Data-Enabled Discov. Appl.
(2017) 1: 9
DOI 10.1007/s41688-017-0010-1
ORIGINAL PAPER
Fibre Reinforced Composites: a Promising Material
for Artificial Limp
D. Chandramohan 1 & A. John Presin Kumar 1
Received: 16 June 2017 / Accepted: 1 September 2017 / Published online: 26 September 2017
# Springer International Publishing AG 2017
Abstract This paper outlines some of the recent reports
published in literature on composites with special empha-
sis on mechanical properties of fibre reinforced composites
for artificial limp/prostheses. As a result of the increasing
demand for environmentally friendly materials and the de-
sire to reduce the cost of traditional fibres reinforced
petroleum-based composites, new bio-based composites
have been developed. Researchers have begun to focus
attention on natural fibre composites (i.e. biocomposites),
which are composed of natural or synthetic resins, rein-
forced with natural fibres. Natural fibres exhibit many ad-
vantageous properties, they are a low-density material
yielding relatively lightweight composites with high spe-
cific properties. These fibres also offer significant cost ad-
vantages and ease of processing along with being a highly
renewable resource, in turn reducing the dependency on
foreign and domestic petroleum oil. In the present scenario
sustainable alternatives to conventional/traditional mate-
rials, specifically glass fibres, to be used within the lami-
nation of prosthetic sockets. Natural fibres are known and
compared to artificial fibres to see their viability through
the subsequent measures: mechanical properties, environ-
mental effects, health hazards, and overall feasibility.
* D. Chandramohan
mail_2_cm@yahoo.com
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hindustan Institute of
Technology & Science, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 603103, India
Keywords Fibre reinforced composites . Artificial limp .
Mechanical properties . Environmental effects . Health
hazards . Feasibility
Introduction
Publications about prosthetics in the developing world reflect
the multiple concerns of health care providers working in
those countries. Following a RECAL search of related litera-
ture from 2003 to 2016, over 170 publications were collected
and reviewed. Variables/characteristics that were examined
and compared between natural fibres and conventional pros-
thetic laminate materials are the mechanical properties, the
environmental effects, the associated health hazards, and the
overall feasibility.
Material selection plays an important role in meeting the
requirements of the prosthesis parts in order to make them
effectively functional. The cost of the material chosen has to
be relevant (i.e. economical and affordable to low-income
amputees, for instance) to be manufactured in mass produc-
tions since the material cost itself does contribute a lot in total
manufacturing cost for each part. Therefore, based on the re-
lated review this research tries to propose more studies on
material engineering in providing alternative materials for
the same purpose.
The most suitable material to be used in the making of
prostheses so that the low-income wearers could afford to
buy them. The use of natural fibre-based biocomposites as
one of the layers in socket lamination will reduce the
manufacturing cost of artificial lower limbs in terms of mate-
rial costing, and at the same time, provide an eco-friendly
alternative to plastic-based materials. Hence the proposed
method confirms the socket design and fabrication process
9 Page 2 of 9 Data-Enabled Discov. Appl. (2017) 1: 9

Table 1 Search methodology Search Result

Search Search term

1 Prosthetic, Prostheses, artificial limp

2 Bio composite for prosthetic fabrication
3 Natural fibre for artificial limp Articles were included in this review. 16
4 Eco materials for prostheses
5 Bio fibres for prosthetics, prostheses, artificial limp
Total number of research articles found 170

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

innovated to be more effective, reliable, accurate and cost TOTAL NUMBER OF ARTICLES
effective. Fig. 2 Search result

Results and Discussion

Methods
The purpose of this research method is to integrate engineer-
ing and medical science wherein technology is developed to
make cost effective customised prostheses for accident vic-
tims using biocomposite materials. The collection of data is
based on natural fibre for artificial limp fabrication. The use of
natural fibre-based biocomposites as one of the layers in sock-
et lamination will reduce the manufacturing cost of artificial
lower limbs in terms of material costing, and at the same time,
provide an eco-friendly alternative to plastic-based materials.
Hence this review confirms the socket design and fabrication
process innovated to be more effective, reliable, accurate and
cost effective.
Comprehensive search of relevant databases and informa-
tion sources was performed in Dec 2016 in following data-
bases: Springer, Science Direct, MEDLINE, EBSCO, Pub
Med, Wiley, Research gate and Google search engine as
shown in Table 1.
Traditional socket manufacture process of design and fabrica-
tion is able to produce comfortable sockets. However, the
process has drawbacks; there is no permanent record of the
patient’s stump geometry nor the rectified cast and both the
wrap cast of the positive mould are destroyed during the
process.
Within the cited literature, there were limited publications
found directly comparing natural fibres to fibreglass in the
lamination of prosthetic sockets. The results from these papers
were gathered through a means of inconsistent testing
methods when compared to each other. However, evidence
was found within the literature reviews supporting the viabil-
ity of natural fibres over conventionally based ones. They
spoke to the promise of sustainability, health concerns and
strength characteristics as compared to those of the conven-
tional method.
Chandramohan et al. [1] have reported the important ad-
vantages of natural fibres over glass fibre are low density,

Fig. 1 Articles were included in Articles were included in this review.

this review
From 2003 to 2016
3.5
3 3
3
Number of Articles

2.5
2 2 2
2

1.5
1 1 1 1
1

0.5

0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
YEAR
Data-Enabled Discov. Appl. (2017) 1: 9 Page 3 of 9 9

Table 2 Fibres NATURAL FIBRE

discussed in this review Natural fibre Conventional fibre Mechanical Properties -
Strength and weight
• Sisal, • Cotton
• Jute • Nylon
• Hemp • Nyglass,
• Bamboo • Fibreglass Feasibility - Cost,benefit Environmental Effects-
and availability Ecological sustainability
• Banana • Carbon fibre
• China Reed
• Coconut
• Coir
Health Hazards - Both to
• Corn fabricator and end user
• Flax Fig. 4 Author’s interpretation of measures of natural fibres
• Kenaf
• Pineapple
• Ramie
substitutes and reported that mechanical properties of natural
• Rice
fibres that are used for bone grafting substitutes which are now
• Seacell
becoming a great challenge for biomedical engineers. This
• Soya paper emphasis the enhanced property of natural fibre as bone
Ramie was further tested in the form of a implants. It is a challenge to the creation of better materials for
complete socket to modified ISO standards the improvement of life quality. This paper proposed sugges-
tions of using natural fibre reinforced composite as a plate
material which uses pure natural fibres that are rich in medic-
appropriate stiffness and mechanical properties and high dis- inal properties.
posability and renewability. Moreover, they are recyclable and Chandramohan [20] successfully done design and fabrica-
biodegradable. Over the last decade, composites of polymers tion of natural fibre reinforced composites. This research
reinforced by natural fibres have received increased attention.
Chandramohan et al. [18] experimentally studied on ma-
chining (drilling operation) parameters such as thrust force
and torque on natural fibre particle reinforced polymer com- GLASS FIBRE
posite material. The results indicated that the torque increases
with the increase in the fibre volume fraction. Increasing fibre Mechanical Properties
volume fraction increases the static strength, and thus, the - Strength and weight
resistance of the composite to mechanical drilling increases.
This leads to the increase in the required thrust force and
torque. The result also indicates that the torque decreases
when increasing the cutting speed.
Chandramohan [19] experimentally studied on characteri-
sation of natural fibres and their application in bone grafting

Publication characteristics

Feasibility 1
16

Health hazards 1
4

Environmental Properties 2
16

Mechanical Properties 10
12

0 5 10 15 20
Health Hazards - Both
Properties discussed in number of articles with evidence
to fabricator and end
Properties discussed in number of articles user
Fig. 3 Publication characteristics Fig. 5 Author’s interpretation of measures of glass fibres
9 Page 4 of 9 Data-Enabled Discov. Appl. (2017) 1: 9

Table 3 Mechanical properties of composites

Authors Strength Fibre Resin UTS range Young’s modulus Test used
range Mpa Gpa

Thimmana Gouda et al. [3] Low Sisal, Jute and Hemp Epoxy resin 18–42 43.44 ± 3.6 ASTM D 3039
Odusote et al. [4] Middle Glass polyester fibre Epoxy resin 65.72 ± 3.30 7.33 ± 3.22
Banana pseudo stem 69.44 6.87 ± 1.21
± 4.11
Phillips and Craelius [2] Low Perlon, nylon, cotton, Acrylic and 18–42 1.8–5.1
spectrolon, NYglass epoxy/acrylic
Middle Fibre glass 67–109 5.0–17.3
High Carbon fibre 236–249 20.6–25.5
Campbell et al. [5] Low None Plant oil 28.4 ± 12.6 1.0 ± 0 ASTM D 3039
Bamboo 29.9 ± 3.9 1.1 ± 0
Cotton 36 ± 4.1 1.6 ± 0
Corn 38.9 ± 0.8 1.5 ± 0.01
Middle Soya 55.8 ± 2.7 1.7 ± 0.01
Fibre glass 56.8 ± 5.0 2.4 ± 0
Flax 59.5 ± 5.0 2.8 ± 0.01
Seacell 66.1 ± 2.8 2.5 ± 0.01
Ramie 80.8 ± 8.2 4.0 ± 0.01
banana 82.7 ± 5.0 3.4 ± 0.01
High Carbon fibre 127.5 ± 28 8.8 ± 0.02
Andrea Kramer et.al. [6] Low Nylon Acrylic and epoxy 24.2 ± 12.6 1.54 ± 0.27 ASTM D 638
Middle Bamboo satin weave 47.43 ± 2.4 2.56 ± 0.14
Cotton 54.18 ± 2.0 2.3 ± 0.16
Bamboo plain weave 55.26 ± 5.2 2.6 ± 0.14
Irawan et al. [7] Middle Fibre glass Polyester and epoxy 62 ± 4.20 6.89 ± 0.47 ASTM D 3039
Ramie 67 ± 5.11 7.45 ± 0.57
Ramie 86 ± 6.07 9.56 ± 0.68
Irawan and Sukania [8] Middle Rattan Epoxy 65.25 ± 0.6 8.68 ± 0.68
Irawan and Sukania [9] Middle Bamboo Epoxy 78.09 ± 1.9 8.96 ± 0.33
Irawan and Sukania [15] Middle Banana Epoxy 62.3 ± 0.67 8.72 ± 1012
Irawan and Sukania [8] Middle Fibre glass Rattan Epoxy 65.25 ± 0.81 8.68 ± 0.68

focuses on establishment of superior mechanical and material Mechanical Properties

properties of the hybrid composite and includes the process to
make the composite and also the variety of products in
automotive, furniture, upholstery, house hold goods and
computer goods.
The systematic search of the databases yielded 170 articles
which were vetted against the inclusion criteria based on title
and abstract resulting in ultimately, 16 articles were included
in this review as shown in Figs. 1 and 2.
Table 2 shows within the 16 selected publications, the fol-
lowing fibres were discussed. Figure 3 shows publication
characteristics.
Figures 4 and 5 show author’s interpretation of literature
review on natural fibre and glass fibre.
Of the included publications, mechanical property (10/12),
environmental effects (2/16), health hazards (1/4) and feasi-
bility (1/16) have been discussed in the number of articles with
supporting evidence.
Tensile testing was chosen as it expresses primary modes
of socket failure, including components in both bending
and fatigue stress. The tensile test outlined by the ASTM D
3039 standard provides UTS results in Mpa units as well as
stiffness range in GPa units. To fulfil the requirements for an
Bideal socket^, as suggested by Phillips and Craelius [2], the
weight of the material will be assessed where possible.
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) grouped as filler materials
(low) and structural materials (middle, high). The fibre type
described as BGlass^ is a combination of results from both
fibre glass matte and fibreglass cloth from different
manufacturers.
The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) has a range as the
results were from multiple material tests using three different
resins [2].
Table 3 outlines their results classifying materials.
Data-Enabled Discov. Appl. (2017) 1: 9 Page 5 of 9 9

Fig. 6 Suggested natural fibres Suggested Natural Fibres for potential to replace glass fibre
for potential to replace glass fibre
2.5

Number of times used by authors

2 2 2 2
2

1.5

1 1
1

0.5

0
Ramie Rattan Bamboo Sisal, Jute & Banana pineapple
Hemp leaf
Fibres

Fig. 7 Suggested resin by Suggested resin by authors

authors
10
9
Number of times used by authors

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1
0
Epoxy resin Plant oil resin
Resin

Fig. 8 Composite sockets

loading at failure Thimmana
Gouda et al. [8] and Campbell
et al. [5]
9 Page 6 of 9 Data-Enabled Discov. Appl. (2017) 1: 9

Fig. 9 Non-renewable energy Glass Fibre Mat

requirements (MJ/kg) for glass
Non-renewable energy requirements (MJ/kg)

Non-renewable energy requirements

fibre mat [4]
60 54.7

50

(MJ/kg)
40

30
21.5 23
20

10 5.9
1.7 1 1.6
0
Raw Mixture Transport Melting Spinning Mat Total
material production Energy

Fig. 10 Non-renewable energy Flax Fibre Mat

requirements (MJ/kg) for flax
fibre mat [4] Non-renewable energy requirements (MJ/kg)
12
Non-renewable energy requirements

10 9.55

8
(MJ/kg)

4
2.7 2.9
2
2 1 0.9
0.05
0
Seed Fertilizers Transport Cultivation Fibre Mat Total
production separation production Energy

Fig. 11 Non-renewable energy China Reed Fibre

requirements (MJ/kg) for China
reed fibre [4] Non-renewable energy requirements (MJ/kg)
4 3.64
Non-renewable energy requirements

3.5
3
2.5
2.5
(MJ/kg)

2
1.5
1
0.4 0.4
0.5 0.26
0.08
0
Cultivation Transport Fibre Fibre Transport Total
plant extraction grinding fibre Energy
Data-Enabled Discov. Appl. (2017) 1: 9 Page 7 of 9 9

Fig. 12 Comparison between Non-renewable energy requirements (MJ/kg)

fibres for non-renewable energy
requirements (MJ/kg) [4] 60
54.7

Total energy requirement (MJ/kg).

50

40

30

20

9.55
10
3.64

0
Glass fibre mat Flax fibre mat China reed fibre

Figures 6 and 7 show the included publication authors
suggested alternative (Natural fibre) and resin for Potential
to replace conventional/synthetic/glass fibre.
All sockets failed at higher loading rates than the required 4,
025 N set within the ISO 10328 standards [5]. The information
was extracted from the study by Campbell et al. [5]. Campbell
et al. [5] also recorded information comparing the thickness
addressing the strength/weight characteristic [2] as one of the
ratios considered for an ideal prosthetic socket. They concluded
that ramie fibre stockinette and plantoil resin were 23% lighter
with regards to density than the standard nyglass stockinette and
acrylic resin. It was concluded that this resultwas likely due to
the fibres used, since the resins alone held equal densities [5]. In
addition to these findings, a study by Joshi et al. [10] indicated
that due to the lower density of the plantbased fibres they found
a 20–30% reduction of weight when comparing hemp and china
reed composites to those using glass fibres. Thimmana Gouda
et al. [3] also recorded information sisal, jute and hemp (12, 24
and 36%) with epoxy resin and composite sockets failure at
7180 N,7000 N and 12,680 N respectively. Figure 8 shows all
composite sockets loading at failure studied by Thimmana
Gouda et al. [3] and Campbell et al. [5].
Environmental Effects and Health Hazards
All publications used in this literature review discussed the
environmental advantages of natural fibres over glass fibres
but only a pair of publications provided supporting proof. The
studies by Joshi et al. [10] and Wambua et al [11] indicated
natural fibres were environmentally superior than glass fibres;
however, the fibres studied were not in an exceedingly lami-
nated type. The study by Joshi et al. [10] indicates that natural
fibres, flax and China reed, required less non-renewable ener-
gy in its production than glass fibre mat. This means the waste
product emissions are considerably higher in glass fibre pro-
duction relatively. They suggested these findings should be
applicable to alternative natural fibres.
Figures 9, 10, 11 and 12 show the non-renewable energy
requirements (MJ/kg) of glass fibre mat, flax fibre mat and
China reed fibre studied by Joshi et al. [10]. His study indi-
cates plant based fibre and China reed fibre required less non-
renewable energy in production than glass fibre. This means
the pollutant emissions are higher in glass fibre production.
A study by Wambua et al. [11] agrees that natural fibres
require lower energy consumption in their manufacture when

Table 4 Comparison between

natural and glass fibres Wambua Properties Natural fibres Glass fibres
et al 2003
Density Low Twice that of natural fibres
Cost Low Low but higher than natural fibres
Renewability Yes No
Recyclability Yes No
Energy consumption Low High
Distribution Wide Wide
CO2 neutral Yes No
Abrasion to machines No Yes
Health risk when inhaled No Yes
Disposal Biodegradable Not biodegradable
9 Page 8 of 9
compared to glass fibres. In addition to low energy consump-
tion, natural fibres pose a greatly reduced threat to the envi-
ronment due to their renewability, recyclability, biodegrad-
ability, and status as being carbon neutral, resulting in reduced
greenhouse gas emissions. They also suggest natural fibres are
lower in density thus weighing less, have a lower cost, and
their particles are not considered a health risk when inhaled. It
should be noted that the study did not produce evidence
supporting these findings. See Table 4 below for a comparison
between the natural and glass fibres.
Feasibility
All publications used in this literature review discussed the
feasibleness of using natural fibres in place of glass fibres or
standard materials. Overall they suggested natural fibres are
lower in value and/or a lot of abundantly offered globally.
Limitations
This review on bio fibres for prostheses fabrication was con-
ducted by engineers only and their main focus on mechanical,
environmental, health hazards and feasibility characteristics of
natural fibres and glass fibres has been discussed. Few previous
research on hybrid of natural and synthetic fibre it was observed
that addition of appropriate natural fibre to glass fibre can
improve the mechanical properties and can be used for
fabrication of artificial limps.
Conclusion
After reviewing the exiting literature available on the natural
fibre composite efforts are put to understand the basic needs of
the growing composite industry. The conclusions drawn from
this is that the success of combining natural fibres with polymer
matrices results in the improvement of mechanical properties of
the bio composite. These fillers are cheap and non-toxic can be
obtain from renewable source and are easily recyclable.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
Ethical Approval This article does not contain any studies with human
participants or animals performed by any of the author.
Informed Consent Not applicable.
Data-Enabled Discov. Appl. (2017) 1: 9
References
1. D. Chandramohan et al., Progress of biomaterials in the field of
orthopaedics. Am. J. Appl. Sci. 11(4), 623–630 (2014). https://
doi.org/10.3844/ajassp.2014.623.630
2. S.L. Phillips, W. Craelius, Material properties of selected prosthetic
laminates. J. Prosthet. Orthot. 17(1), 27–34 (2005)
3. A. Thimmana Gouda, Jagadish S P, K R Dinesh, Virupaksha Gouda H,
N Prashanth. Characterization and investigation of mechanical proper-
ties of hybrid natural fiber polymer composite materials used as ortho-
paedic implants for femur bone prosthesis. 11(4) II (2014) 40–52
4. J.K. Odusote, A.T. Oyewo, J.A. Adebisi, K.A. Akand, Mechanical
properties of banana pseudo stem fibre reinforced epoxy composite
as a replacement for transtibial prosthetic socket. J. Assoc. Prof.
Eng. Trinidad Tobago 44(2), 4-10 (2016)
5. A.I. Campbell, S. Sexton, C.J. Schaschke, H. Kinsman, B.
McLaughlin, M. Boyle, Prosthetic limb sockets from plant based
composite materials. Prosthet. Orthot. Int. 36(2), 181-189 (2012)
6. Andrea Kramer, M.S., Keith Sardo, C.P.O., William Slocumb, B.S,
Analysis of Bamboo Reinforced Composites for use in Orthotic and
Prosthetic Application. American Academy of Orthotists &
Prosthetists 41st Academy Annual Meeting & Scientific
Symposium February 18-21, (2015) http://media.
mycrowdwisdom.com.s3.amazonaws.com/aaop/Resources/JOP/
2015/2015-13.pdf
7. A.P. Irawan, T.P. Soemardi, W. Kusumaningsih, A.H.S.
Reksoprodjo, Tensile and flexural strength of ramie fiber reinforced
epoxy composites for socket prosthesis application. Int. J. Mech
Mat. Eng. 6(1), 46-50 (2011) http://ejum.fsktm.um.edu.my/article/
1039.pdf
8. A.P.Irawan, I.W. Sukania. Mechanical Characteristics of Rattan
Reinforced Fiberglass and Epoxy Composites for Shank
Prosthesis Application. 8(3), 1543-1550 (2016) http://www.
enggjournals.com/ijet/docs/IJET16-08-03-050.pdf
9. A.P. Irawan, I.W. Sukania. Tensile and impact strength of bamboo
fiber reinforced epoxy composite as alternative materials for above
knee prosthesis socket. In Proceedings of 2nd International
Conference on Sustainable Technology Development, pp. M.109-
M.115, (2012).
10. S.V. Joshi, L.T. Drzal, A.K. Mohanty, S. Arora, Are natural fiber
composites environmentally superior to glass fiber reinforced com-
posites? Compos. Part A 35(3), 371-376 (2004) https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.compositesa.2003.09.016
11. P. Wambua, J. Ivens, I. Verpoest, Natural fibres: can they replace
glass in fibre reinforced plastics? Compos. Sci. Technol. 63, 1259-
1264 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0266-3538(03)00096-4
12. A.P. Irawan, T.P. Soemardi, W. Kusumaningsih, A.H.S.
Reksoprodjo, Ramie epoxy laminate composite for alternative
prosthesis socket materials. J. Teknik Mesin 11, 41–45 (2009)
13. R. Che Me, R. Ibrahim, P. Tahir, Natural based biocomposite ma-
terial for prosthetic socket fabrication. Int. J. Sustain. Trop. Des.
Res. Pract. Alma Cipta 5(1), 27-33 (2012)
14. RAYUDU NITHIN MANOHAR CHOWDARY, A Study Report
On Use of natural fiber composites in prosthetics. NOVMBER
2014), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270052532_
Study_on_Use_of_natural_fiber_composites_in_prosthetic
15. A.P. Irawan, I.W. Sukania, Tensile strength of banana fiber rein-
forced epoxy composites materials. Appl. Mech. Mater. 776, 260–
263 (2015). https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.776.
260
16. A.P. Irawan, I.W. Sukania. Gait analysis of lower limb prosthesis
with socket made from rattan fiber reinforced epoxy composites.
Asian J. Appl. Sci. 3(1), 8-13 (2015) http://www.ajouronline.com/
index.php/AJAS/article/view/2206
Data-Enabled Discov. Appl. (2017) 1: 9
17. J.K. Odusote, A.T. Oyewo, Mechanical properties of pineapple leaf
fiber reinforced polymer composites for application as a prosthetic
socket. J. Eng. Technol. 7(1), 125-139 (2016) http://journal.utem.
edu.my/index.php/jet/article/view/841/pdf_33
18 D. Chandramohan, S. Rajesh, Study of machining parameters on
natural fiber particle reinforced polymer composite material. Acad.
J. Manuf. Eng. 12(3), 72-77 (2014) http://www.auif.utcluj.ro/
images/VOLUME12_3/11_Chandramohan_Rajesh_72_77
Page 9 of 9 9
19 D. Chandramohan, K. Marimuthu, Characterization of natural fibers
and their application in bone grafting substitutes. Acta Bioeng.
Biomech. 13(1), 77-84 (2011) http://www.actabio.pwr.wroc.pl/
Vol13No1/10.pdf
20 D. Chandramohan, J. Bharanichandar, Design and fabrication of
natural fiber reinforced composites for conservation of natural re-
sources. Int. J. Appl. Environ. Sci. 9(2), 375-384 (2014) https://
www.ripublication.com/Volume/ijaesv9n2.htm