and write individual is expected to conform to in a particular group, community, or
Social skills - interact to the society culture.
When you do not conform to the social norms that are accepted by your
Notes : not of all of these must posses to be truly human, at least he she must posses culture or group, it is considered as an abnormal behavior.
2 of theme

2 reason na ma consider not a human being DEVIANT

But they are inhuman ka kapag Hindi ka sumunod sa norms ng society

1. It take time for a human to grow ( bata ) HUMAN BEHAVIOR

in human : ang tawag sa mga bata Dahil Hindi pa sila rational being a man is a social being, he needs to interact and socialize with others.
He may behave or misbehave depending on the given circumstances.
1. some individuals na arog na pero isip bata pa it influences sa Biological ( hereditary) or environment
Conscious
NATALIE BOYD ( 2015 )
INHUMAN tawag sa Ira
In her article entitled HUMAN BEHAVIOR, human behavior is define as
the term used to describe a person’s actions and conduct.
AMYGDALA
It also refers to the action to facts of the relationship between the
is a part of a our brain na nag uutos sa body kun nano dapat gawin ( nag hahatag individual and his environment.
command sa mga hihimuon San body ) Human behavior is mainly influenced by both hereditary and
A human is a conscious being : environment.
Everything that we say and do is a reflection of our own being.
STIMULUS
It is the outcome of how our brain processed that perceived information. Marcel Mauss
( within the environment ) every self has 2 Self faces
an mapaso na bagay or sa environment naton kun pano tayo mag react .
For example, you see your enemy, it is now the neurons that send messages to 1️⃣ MOI
the amygdala, as the part of the brain that processes fear, triggers anger, and refer to a person scenes who he is
motivates us to act; and the brain-amygdala will integrate that information and will refers a person’s sense of who he is, his body, and his basic identity, his
issue a command for a response (This is the reaction of either having a fight biological givenness
you as you are at home
against your enemy or not
Fighting your enemy when you cannot control your emotions is normal, but when
2️⃣ PERSONNE
it reaches to the point where you would kill your enemy, then that is not normal
is composed of social concepts of what it means to be who he is
anymore, aside from it being unethical, it will violate the law and is contrary to the
What is expected what you your
norms set by society.
THEORY DEFINE
SIGMUND FREUD Theory define is a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain
According to Freud (1915), the human mind has three (3) levels of awarenes something, especially one based on general principles intended to the
The combination of three makes up what we call reality thing to be explained.
It is derived from a Greek word “ THEORIA “ which means contemplation
1. Conscious level ( 10 % ) or speculation
2. Sub-conscious level ( 50-60 % ) Theory also defined as a plausible or scientifically acceptable general
3. Unconscious ( 30-40 % ) principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena
It is synonymous with the term THESIS, HYPOTHESIS, SUPPOSITION,
Notes : this level makes us the reality and PROPORTION

CONSCIOUS LEVEL
The conscious level serves as the scanner that allows you to perceive an event,
trigger a need to react, and then depending on the importance of the event, store
it either in the unconscious or subconscious area of human mind where it remains
available
part of your mind that perceive your surrounding
Receiver of the environment
SUBCONSCIOUS
The subconscious is the storage point for any recent memories needed for quick
recall, such as telephone number or the name of a person you just met. It also
holds current information that you use every day, such as your current recurring
thoughts, behavior patterns, habits and feelings.
storage points For the recent memories that need a quick recall na
information
mga behavior pattern
UNCONSCIOUS
The unconscious mind is where all your memories and past experiences reside.
These are those memories that have been repressed through trauma and those
that have simply been consciously forgotten and are no longer important to us. It
is from these memories and experiences that our beliefs, habits, and behaviors
are formed (Journal Psyche, 1994)
mga memories na
Note :
According to MOORE, theory helps us understand what we don’t know and,
therefore is the only guide to research it increases it’s ability to solve other
problems in different times and different places
CRIME DEFINE
An act or omission in violation of a criminal law in its legal point
AN ANTI-SOCIAL, an act that is injurious, detrimental or harmful to the
norms of society they are the unacceptable act in its social definition
PSYCHOLOGICALLY, crime is an act which is considered undesirable
due to behavioral maladjustment of the offender acts that maladaptive or
abnormal behavior
A CRIME is define as any act that is contrary to legal code or laws, there
are many types of crime, from CRIME AGAINST PERSON to victimless
crime, and VIOLENT CRIMES to WHITE CRIMES. The study of crime and
deviance is a large subfield within sociology. With much attention paid to
who commits which types of crimes and why
It is also a genetic name that refers to OFFENSE, FELONY,
DELINQUENCY or MISDEMEANOR
OFFENSE
is an act or omission punishable by special law
FELONY
Is an act or omission punishable by the revised penal code ( the criminal
law of the Philippines )

DELINQUENCY/ MISDEMEANOR
2 acts that are in violation of ordinance, simple rules and regulation
usually referring to acts committed by minor offender
CRIME CAUSATION
Crime causation is a discouraging and multiplex field.
For centuries, philosophers have reviewed the meaning of conception of
cause as it regards human behavior.
Growingly, research advices that individuals are unaware of the causes of
the other people’s behavior as well as the causes of much of their
performance
Modern crimes cause models to favor an interdisciplinary lens that
recognizes how different field complement, rather than contract with, one
other.
BIOLOGICAL THEORY
Criminal manners result from a complicated interaction of biological factors
Biological factors, are more comprehensive comprising physiological,
biochemical, neurological, and genetic factors. Genetic factors refer to
biological and hereditary factors
BIOSOCIAL THEORY
This Theory viewed that both thought and behavior have biological and
social bases.
Biosocial Theorist believe that it is the interaction between predisposition
and environmental that produces criminality
Children born into a disadvantaged environment often do not have the social
and familial support they need to overcome their handicaps
Lack of family support can have long term physical consequences
Note :
For example a child’s neural pathways may be damaged by repeated child
neglect or abuse.
Once experiences are ingrained the brain REMEMBERS and a pattern of
ELECTROCHEMICAL activation is established which remains present
throughout his life
CONTEMPORARY BIOSOCIAL HAS THREE DISTINCT AREAS OF STUDY :
1. BIOCHEMISTRY FACTORS (The aggressive behavior caused by diet)
CRIME SUGAR :
Biochemical theories claim that there is a causal connection between blood sugar
levels, antisocial behavior and delinquency.
Theories are mostly represented in the field of juvenile delinquency and presume
that poor nutrition affects delinquent behavior.
Poor nutrition directly affects the learning
Excessively low levels of blood sugar (hypoglycemia) can cause the development
of negative behavior, nervous behavior, mental confusion, physical weakness,
delirium and violence
CHOLESTEROL AND CRIME
Clinical trials made found a relation between low cholesterol and aggressive
behavior in animal
The study conducted in Sweden on 79,777 men and women at age (24-70), who
had police arrest records for violent crimes, found a strong connection between
lowered levels of cholesterol and violent behavior.
VITAMINS AND CRIME
Disruption of homeostasis can cause difficulties. Theory states that low intake of
vitamins, and minerals can cause delinquent behaviors.
1.1 Hormonal Levels
Another area of biochemical research emphasizes that antisocial behavior
allegedly peaks in the teenage years because hormonal activity is at its highest
level during this period.
Research also suggests that increased levels of the male androgen and
testosterone are responsible for excessive levels of violence among teenage boys.
2. NEUROLOGICAL DYSFUNCTION
Another concentration of biosocial theory is the neurological structure, or brain and
nervous system of the offenders. Studies measures indicators of system
functioning, such as brain waves, heart rate, arousal levels, skin conductance and
attention span, cognitive ability, and spatial learning, and then compared them to
measures of the antisocial behavior
Imbalance in the central nervous and hormonal activity has been linked to
antisocial behavior and drug abuse (Siegel et al., 2007
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
are chemical compounds that influence brain activity
Research suggests that abnormal levels of some neurotransmitters including
dopamine, serotonin, and monoamine oxidase are related to aggression and
violence.
2
2.1 Minimal Brain Dysfunction
Minimal brain dysfunction is defined as the damage to the brain itself
that causes antisocial
It is characterized by evidences of immaturity involving control of activity,
emotions, and behavior, and by specific learning +123-4567-890
disabilities involving the
communicating skills needed in www.reallygreatsite.com
reading, writing, and mathematics.
Children who manifest social disturbances may have identifiable
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neurological deficits, such as damage to the hemisphere of the brain.
One specific type of MBD is Learning Disability, a term that has been
defined by National Advisory Committee on Handicapped Children.
Learning disability is a neurological dysfunction that prevents an
individual from learning his or her potential (Siegel et al., 2007)
Remedial efforts directed at early detection, relief from pressure and
adjust punishment or ridicule from parents and teachers, and adjustment
of educational environment and with attention span and improve
neurodevelopmental maturity, hold promise of improving the lot most
involved children.
There are valid indications that expansion of such programs can do
much to prevent these youngsters from developing severe personality
maladjustment and delinquent behavior, as well as emotional illness in
later life.
3 . GENETIC INFLUENCES
Genetic influences focus on the idea that individuals who share the
same genes are alike in personality regardless of how they are reared,
while the rearing environment induces little or no personality
resemblance.
👨‍💼 CESARE LOMBROSO ( father of modern criminology )
often believed that antisocial behavior had a genetic basis based on his
theo biosocial theorists, for example, stated that certain violent
personality traits including psychopathy may be inherited (Carey and
DiLalla, 1994).
3.1 Parent Child Similarities
A number of studies found out that parental criminality and deviance do,
in fact, powerfully influence delinquent behavior.
👨‍💼 DONALD J. WEST and DALLAS VID P. FARRINGTON ( 1968 )
made a study and they found out that significant number of delinquent
youths have criminal parents.
West and intergenerational continuity in antisocial behavior, that is,
criminal fathers produce delinquent sons who grow up to have
delinquent children themselves (Siegel et al., 2007)
3.2 Sibling and Twin Similarities
Biosocial theorists have compared the behavior of twin and non- twin
siblings and found out that the twins, who share more genetic material,
are also more similar in their behavior.
When comparing identical monozygotic (MZ) twins with same sex
fraternal dizygotic (DZ) twins, they found out that the former has an
identical genetic make up, while the latter share only about 50% of their
genetic combinations.
Reviews of twin studies found that in all cases, MZ twins have delinquent
and antisocial behavior patterns more similar than that of DZ twins
(Siegel et al., 2007)
3.3 Adoption Studies
👨‍💼 SARNOFF MEDNICK and BERNARD HUTCHINGS ( 1983 )
forced to conclude based on their study that genetics played at least
some role in creating delinquent tendencies.
They found that adoptees share many of the behavioral and intellectual
characteristics of their biological parents despite the social and
environmental conditions found in their adoptive homes (Siegel et al.,
2007).
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
According to Criminology Fandom (n.d.) behavior can be passed down
from generation to another.
Evolutionary theory explains the existence of aggression and violent
behavior as positive adaptive behaviors in human evolution.
These traits allowed their bearers to reproduce disproportionately, which
has had an effect on human gene pool (Siegel et al., 2007).
For example, if the child witnessed that his father beats his mother every
time his father is under the influence of alcohol, then the child will
assume that it is good to beat somebody.
When the time comes the child becomes a husband, the same situation
will be applied to his wife.
CHEATER THEORY
Is one of the theories under evolutionary theory which suggests that a
subpopulation of men has evolved with genes that incline them toward
extremely low parental involvement and become sexually aggressive who
use their cunning to gain sexual conquests with as many females as
possible.
Because females would not choose them as mates, they use stealth to gain
sexual access cheating including such tactics as mimicking the behavior of
more stable males
👨‍💼 BYRON ROTH ( Psychologist )
notes that these cheater type males maybe especially attractive to
younger, less intelligent women who begin having children at a very early
age. This theory also explains male aggressiveness (Siegel et al., 2007).
2. R/K SELECTION THEORY
Is another theory under evolutionary theory which holds that all organisms
can be located along a continuum based upon their reproductive drives.
Those along the end reproduce rapidly whenever they can and invest little
in their offspring; while those along the end reproduce slowly and
cautiously take care in the raising of their offspring.
K-oriented people are more cooperative and sensitive to others, whereas
R-oriented people are more cunning and deceptive.
People who commit crimes seem to exhibit R-selection traits such as
frequent sexual activity (Siegel, 2004).
AROUSAL THEORY
Arousal is a physiological state of alertness and anticipation, which
prepares body for action
The main assumption of arousal theory is the environmental factors
influence the Brian’s level arousal
Adolescents may engage in such crimes as shoplifting and vandalism
simply because these crimes offer the attraction of getting away with it;
criminality is thrilling demonstration of personal competence. It also
explained that adolescents with low heart rates are more likely to commit
crimes as they seek stimulation to increase their arousal levels to normal
levels.
For example, in activities that will increase his arousal level, such as going
out with friends or watching a car race.
On the other hand, when arousal level is too high, such as when he is too
anxious or overstressed, he often resorts to engaging in relaxation methods
such as
reading books, getting a massage, or mediating.
The Optimum Level of Arousal Affects the Following:
(People generally perform their best when arousal level is at moderate
level) -
Performance -
Learning -
Feelings
LIFE COURSE THEORY
It is also known as Developmental Theory which suggests that criminal
behavior is a dynamic process influenced by individual characteristics, as
well as social experiences, and that the factors that cause antisocial
behavior changes dramatically over a person’s life span
👨‍💼 Sheldon Glueck (1896-1980),
👩🏾‍💼 Eleanor Touroff-Glueck (18981972),
According to the life-course view, even as toddlers, people begin
relationships and behavior that will determine their entire life course.
As children they must learn to conform to social rules and function
effectively in society. Later, they are expected to begin thinking about their
careers, leave their parental homes, find permanent relationships, and
eventually marry and begin their own families.
These transitions are expected to be in place in an orderly manner. Some
transitions can occur too early when adolescents engage in precocious
sex. In some way, transitions may occur too late as when a student fails to
graduate because of bad grades or too many incomplete grades.
Negative life transitions can become cumulative, that is, as kids acquire
more personal deficits, their chances of acquiring additional deficits
increase. For example, a boy who experiences significant amounts of
anger in early adolescence is the one more likely to become involved in
antisocial behavior as a teen and will mature as a depressed adult who
abuses alcohol.
Hence, the theory mainly emphasizes that disruption in transitions can be
destructive and can ultimately promote criminality.
However, life course theory also recognizes that as people mature, the
factors that influence their behavior change.
For example, some antisocial children who are in trouble throughout their
adolescence may manage to find stable work and maintain intact marriages
as adults (Siegel et al., 2007).
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
Psychological theories expressed that criminal behavior was the product of
unconscious forces operating within a persons mind according to this group of
theories conflicts that occur at various psychosexual stages of development
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might impact an individuals ability to operate normally as an adult. And that if
agressive impulse is not controlled or is ngage in random acts of violence
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👨‍💼 CHARLES B. GORING (1870-1919),
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as a physical criminal type. Instead, he found out using the 3,000 convicts as
respondents that defective intelligence rather than physical characteristics was
the main factor why a person commits a crime. This is the core reason of Goring
in refuting Dr. Cesare
On the other hand,
GABRIEL TARDE (1843-1904)
in his theory of imitation believed that people learn from one another through a
process of imitation (Siegel, 2004)
Psychodynamic Theory and Psychosexual Stages of Human Development
1. Psychodynamic or Psychoanalytic Psychology
It was proposed by Viennese psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).
Still considered as one of the prominent theories in psychology, this theory holds
that the human personality is controlled by unconscious mental processes
developed in early childhood.
It argues that human personality contains three major components, namely: id,
ego and superego.
ID - It dictates the needs and desire (It operates under pleasure principle) -
EGO - Evaluates the reality of a position these two extremes (reality principle).
-
SUPEREGO - Counteracts the id by fostering feeling of morality (moral
principle). It is divided into two (2) parts: conscience and ego ideal.
If these three components are properly balanced, the individual can lead a
normal life. But if one aspect of the personality governs governs at the expense
of the others, the individual exhibits abnormal personality traits (Siegel et al.,
2007).
For example, upon entering a room you found a wallet full of money.
If you will take the wallet and will not tell anyone that it is you who found it; your
conscience, one of the parts of superego (morality principle) is not working
intervene your id (pleasure principle) and did not tell your ego (reality principle)
that the wallet is not yours.
2 . Psychosexual Stages of Human Development
The most basic human drive present at birth is EROS , the instinct to preserve
and create life. Eros is expressed sexually. Consequently, very early in their
development, human experience sexuality at every stage, expressed by seeking
pleasure through various parts of the body.
👨‍💼 According to FREUD (1921 ).
ORAL STAGE
during the first year of life, the oral stage, a child attains pleasure by sucking and
biting.
ANAL STAGE
During the second and third year of life, the focus of sexual attention is on the
elimination of bodily waste the anal stage
PHALLIC STAGE
The phallic stage occurs during the third year when children focus their attention
on their genitals.
OEDIPUS COMPLEX
Males begin to sexual feelings for their mothers (the Oedipus complex
ELECTRA COMPLEX
girls for their fathers (the Electra complex).
LATENCY
Latency begins at the age of six (6). During this period, feeling s of sexuality are
repressed until the genital stage begins at puberty; this marks the beginning of
adult sexuality
👨‍💼 According to FREUD
if child meets conflict in any of the psychosexual stages of human development,
he or she can become FIXATED later on in his/her life.
This means that as an adult, the fixated person will exhibit behavioral traits that
characterized those encountered during infantile sexual development.
For example :
an infant who does not receive enough oral gratification during the first year of
life is likely to become an adult engaged in such oral behavior as smoking,
drinking or drug abuse (Siegel, 2004).
This theory explains that behavioral problems manifested by a certain individual
can be traced back to his early stage of life.
2
BEHAVIORAL THEORY
This theory is originally created by John B. Watson
and popularized by Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990) or as B.F.
Skinner.
While psychologists agree that behavior is controlled by unconscious
mental processes determined by parental relationships developed early in
childhood as what Freud believed, others, like Watson and Skinner do not.
👨‍💼JOHN B. WATSON
The behavioral theory is concerned with the study of observable behavior
rather than unconscious processes.
It focuses on particular stimulus and how people respond to that stimulus.
It also maintains that human actions are developed through learning
experiences, and that behavior is learned when it is rewarded and
extinguished by negative reactions or punishment (Siegel, 2004)
1. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
This theory is the branch of behavioral theory most relevant to criminology
It was created by ALBERT S. BANDURA 1973
ALBERT BANDURA
Canadian psychologist who argued that people are not naturally born with
the ability to act violently but that they learn to be aggressive through their
life experiences.
SOCIAL LEARNING AND VIOLENCE
Bandura (1973) believed that violence as something learned through a
process called Behavioral Modeling. Aggressive acts are usually modeled
after three (3) principal sources:
FAMILY MEMBERS
Bandura reports that children from families where parents show aggressive
behaviors inside their homes would likely to shoe similar behaviors dealing
with others. -
ENVIRONMENTAL EXPERIENCE
People who reside in areas where violence is a daily occurrence are more
likely to act violently than those who dwell in low-crime areas which norm
stresses or shows conventional behavior. -
MASS MEDIA
Films and television shows, which are accessible to people of all ages
and social status, commonly depict violence graphically. Moreover, in
mass media, violence is often portrayed as acceptable behavior,
especially for heroes who never have to face legal consequences for
their actions (Siegel, 2004)
COGNITIVE THEORY
This theory is a branch of psychology that studies the perception of reality
and the mental process required to understand the world we live
It focuses on mental processes the way people perceive and mentally
represents the world around them
Adolescents who use information properly, who are better conditioned to
make reasoned judgments
👨‍💼 JEAN WILLIAM FRITZ PIAGET 1896- 1980
is the Swiss psychologist who was the first to make a systematic study of the
acquisition of understanding in children based on his Cognitive Developmental
Theory.
He 4 stages (Siegel., 2007)
Stage Age Range Description
SENSORIMOTOR
0-2 years
Coordination of senses with motor response, sensory curiosity about the
world. Language used for demands and cataloguing. Object performance
developed.
PRE OPERATIONAL
2-7 years
Symbolic thinking, use of proper syntax and grammar to express full
concepts. Imagination and intuition are strong, but complex abstract
thought still difficult. Conservation developed
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
7-11 years
Concepts attached to concrete situations. Times, space, and quantity are
understood and can be applied, but not as independent concepts.
FORMAL OPERATIONAL
11+
Theoretical, hypothetical, and counterfactual thinking. Abstract logic and
reasoning. Strategy and planning become possible. Concepts learned in
one context can be applied to another
2
ALTERNATIVE THEORY
Alternative theory beats the famous saying that says “ opposite charger attract
“
Alternative theory focuses on assortative mating where female offenders tend
to cohabit with or get married to male offenders.+123-4567-890
👨‍💼ROBERT F. KRUEGER www.reallygreatsite.com
In the Dunedin study in New Zealand, which is longitudinal survey of over one
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thousand children from age three, Robert F. Krueger and his colleagues
(2010) found that sexual partners tended to be similar in their self-reported
antisocial behaviors.
Children with two criminal parents are likely to be disproportionately antisocial.
There are two (2) main classes of explanations concerning why similar people
tend to get married, cohabit, or become sexual partners:
1. Social Homogamy Convicted people tend to choose each other as mates
because of physical and social proximity; they meet each other in the same
schools, neighborhoods, clubs, pubs, and so on.
2. Phenotypic Assortment - people examine each other’s personality and
behavior and choose partners who are similar to themselves
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
There are three important sociological theories:
Strain Theory
Social Learning Theory
Control Theories Theory
STRAIN THEORY
(Developed by Robert Agnew in 1992)
According to the strain theory people get engaged in crime because they
experience a lot of stress or strain, they become upset and feel negativity
around them, and they sometimes get involved or connect with some crime as
a result.
For instance, for reducing their financial problems they may steal, end
harassment from others they may involve in violence, escape from abusive
parents they may run away from home or may commit injury to themselves.
They experience strain or stress, they become upset, and they sometimes
engage in crime as a result.
Two Major Types of Strain
1. Others prevents you from achieving your goals, and
2. Others take things you value or present you with negative or noxious stimuli
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
According to social learning theory, people engage in crime because they
learn to involve in crime through their friends, and others
They learn that they are favorable to crime and get exposed to criminal
models
According to this theory, juveniles learn to involve in crime in the same way as
they learn through association with others.
Most Social Learning Theory involves the three mechanisms by which every
individual learns to involve in crime: differential reinforcement, modeling, and
beliefs.
Differential pillars of crime:
People may guide others to get involved in crime through the support and
punishments they provide for behavior. More probably, crime occurs when
there is:
o Frequently reinforced and infrequently punished,
o Reinforcement in large amount (for instance, a lot of money or social
approval),
o More likely to be reinforced as the alternative behavior.
Beliefs favorable to crime:
Other people not only reinforce our crime, in fact, they also teach us beliefs
favorable to crime. Most individuals are taught that crime is bad or wrong.
They, at last, accept this belief, and they are less predicted to be captured in
crime as a result.
The copying of criminal models:
Behavior or manner is not a part of reinforcements and punishments, and
beliefs, and individuals receive, but also of the behavior of those who are
around them. Particularly, every individual often models the behavior of
others- especially when they like or respect others and have reason to believe
that copying their behavior or manner will result in reinforcement.
CONTROL THEORY
Unlike the theorists of strain and social learning, control theorists take crime
for granted.
They argued that every person has some needs and desires that can be
easily fulfilled through the crime as compared to legal channels. For instance,
it is much easier to steal money instead of doing work for it.
For instance, it is much easier to steal money instead of doing work for it.
Therefore, according to the control theorists, a special explanation is not
needed for crime; it is often the most convenient way to get whatever one
wants.
ECONOMIC THEORIES
Blue-collar criminals usually have limited education and limited labor marketplace
ability
These features describe the poor employment records and the low real earnings of
most criminals
These kinds of issues originally cause economists to analyze the relations
between wages and unemployment amount on crime.
Most recently economists have also examined the benefits and rates of
educational programs to reduce crime.
THEORY OF CRIME PROBLEMS
The Crime Triangle (also known as the problem analysis triangle) comes straight
out of one of the main theories of environmental criminology Routine Activity
Theory.
Routine Activity Theory"
provides a simple and powerful insight into the causes of crime problems.
At its heart is the idea that in the absence of effective controls, offenders will prey
upon attractive targets.
To have a crime, a motivated offender must come to the same place as an
attractive target.
For property crimes the target is a thing or an object.
For personal crimes the target is a person.
If an attractive target is never in the same place as a motivated offender, the target
will not be taken, damaged, or assaulted. Also, there are controllers whose
presence can prevent crime. If the controllers are absent, or present but
powerless, crime is possible.
FIRST
consider people who are influential in the lives of potential offenders.
In the case of juveniles these might be parents, close relatives, siblings, peers,
teachers, coaches, and other similarly placed individuals.
In the case of adults these people may include intimate partners, close friends,
relatives, and sometimes their children.
These people are called "handlers" in routine activity theory. Crimes will take place
where handlers are absent, weak, or corrupt.
NEXT
Next, consider targets or victims.
Guardians try to protect targets from the theft and damage and potential victims
from attack and assault.
Formal guardians include the police, security guards, and others whose job is to
protect people and property from crime.
Informal guards include neighbors, friends, and others who happen to be in the
same place as the attractive target.
Parents, teachers, peers and others close to potential victims are also potential
guardians.
A target with an effective guardian is less likely to be attacked by a potential
offender than a target without a guardian.
If the guardian is absent, weak, or corrupt little protection is provided the target.
FINALLY
Finally, consider places, someone owns every location and ownership confers
certain rights to regulate access to the site and behaviors of people using the site.
The owner and the agents of the owner (e.g., employee) look after the place and
the people using the place.
Owners and their agents are called place managers.
Place managers control the behavior of offenders and potential victims.
Examples of place manager include merchants, life guards, parking lot attendants,
recreations and park workers, janitors, and motel clerks.
In the presence of an effective place manager, crime is less likely to happen than
when the manager is absent, weak or corrupt
All of the people in this theory use tools to help accomplish their criminal or crime
control objectives.
Tools that gang members use may include spray paint cans, guns, and cars.
Offender without access to tools are less likely to be able to escape handlers,
enter unauthorized places, and overcome victims, guardians, and managers.
Guardians may use light, CCTV to increase surveillance, engraving devices to
mark property, and other devices to help reduce the chances of victimization.
Place managers can use gates, fences, signs and other tool to regulate conduct.
With effective tools, handlers, victims, guardians, and managers will have a greater
chance of keeping crimes from occurring.
The tools used are often highly specific to the crime in question.
The tools an offender needs for burglary (e.g., a screw driver) are likely to be
different from those needed for a robbery (e.g., a gun), for example.
DEMONOLOGY
It is the study of demons or belief about demons, especially the methods used to
summon and control them. The original sense of "demon" from the time of Homer
onward, was a benevolent being, but in English, the name now holds connotations
of malevolence.
Demons are believed to be human or nonhuman, separable soul, or discarnate
spirits which have never inhabited a body.
Demonology is one of the earliest theories in criminology.
In the ancient times, people believed that evil spirits or demons entered human
body to commit sins ( This was the earliest explanation given regarding crime and
criminal behavior )
DEMONS, WITCHES, WINDIGO
Terms like demons, witches and windigo were used for people who had
turned criminals. The society thought that it happened due to evil influence.
Supernatural powers were considered the best explanation behind crime and
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CLASSICAL THEORY www.reallygreatsite.com
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It was the pain/pleasure view of human behavior: that human sought to gain
pleasure and avoid pain. Beccaria and Bentham believed that people acted on
the principle of free will: they made a choice of what behavior to indulge in and
therefore should suffer the consequences if caught in criminal acts.
Classical theory in criminology has its roots in the theories of the 18th century
Italian nobleman and economist, Cesare Beccaria and the English
philosopher and the founder of English utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham.
This was a time in history when punishment for crime was severe in the
extreme, and both men suggested the theory of utility.
Beccaria and Bentham looked at the causes of criminal and delinquent
behavior, and began to scientifically explain such deviance.
They rejected theories of naturalism and demonology which characterized the
European Enlightenment as explanations for these types of behavior.
The new theories reflected rationalism and humanitarianism of the philosophy
of the Age of Enlightenment.
MAIN PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY
1. Crime is a rational choice, and most people are capable to commit crimes;
2. People will commit a crime after they have compared potential costs and
benefits of such actions.
3. Most of the people fear punishment, and the certainty, severity and speed of
punishment will have an impact on the level of crime;
4. Punishment needs to fit a crime and individual differences of perpetrators
should not have an influence on the punishment
5. The criminal justice system needs to be predictable, while laws and
punishments must be known to public.
POSITIVIST THEORY
Explanations of positivist theory were deterministic. Lombroso was influenced
by Darwinian principles of evolution and used these ideas to support a thesis
on inferiority or criminals. Positivist theory of crime implemented the idea of
social Darwinism that individuals or groups develop certain physical and
psychological attributes, which allow them to function more efficiently in the
social and natural environment.
Theories which existed before positivist theory of crime were phrenology and
physiognomy theories.
👨‍💼 JOHANN LAVATER
the physiognomist, thought that the shape of the skull and some facial
features had an impact on a human behavior and actions.
Later, positivist theorist of crime Cesare Lombroso took Lavaters ideas and
began exploring other physical traits of a body.
Lombroso, the criminal anthropologist, not only researched the facial features
and the shape of the skull, but also social conditions of individual like
unemployment and medical history of illnesses
NEOCLASSICAL THEORY
Neoclassical crime theory is a continuation of classical crime theory
Not all perpetrators should be treated in the same fashion, because the
evident differences exist among them.
CLASSICAL SCHOOL
was wholly concern with an explanation of crime
Classical crime theory completely concentrated on the criminal act
NEO CLASSICAL CRIME THEORY
saw some flaws in Beccarias theory.
POSITIVIST
crime theory concentrated on the perpetrator
Positivist was obsessed with behavior prediction and classicist with a crime
explanation
CONFLICT THEORY
Conflict theory is a theory propounded by Karl Marx that claims society is in a
state of perpetual conflict due to competition for limited resources.
It holds that social order is maintained by domination and power, rather than
consensus and conformity.
According to conflict theory, those with wealth and power try to hold on to it by
any means possible, chiefly by suppressing the poor and powerless.
Marxs conflict theory focused on the conflict between two primary classes.
BOURGEOISIE
The bourgeoisie represents the members of society who hold the majority of
the wealth and means.
PROLETARIAT
2 The proletariat includes those considered working class or poor.

In understanding conflict theory, competition between social classes plays
a key part.
The following are four primary assumptions of modern conflict theory:
1. COMPETITION
Competition over scarce resources (money, leisure, sexual partners, and so on) is at
the heart of all social relationships.
Competition rather than consensus is characteristic of human relationships.
2. STRUCTURAL INEQUALITY
Inequalities in power and reward are built into all social structures.
Individuals and groups that benefit from any particular structure strive to see it
maintained.
3. REVOLUTION
Change occurs as a result of conflict between social classes competing interests
rather than through adaptation.
It is often abrupt and revolutionary rather than evolutionary.
4. WAR
Even a war is a unifier of the societies involved, as well as war may set an end to
whole societies.
( CRIMINOLOGY THEORIES OF CRIMW : OVERVIEW OF CRIMINOLOGY
THEORETICAL SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT )
The Five Key Principles of Classical School of Criminology
1. RATIONALITY
The classical school assumes that people have free will and that they choose to
commit crimes. For example, if John decides to steal some candy at the store, he is
not forced to, based on some pre-destiny.
He chooses to steal that candy.
Not only that, he thinks about it beforehand and says to himself, This is the rational
thinking that goes into his planning to commit a crime.
2. HEDONISM
The classical also assumes that people seek pleasure and try to avoid pain.
For example, when John looks at the candy in the store, he thinks about how it will
bring him pleasure, so he steals it.
3. PUNISHMENT
Remember how we said that a key idea was the idea of hedonism, where people
seek pleasure and try to avoid pain? Well, that informs punishment, according to the
classical school.
For example, if John thinks about stealing the candy and realizes that he could go to
jail for it, he might not steal it because he will be trying to avoid the pain of jail.
In this way, the classical school of criminology believes that punishment works as a
deterrent to crime.
4. HUMAN RIGHTS
John has learned that before the classical school of criminology, punishments could
be very harsh indeed.
It was not uncommon to torture someone who was only suspected to a crime, and
the punishments once convicted could be horrifying.
According to the classical school of criminology, all individuals have rights, and
society needs to respect the rights of individual.
That means that they should not torture or institute punishment that is unreasonably
harsh.
For example, if John gets caught stealing the candy, we would not expect that his
punishment would involve cutting his hands off.
That seems a little extreme!
5. DUE PROCESS
The idea of due process is that people accused of a crime are considered innocent
until proven guilty, and that they have the chance to go to trial and face the judicial
system.
If John was accused of stealing a candy and then just turn in jail without a trial, that
would be a violation of his right to undergo due process.
CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMINALS by LOMBROSO
1. BORN CRIMINALS
Essentially, Lombroso believed that criminality was inherited and that criminals could
be identified by physical defects that confirmed them as being atavistic or savage.
A thief, for example, could be identified by his expressive face, manual dexterity, and
small, wandering eyes
2. CRIMINAL BY PASSION
A crime committed while in the throes of passion, with no opportunity to reflect on
what is happening and what the person is about to do.
For example, a husband who discovers his wife in bed with a lover and who attacks
and kills the lover in a blind rage has committed a crime of passion.
Because the husband has been overcome with emotion, he lacks the specific intent
o kill, which is necessary for conviction of murder.
If a jury believes that he acted in the heat of passion, they will convict him only of
manslaughter, which does not require intent to kill.
Note :
The benefit of eliminating premeditation is to lessen the provable homicide to
manslaughter with no death penalty and limited prison terms. An emotionally
charged jury may even acquit the impassioned defendant.
3. GREAT EMOTION
There are many positive feelings in this world, and understanding those positive feelings
is very important to every individual.
Positive feelings are one of the core elements to have in your life to enjoy well-being and
happiness.
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List of top 20 positive feeling words representing positive feelings and emotions!
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JOY
Joy comes from experiences which are delightful and memorable when you feel that
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everything is right and when you feel happy, safe, satisfied, and comfortable. It is a
feeling of great happiness and pleasure that lifts up spirit
INTEREST
Every human being has the desire to learn new things, see new places.
Humans are curious and eager to explore, and the feeling of interests comes from that
curiosity.
When you feel interested in something, a person, or place, or else, you instantly become
more open to the adventure and experiences, you discover and learn.
SERENITY
In many ways, serenity is similar to joy, because you feel that everything is right and that
feeling is followed by the tranquility and peace of mind.
It means being in the state where you feel relaxed
HOPE
At certain moment in life, you may experience some problems, and feeling the hope
means you know all those issues are not permanent ones, it means you feel and believe
things will change for the better, and the future is bright and beautiful.
GRATITUDE
Gratitude is about appreciation, for certain things and people you have in your life, such
as good health, great friends and family members, the talents you might possess,
fortune, fame, and more, and being thankful for it.
KINDNESS
Kindness often involves affection, and warmth and this emotion is about being
considerate, being generous and friendly to other people.
SURPRISE (PLEASANT)
When you do not expect a certain event to happen, and if the event happens, which is
not only unexpected but is pleasurable and desirable you will be pleasantly surprised.
CHEERFULNESS
Feeling cheerful means, you are in the state of mind which is positive, it means you are
optimistic and happy.
CONFIDENCE
Believing that you can do something, that you can
ADMIRATION
When you feel positive about people who are skillful, talented and exceptional is
something you will admire those people.
Admiration is a positive social emotion.
ENTHUSIASM
Enthusiasm is the emotion you will feel when you are extremely excited about something
when are very interested in something.
EUPHORIA
This emotion is something you will feel when you are simply overwhelmed with an
experience that involves a great joy.
For instance, you may be euphoric when your favorite football team is winning a game.
SATISFACTION
Is the emotion you will usually feel after you fulfill a certain desire or need you had but
you can also feel satisfied when you help someone with something.
PRIDE
Is the emotion that comes from feeling important and exalted for the things you achieved
or the things you currently do.
When you achieve something great, which is considered as valuable in social terms, you
will be proud of that achievement.
Feeling proud has the positive impact on selfconfidence.
CONTENTMENT
Is the emotion you will feel when you are satisfied and happy when your mind is at ease.
INSPIRATION
Feeling inspired comes from the uplifting the experience which basically takes your
breath away, such as watching a sunset which is simply perfect being the witness of an
excellence and more.
AMUSEMENT
Life is full of humor, funny stories and jokes, and funny and playful experiences that will
make you laugh so hard, and in those moments, you will feel completely amused.
ENJOYMENT
When experiencing or doing something you like, when simply taking a pleasure in
something, means you enjoy it.
It is a feeling of pleasure.
AWE
Is something that happens when you see or experience something truly powerful and
great, and when you are completely stunned by all that greatness.
For instance, it may come from seeing things such as an impressive work of art,
beautiful sunset, or Niagara waterfalls, Grand Canyon, an amazing beach covered in
white sand
LOVE
The list of the top 20 positive feelings and emotions is random, but the fact is, love is
without any doubt the most frequent positive feeling.
2 Moreover, love is the emotion that includes many other
4. LIKE ANGER
is an emotion characterized by antagonism toward someone or something
you feel has deliberately done you wrong.
Anger can be a good thing.
It can give you a way to express negative feelings, for example, or motivates
you to find solutions to problems.
But excessive anger can cause problems.
Increased blood pressure and other physical changes associated with anger
make it difficult to think straight and harm your physical and mental health
Types of Anger Disorder
PASSIVE ANGER
People experiencing passive anger may not even realize they are angry.
When you experience passive anger, your emotions may be displayed as
sarcasm, apathy or meanness.
You may participate in selfdefeating behaviors such as skipping schools or
work, alienating friends and family, or performing poorly in professional or
social situations.
To outsiders, it will look like you are intentionally sabotaging yourself, although
you may not realize it or be able to explain your actions.
AGGRESSIVE ANGER
Aggressive Anger Individuals who experience aggressive anger are usually
aware of their emotions, although they do not always understand the true
roots of their life ire.
In some cases, they redirect violent anger outburst to scapegoats because it
is too difficult to deal with the real problems.
Aggressive anger often manifests as volatile or retaliatory anger and can
result in physical damages to property and other people.
Learning to recognize triggers and manage anger symptoms is essential to
dealing positively with this form of anger.
What Causes Anger?
A leading cause of anger familial situations, and overwhelming requirements
on your time and energy can all contribute to the formation of anger
with disorders such as alcoholism, anger issues may be more prevalent in
individuals who were raised by chemicals and hormones also play a role in
how you deal with serotonin, you may find it more difficult to manage your
emotions.
5 . INSANE CRIMINALS
Insanity, craziness, or madness is a spectrum of behaviors characterized by
certain abnormal mental or behavioral patterns.
Insanity may manifest as violations of societal norms, including a person
becoming a danger to themselves or others, though not all such acts are
considered insanity; likewise, not all acts showing indifference toward societal
norms are acts of insanity
A criminal defendant who is found to have been legally insane when he or she
committed a crime may be found not guilty by reason of insanity
6. DISRUPTIVE, IMPULSIVE CONTROL A D CONDUCT DISORDERS
mpulse-control disorders are those that involve an inability to control emotions
and behaviors, resulting in harm to oneself or others.
These problems with emotional and behavioral regulation are characterized
by actions that violate the rights of others such as destroying property or
physical aggression and/or those that conflict with societal norms, authority
figures, and laws.
Types of Impulse-Control Disorders:
KLEPTOMANIA
Involves an inability to control the impulse to steal.
People who have kleptomania will often steal things that they do not really
need or that they have no monetary value.
Those with this condition experience escalating tension prior to committing a
theft and feel relief and gratification afterwards.
PYROMANIA
involves fascination with fire that results in acts of fire-starting that endanger
the self and others.
INTERMITTENT EXPLOSIVE DISORDER
is characterized by brief outburst of anger and violence that are out proportion
for the situation.
People with this disorder may erupt into angry outbursts or violent actions in
response to everyday annoyance or disappointments.
CONDUCT DISORDER
is a condition diagnosed in children and adolescents under the age of 18 who
regularly violate social norms and the rights of others.
Children with this disorder display aggression toward people and animals,
destroy property, steal and deceive, and violate other rules and laws. .
OPPOSITIONAL DEFIANT DISORDER
begins prior to the age of 18 and is characterized by defiance, irritability,
anger, aggression, and vindictiveness.
While all kids defiantly sometimes, kids with oppositional defiant disorder
2
refuse to comply with adult requests almost all the time and engage in
behaviors to deliberately annoy others
7 . SUBSTANCE RELATED AND ADDICTIVE DISORDERS
Substance-related disorders are those that involve the use and abuse of different
substances such as cocaine, methamphetamine, opiates and alcohol.
These disorders may include substance-induced conditions that can result in many
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associated diagnoses including intoxication, withdrawal, and the emergence of
psychosis, anxiety and delirium.
Substance-Related Disorders:
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ALCOHOL RELATED DISORDERS involve the consumption of alcohol, the most
widely used (and frequently overused) drug in the United States
CANNABIS-REPATED DISOREERS - include symptoms such as using more than
originally intended, feeling unable to stop using the drug, and continuing to use
despite adverse effects in one’s life.
INHALANT USE DISORDER - involves inhaling fumes from things such as paints
or solvents. As with other substance-related disorders, people with this condition
experience cravings for the substance and find it difficult to control or stop engaging
in the behavior.
STIMULANG DISORDER is a new category now found in the DSM-5 that involves
the use of stimulants such as meth, amphetamines, and cocaine.
TABACCO USE DISORDER - is characterized by symptoms such as consuming
more tobacco than intended, difficulty cutting back or quitting, cravings, and
suffering adverse social consequences as a result of tobacco use.
Note :
The DSM-5 also include gambling disorder under this qualification.
The American Psychiatric Association explains that this change "reflects the
increasing and consistent evidence that some behaviors, such as gambling, activate
the brain reward system with effects similar to those of drugs of abuse and that
gambling disorder symptoms resemble substance use disorders to a certain extent"
8. PERSONALITY DISORDERS
Personality disorders are characterized by an enduring pattern of maladaptive
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that can cause serious detriments to relationships
and other life areas.
TYPES OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS
ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS
is characterized by a long-standing disregard for rules, social norms, and the rights
of others.
People with this disorder typically begin displaying symptoms during childhood,
have difficulty feeling empathy for others, and lack remorse for their destructive
behaviors.
AVOIDANT PERSONALITY DISORDERS
involves severe social inhibition and sensitivity to rejection.
Such feelings of insecurity lead to significant problems with the individual’s daily life
and functioning.
BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER
is associated with symptoms including emotional instability, unstable and intense
interpersonal relationships, unstable self-image, and impulsive behaviors.
DEPENDENT PERSONALITY DISORDER
involves a chronic pattern of fearing separation and excessive need to be taken
care of.
People with this disorder will often engage in behaviors that are designed to
produce care-giving actions in others.
HISTORIONIC PERSONALITY DISORDER
is associated with patterns of extreme emotionality and attentionseeking behaviors.
People with this condition feel uncomfortable in settings where they are not the
center of attention, have rapidly changing emotions, and may engage in socially
inappropriate behaviors designed to attract attention from others.
NARCISSISTIC PERSONALITY DISODER
is associated with a lasting pattern of exaggerated self-centeredness, and low
empathy.
People with this condition tend to be more interested in themselves than with
others.
OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE PERSONALITY DISORDER
is a pervasive pattern of preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, inflexibility,
and mental and interpersonal control. This is a different condition than obsessive
compulsive disorder (OCD)
PARANOID PERSONALITY DISORDER
is characterized by a distrust of others, even family, friends, and romantic partners.
People with this disorder perceive others intentions as malevolent, even without any
evidence or justification.
SCHIZOID PERSONALITY
involves symptoms that include being detached from social relationships.
People with this disorder are directed toward their inner lives and are often
indifferent to relationships.
They generally display a lack of emotional expression and can appear cold and
aloof.
SCHIZOTYPAL PERSONALITY DISORDER
features eccentricities in speech, behaviors, appearance, and thought.
People with this condition may experience odd beliefs or "magical thinking" and
difficulty forming relationship.
9. CRIMINALOID
(From word "criminal" and suffix -oid, meaning criminal-like) is a
person who projects a respectable, upright façade, in an attempt to
conceal a criminal personality.
Unlike ordinary criminals, criminoloids enjoy the respect of society,
and because they often establish connections with the government
and the law, they are less likely to meet with opposition.
Due to respectable standing, they generally enjoy greater
prosperity than the average criminal, and have an automatic
advantage over their more conscientious colleagues.
10. LESS SELF CONTROL
Self-control, an aspect of inhibitory control, is the ability to regulate
one’s emotions, thoughts, and behavior in the face of temptations
and impulses.
As an executive function, self-control is a cognitive process that is
necessary for regulating one’s behavior in order to achieve specific
goals.
Self-control is to delay short term gratification in favor of long-term
outcomes: it is the investment of cognitive, emotional and
behavioral resources to achieve a desired outcome.
Self-control often involves resisting temptations and impulses, and
habits often undermine self-control.
Humans are relatively successful at exerting self-control to achieve
long-term outcomes (Hagger et al., 2009). Self-control is what
helps us control our emotions and impulses which enable us to
believe in socially adequate ways (Knoch & Fehr, 2007)
11. OCCASIONAL CRIMINALS
The occasional criminal only performs the act if the opportunity
occurs in his/her routine of daily life.
Example, someone is walking by a car and it happens to be
unlocked and the person notices they might take the car stereo
Most crime committed by amateurs whose acts are unskilled, and
unplanned.
Usually occurs when there is a situational inducement.
12. PSEUDO CRIMINALS
These persons are not true criminals.
They have neither any inborn tendency towards crime nor they are
under the influence of any bad crime-inducing habit nor still they
like committing crime.
If anything, they are averse to crime.
But if they still do something criminal this is on account of acute
pressure of circumstances which leaves them with no choice.
For example, a bank employee who somehow incurs heavy debts
may remove some money from bank with the hope of replacing it
soon.
Similarly, a man in foreign land deprived of his mate for many
months may visit a prostitute.
Army men during wars may feel compelled to rape or commit some
other sex offense.
ATAVISM
Means evolutionary throwback. This term emerged during the
1870s in the Italian school of criminology.
During this time, criminology studies were largely an extension of
medical studies, based on the observable physical and anatomical
characteristics that made these individuals different from others.
These physical traits were correlated to earlier humans, long before
humans learned that living together in societies was beneficial to
their survival.
The physical characteristics, such as flat noses, large lips, strong
jaw lines, and thick, coarse hair, were all attributed to a person’s
propensity to commit crime because these characteristics were
noted of persons who had already been convicted of crimes –
specifically prisoners.
ENCINO MAN
a person whose biological features and socialization skills are far
behind the times of the present day.
Notes compiled and edited by:
crmgst. Daiselyn A. Dasig
VICTIM PRECIPITATION
Is a criminology theory that analyzes how a
victims interaction with an offender may
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contribute to the crime being committed.
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The theory is most commonly associated with
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crimes like homicide, rape, assault, and robbery
👨‍💼 MARVIN WOLFGANG
First introduced in 20th century by criminologist
Marvin Wolfgang, in his article entitles Victim
Participated Criminal Homicide.
In this theory, Wolfgang describes the victim as
the first in the homicide drama to use physical
force against his subsequent slayer
Under this theory, the victim is viewed an active
participant in the crime.
THIS WILL HAPPEN TO TWO WAYS
FIRST , the victim is the participant in the crime
who acts first;
and SECOND, the victim encourages or provokes
the offender to commit the crime. These are the
primary components of the victim precipitation
theory
EXAMPLE :
Cain and Abel are having a drink at the local
tavern. Abel owes Cain money, and as the night
progresses, Cain becomes increasingly agitated
with Abels failure to pay his debt. Finally, Cain
snaps he shouts at Abel from across the bar, and
then charges at him, brandishing a pistol. He fires
a shot toward Abel, barely missing his head. Abel
pulls a knife and stabs Cain to death as the two
wrestles on the floor.
Note :
Victim precipitation theory also relates to
interactions that make a victim susceptible to
crime. This application of theory is known as
victim facilitation, and concerns situations where
a victims negligence or carelessness makes them
more vulnerable to criminal conduct.
MEASURES THAT CAN BE TAKEN TO CURB CRIMINAL
ACTIVITIES
it is important to formulate techniques and curb (
pigilan ) crime altogether before it gets out of
hand
They ought to execute effective and efficient
crime prevention techniques in their capacity as a
leader of the people so as to ensure there is
harmony in society
Some measures that can be taken to curb
criminal activities are mentioned below.
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