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BIO 1204: LECTURE ONE

VIRUSES
Introduction
The Russian botanist D.I. Ivanosky (1852) reported the existence of viruses as
organisms causing the tobacco mosaic disease. The causal organism was too small
and was able to pass through a filter that can prevent bacteria from passing. These
organisms were named ‘virus’ (Latin for poison) by another scientist called Beijerink
in 1898. They can only be studied with an electron microscope.
Classification
Viruses can be classified based on a number of characteristics:
A. Host Specificity:
The scientist Frobischer divided viruses into four groups in 1957.
1. Plant viruses e.g. Tobacco mosaic virus
2. Insect viruses e.g Reoviridae, Poxviridae
3. Mammalian viruses e.g. Ebola virus
4. Bacterial viruses e.g. Bacteriophage
B. Envelope:
Viruses are divided based on the presence or absence of envelop.
1. Enveloped viruses e.g. HIV, Influenza virus.
2. Non-enveloped viruses e.g. TMV.
C. Nuclear material:
Viruses are also classified based on the presence of DNA or RNA.
1. DNA viruses e.g. Herpes simplex.
2. RNA viruses e.g. TMV, Phages.
Are viruses living?
This depends on what one calls living, if the possession of genetic material (DNA or
RNA) is what one considers as living, then the answer is that viruses are living. If
however, an organism needs to have a cellular structure to qualify to be called living,
then the answer is that viruses are not living.
BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 1 2022/2023 SESSION

Characteristic
i. Viruses have no cellular structures (e.g. cell wall, cytoplasm, nucleus,
chromosomes etc.)
ii. Viruses are parasitic and they are not capable of reproducing outside the
living cell of the host.
iii. Viruses have a simple structure consisting of a nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
surrounded by a protein or lipoprotein coat called CAPSID.
iv. Viruses are on the boundary between what is regarded as living and
non-living
v. Viruses are specific to their host i.e. they can only recognize and infect
certain types of cells
Sizes
Viruses range in size from the smallest which causes foot and mouth diseases
(20nm) to the largest animal virus i.e. smallpox virus which measure (300nm) in
diameter. On the average viruses are about 1/100 times smaller than bacteria.
m = 10-3 and n=10-9
Structure
A complete virus particle is known as VIRION. It consists of nucleic acid enclosed in
a protein coat called a CAPSID. These are formed from identical protein subunit
called CAPSOMERS. Viruses can have a lipid envelope derived from the host cell
membrane. Morphologically there are four main types of virus based on the shape of
viral capsid.
 Helical
 Icosahedral
 Prolate (envelope)
 Complex
There are about 2000 viruses known, about 400 are said to attack plants. Example of
such include, mosaic virus (e.g tobacco mosaic virus, turnip yellow mosaic virus,
cow pea mosaic virus), wound tumor virus, tobacco ring spot virus.

Bacteriophage
These are a group of viruses that attack bacteria. They are small in size and can
reproduce rapidly. There are seven strains coded T1 – T7. An example of this virus is
the T4 bacteriophage which parasitizes onEscherichia coli (E. coli), a bacterium. It
consists of a polyhedral head, a neck, a collar, the core (the genetic material, either
DNA or RNA, which may be single or double, stranded), sheath, endplate and six tail
fibers. The sheath is specialized in function and is contractile permitting the
penetration of the core into the bacterium cell.
Figure: Structure of a Bacteriophage.

(a) (b)
Comparison of structures of (a) a T4 Bacteriophage and (b) bacterium
Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
Their structure was first discovered by Bawden and Pirie (1937). They have a
structure made up of nucleoproteins (protein and nucleic acid). They are rod shaped
and measure 300nm in length and 15nm in diameter.
Figure: Structure of TMV
Cultivation
Viruses can only be cultivated in-vivo (inside a living thing) in developing chick
embryo, in bacteria, in laboratory animals etc.
Culturing virus in developing chick embryo

Sterile forceps are used to make an incision near the air sac through which the virus
is inoculated. The virus produces lesions on the chorioallantoic membrane. The
chick-embryo technique is used in the mass cultivation of virus particles for the
production of immunizing vaccine e.g. small pox vaccine etc.
Culturing virus in bacteria

In this case bacteria and phages are mixed in warm nutrient agar and poured in thin
layer across the surface of an agar plate. During incubation bacteria infected by
phages lyse and release new phages that infect nearby bacteria, while uninfected
bacteria grow and reproduce normally. After incubation there would be a uniform
bacterial lawn on the plate interrupted by clear zones called plaques, which are areas
where phages have lysed the bacteria.
Economic significance
Viruses cause many diseases of plants and animals such as mosaic disease of
apple, bean, cabbage, cauliflower, groundnut, potato, tobacco, tomato. Barley yellow
dwarf disease of wheat barley oats and rye etc. among plants and mumps, smallpox,
chickenpox, measles, herpes, polio, yellow fever, influenza, common cold, cancer,
AIDS etc. among humans.
BIO 1204: LECTURE TWO

BACTERIA
Bacteria are a diverse group of (usually) single-celled prokaryotic microorganisms,

mostly free-living, occurring in soil, on plants, in various aquatic habitats and even in
antarctic snow. Some are also found as symbionts (beneficial relationship) in plants,
animals and certain microorganisms. They can cause a number of major and minor
diseases in both plants and animals, however many are used in a number of
commercial and manufacturing processes.
Discovered by Anthony Von Leuwenhook in 1683 using magnifying glasses (first

crude microscope), where he first called them “tiny animacules”. Later Ehrenberg
(1929) was the first man to establish genus ‘Bacteria’.
Bacteria are generally:

- Unicellular, achrolophyllous (non chlorophyllous) minute organisms.

- The leading autotrophic (using CARBON DIOXIDE and light for most or all of
the energy requirements), saprophytic (obtaining nutrients from non-living or
decaying plant and animal matter) and parasitic (benefiting at the expense of
the other) lives.
- May be motile or non-motile and if motile, it is due to the presence of flagella.
- Structurally, each bacterial cell is primitive and lacks nucleus and nuclear
membrane in the cell hence called prokaryotic.
- The method of propagation is by binary fission, sexual reproduction is absent
but recently reported inEscherichia coli.
Occurrence
Bacteria grow under all possible environments on earth. They occur in air, in fresh
and marine waters, petrol and related products, dust particles, in plants and animals.
Some bacteria survive in heat (thermophiles) and cold (psychrophiles).
Size and Structure

Bacteria are microscopic and vary in size, ranging from 0.5µm - 10µm. The smallest
are about 0.2µ, approximately the size of the largest virus. But a few reach up to
100µ (1 micron (µ) = 1/1000 millimeter).
Forms and cell arrangement

Shape and form of bacteria varies considerably. It may be influenced by
environment. Cohen divided bacteria into the following four forms:
(1). Cocci or spherical

They are spherical or ellipsoidal (near-spherical) forms. Cocci (sing: coccus) may
occur singly, in pairs , in regular groups of four or more, in chains, or in irregular
clusters and are more draught resistant owing to their spherical shape.
These forms are divided on the basis of cell arrangement into:

a). Micrococci: Such forms grow singly as they separate immediately after cell
division.
b). Diplococci: They are found in pairs due to characteristic cell division in a single
plane forming two cells e.g.Diplococcus pneumoniae
c). Streptococcus: Cells are found arranged in chains looking like beaded structure.
Cell division occurs in one place and daughter cocci remain attached e.g.
Streptococcus pyogenes
d). Staphylococcus: These appear like bunches of grapes because of irregular cell
division in more than two planes e.g.Staphylococcus aureus .
e). Sarcinae: These show a cubiodal structure (occur in three-dimensional cube) and
many form definite geometrical figures. The cell division is in three planes at right
angle to each other e.g.Sarcina lutea
f). Tetracocci/Gaffkya: Such bacteria occur in groups of four cells due to
characteristic cell division in two planes but right angle to each other and are called
Gaffkya.
(2). Bacilli or rod shaped bacilli (Sing: Bacillus)

Bacillus is a Latin word which means ‘Stick’. These bacteria are cylindrical or rod
shaped. They may be found in pairs (Diplobacilli), in chains (Streptobacilli) or
showing palisade arrangement e.g. Tubercle bacilli appearing in groups of three.
(3). Sprilla or spirals
These are spirals of helical structures. Spirillum means “coils’. The spirals may be
short and tightly coiled or long with many coils. E.g. Leptospira and Treponema
(4). Vibrio or comma

These are comma shaped and called vibrio e.g.Vibrio cholerae

Figure: Representative cell morphologies of bacteria
Flagellation
Bacteria may be motile and non-motile. The motile forms have flexible whip like
structure called flagella. Each flagellum is a long delicate protoplasmic elongation
consisting of single protein fibril.
Depending upon number and position of attachment of flagella, the following types
of bacteria are recognized:

i. Monotrichous: Each cell has a single flagellum at one end e.g.Vibrio cholerae
ii. Lephotrichous: A cell has many flagella but present only at one pole e.g.Spirillum
undulla
iii. Amphitrichous/Multitrichous: A cell bears many flagella in two tufts, one at both
ends e.g.Spirilla pseudomonas
iv. Petritrichous: A cell has a larger number of flagella attached all round the surface
e.g.Salmonella typhosa
A-Monotrichous; B-Lophotrichous; C-Amphitrichous; D-Peritrichous;
Quite a few bacteria are capable of movement due to their cellular contraction as in
the case of spirochaetes or due to creeping motion as in sulphur bacteria.
Myxobacteria move due to characteristic ‘swelling of the slime’.
Cell structure
A typical bacterial cell is found enveloped by three distinct layers i.e. the capsule or
slime layer, the cell wall and the cell membrane.

1. Capsule (sheath) or slime layer: Capsule is found present only in a few types of
bacteria. It is formed at a particular stage of life cycle. When the outer covering
around the cell wall is diffused and loosely arranged, it is called slime layer and when
it is thick, mucilaginous and compactly arranged it is called capsule. Capsule bearing
bacteria are pathogenic to animals e.g. Bacillus anthracis and Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. Capsule is an outer protective covering against adverse conditions and
chemicals.
2. Cell wall: The bacteria cell wall is a strong rigid structure that protects and
supports the weaker and biochemical more active parts of the cell. Its thickness
varies from 10-25nm, depending on the species of the organism. The bacterial cell
wall is a heteropolymer consisting of two amino acid sugars (N – acetylglucosamine
and N-acetyl muramic acid) and amino acids such as glutamic acid, alanine, glycine
and either diaminopimelic acid or lysine.
In certain cases, the cell wall may contain chitin or cellulose e.g. Acetobacter
xylinum. Gram positive bacteria have thicker cell wall than gram negative bacteria.

Gram – negative cell wall Gram – positive cell wall
3. Cell membrane: The protoplasm bounded by a thick cell membrane present

beneath the cell wall. Chemically, it is composed of phospholipids and proteins.
Some polysaccharides are also found. Besides its function as a selective membrane,
it plays a significant role during respiration.
4. Cytoplasm: It is a granular and viscous substance found between nucleic region

and plasma membrane and comprises of salts, sugars, amino acids, vitamins,
glycogene e.t.c. Ribosomes are freely found in the cytoplasm. In photosynthetic
bacteria chromotophore are found which contain photosynthetic pigments
associated with electron carriers.
5. The nucleic region: Bacterial nucleus is quite primitive in nature (simple) and
consists of only diffused nucleic acid, that occur as single circular chromosome
containing DNA and Protein. The DNA is concentrated in structures called chromatic
bodies that is capable of dividing. They may also have additional nuclear materials
called plasmids. There may be 1 – 100 plasmids per bacterium. Organelles like
nucleolus, nuclear membrane, nuclear sap are not seen.

BIO 1204: LECTURE THREE

THE FUNGI
Characteristics
The word fungi (Singular: fungus) was originally derived from the Greek word
‘sphongos’ (“sponge”) referring to microscopic structures. They are large group of
eukaryotic organisms comprising both unicellular (e.g. yeasts) and multicellular (e.g.
molds), estimated to be close to 5 million species, with approximately 80,000
identified species. They possess both plants-like features and animal-like features.
Some of their distinguishing features include:

- They have rigid cell walls composed of chitin
- They lack chlorophyll and therefore are non-photosynthetic
- They have worldwide distribution, inhabiting every possible niche, both terrestrial
and aquatic
- They are heterotrophic (can be parasitic, saprophytic or mutualists)
- They reproduce by means of spores
The scientific study of fungi is termed Mycology. The person that is studying fungi is
called mycologist.
Structure
Fungi have unique structure made-up of both glucans (as in plants) and chitin (as in
arthropods). Fungal body consist of mass of fine, tubular branching threads called
hyphae (Singular hypha), with the whole body mass called mycelium, which is a
collection of hyphae.
The protoplasm may or may not contain cross-walls called septa, with each
compartment containing one or more nuclei. Example of fungi with septate hyphae
isPenicillium and non-septate hyphae is Mucor. Hypha is made up of chitin, which
give shape to the hyphae and prevents osmotic bursting.
Fungi contain most of the cellular organelles like in other cells, including
mitochondria, golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome and vacuole.
Nutrition
- Fungi are heterotrophic organisms.
- They require organic carbon, organic nitrogen, inorganic ions and trace elements.
- They digest food externally before absorbing into their body (absorptive feeding).
- They exhibits saprotrophisms, parasitism and mutualism.
Reproduction
Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually. The sexual state is referred to as the
teleomorph, while the asexual state is termed the anamorph. Many fungi can have
both states, especially the class Ascomycota. Although, they mostly have one
system.
Sexual reproduction: this involves the fusion of two compatible nuclei. The sexual
life cycles consist of: plasmogamy (cell fusion), karyogamy (nuclear fusion) and
meiosis.
Asexual reproduction: occurs through vegetative spores or fragmentation of

mycelium. These allow for more rapid cells dispersal than the sexual reproduction.
Classification
Figure 1: Summarized classification of fungi, showing division, sub-division, class

and sub-class.
Based on the presence or absence of flagella as well as number and arrangement of

the flagella, the class Phycomycetes was also classified into 6 sub-classes:
1. Chytridiomycetes: Motile cells are posteriorly uniflagellate
2. Hypotridiomycetes: Motile cells are anteriorly uniflagellate
3. Plasmodiomycetes: Motile cells are have two oppositely directed flagella
4. Oomycetes: Motile cells have two anterior flagella, one long and the other
short
5. Zygomycetes: Motile cells absent, asexual reproduction by means of
sporangiospores or conidia
6. Trichomycetes: Hyphae found attached to tissues of athropods asexual
reproduction is by means of conidia.
Economic Importance
Fungi have wide and varied economic importance:
- Use for antibiotic production e.g.Penicillium
- Use for fermentation (Bread, beer and wine) e.g. Saccharomyces
- Use for nutrient recycling (waste decomposition) e.g. Molds
- Cause animals and plants diseases e.g.Candida (animals), Fusarium (plants) e.t.c.
- They also provide nutrients to plants.

BIO 1204: LECTURE FOUR

ALGAE
Algae are derived from a Latin word “alga”means sea weed

Study of algae is termed Algology or Phycology
Phycology is coined from Greek words i.e. phycos meaning sea weeds and logos
meaning study.
Algae is considered to be a primitive group from which more complex groups of

plants evolved. Algae are basically plant-like organisms that are usually
photosynthetic and aquatic, but don’t have true roots, stems, leaves, vascular tissues
and have simple reproductive structures. Their body may be unicellular, colonial or
multicellular. Almost all algae are eukaryotes and conduct photosynthesis within
membrane-bound structure called chloroplast, which contain DNA. Cyanobacteria
are organisms traditionally included among the algae but they have a prokaryotic cell
structure and conduct photosynthesis directly within the cytoplasm rather than in
specialized organelles.
Habit and Habitat

Algae are predominantly aquatic and are found in fresh or salt waters where they
may be free swimming, free floating or attached. The terrestrial forms grow in wet
situations, such as, on damp soil, damp shaded sides of trees and walls or even
rocks and thus have adapted themselves to a life in the air. They may live as
epiphytes, epizoics or endophytes. A few occur in association with fungi and few
others may live in symbiotic relationship with the higher plants.

Figure: A three-dimensional, multicellular thallus.
Structures
The body is thalloid i.e. not differentiated into roots, stems, and leaves.
Most are microscopic e.g. Chlamydomonas, but some are quite large. E.g
Macrocystis (up to 70m)
Reproduction
Algae are diverse in their method of reproduction. Three most common methods of
reproduction found among algae are Vegetative reproduction, asexual reproduction,
and sexual reproduction.
Vegetative reproduction is found chiefly among primitive algae. It may be of several
types such as.
(i) Simple cell division- in this case, the mother cell divides and the daughter
cells are produced. This develops into new plants. This is seen in
Pleurococcus , Diatoms andEuglena .
(ii) Fragmentation- Here the plant body breaks into several fragments each of
which develops into an independant individual. This is common among
both filamentous algae such asUlothrix andSpirogyra and colonial algae

such asNostoc .
Other methods of vegetative reproduction in algae include Hormogone formation,
Homospores, Tubers, Bulbils and adventitious thalli.
Asexual reproduction is achieved through any of the following.

(i) Daughter colony formation- in this, the parent colonial alga produces
daughter colonies inside hollow, spherical colonies or inside the actual
cells of the parent colony. Eventually, the parent colony ruptures, releasing
the daughter colonies. Typical example is seen inVolvox .
(ii) Sporulation- this is the most common form of asexual reproduction in
algae. It is the process in which any cell of an organism produces one or
more reproductive cells inside its cell walls. The original cell is termed
sporangium and the new cells are termed spores. The various types of
spores produced by algae include.
(a) Zoospores-this are motile spores produced from certain older cells of the
filament.
(b) Aplanospores or Akinete- these are non-motile spores produced under
unfavourable condition. They are surrounded by a wall. Other types of
spores produced by algae include hypnospores, endospores and
auxospores.
Sexual reproduction is an advanced method of reproduction seen in higher forms of

algae. The process involves the fusion of two specialized cells known as gametes.
The two methods of sexual reproduction are.
(i) Isogamy- Here the gametes produced are identical in shape, size and
motility. There is no structural distinction between “male” and “female”
gametes. The gametes may come from different individuals or filaments
or from different cells of the same filaments.
(ii) Heterogamy- this is the fusion of dissimilar gametes. It has following
variants.
(a) Anisogamy- Here both gametes are motile, but the “male” gamete is smaller
and more active (highly motile).
(b) Oogamy- in this case, the “male” gametes are motile, smaller and produced in
large numbers, whereas, the “female” gametes” are non-motile and larger in
size. The male gametes (antherizoids) swim to and fertilize the female
gametes (eggs or ova). Example is seen inOedogonium .
Accumulation of food, suitable pH, bright sunlight, and optimum temperature are the
conditions necessary for sexual reproduction.
Classification
There are over 20,000 described species.
The classification of algae into many taxonomic groups is based upon the same
rules that are used for the classification of land plants. Fungi are divided in to six
classes based on their pigmentation and storage products. These include:
Myxophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Xanthophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Phaeophyceae
and Rhodophyceae
MYXOPHYCEAE/ CYANOPHYCEAE
 The pigments are not localized in definite chromatophore. It consist of
Chlorophyll a,β- Carotene and Xanthophyll.
 Storage products are starch and oil
 Sexual reproduction is unknown.
 Mostly are freshwater species.
 E.gAnabaena spp, Nostoc spp, Oscillatoria spp.
CHLOROPHYCEAE
 Pigment consist of Chlorophyll a, b , β- Carotene and Xanthophyll.
 The photosynthetic product is starch
 They range from unicellular to multicellular, sexual reproduction is from
isogamy to oogamy.
 Most of the species are freshwater dwellers,few are marine.
 They gave rise to land plant.
 E.g Chlorella spp,Volvox spp, Spirogyra spp.

XANTHOPHYCEAE
 The chromatophore is yellow green containing chlorophyll a, β- Carotene and
Xanthophyll
 The photosynthetic product is oil.
 Sexual reproduction is rarely found
 Mostly freshwater species,few are marine.
 E.gVaucheria
BACILLARIOPHYCEAE
 The chromatophore is golden brown or yellow due to the presence of a
pigment called diatomin.
 Pigment consist of Chlorophyll a , c , β- Carotene and Xanthophyll.
 The food products are fats or volutins.
 Majority of them are unicellular, few are colonial.
 Sexual reproduction is of special type resulting in the formation of
auxospores.
 E.gSynedra spp
PHAEOPHYCEAE
 The chromatophore is yellow brown containing Chlorophyll a, β- Carotene and
Xanthophyll.
 The reserve products are alcohol, mannitol and laminarin.
 Mostly marine species.
 All multicellular.
 E.gLaminaria spp
RHODOPHYCEAE
 The chromatophore possess phycoerythrin, phycocyanin, chlorophyll a and β-
Carotene.
 The reserve food are polysaccharides and flouriden starch.
 Sexual reproduction is advanced and asexually through spores.

 They are made made up of both unicellular and multicellular species.

 E.gPolysiphonia spp
LICHENS
A lichen is a composite organism consisting of a fungus (the mycobiont) and a
photosynthetic partner (the phycobiont or photobiont) growing together in what is
usually considered as symbiotic relationship. The photobiont is usually a green alga
(commonlyTrebouxia ) or Cyanobacterium (commonlyNostoc ).
Lichens are so enormously successful and widespread because of their unusual
partnership. The algal cells through the process of photosynthesis provide the
fungus with some organic nutrients which it needs. In lichens where the partner is a
species ofNostoc , organic nitrogen is also supplied to the fungus becauseNostoc is
able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. In return, the water, nutrients and gases absorbed
by the fungus are shared with the alga. The fungus also plays a vital role in providing
a physical structure to shelter the alga from excess sunlight and in particular water
loss.
Uses of algae
Algae are useful in a variety of ways including the following.
As fuel source- algae can be used to make Biodiesels such as Bioethanol and
Biobutanol. They can also be used to produce biomass. Biomass can be burned
to produce heat and electricity.
As food supplements-algae are a source of complete proteins with essential amino
acids. They have an extensive fatty acid profile including Omega 3 and Omega 6
fattya acids. In addition they contain abundant vitamins, minerals and trace
elements.
In agriculture, algae can be used as fertilizers, soil conditioners and as food for
livestock (fodder).
In industry, algae are used in the manufacture of Carrageenin, a stabilizing agent in
milk, ice cream and lotions. Marine red algae are source of agar, a solidifying agent
in bacteriological, fungal and even algal culture media. They also serve as feed to
marine animals

BIO 1204: LECTURE FIVE

BRYOPHYTES
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Bryophytes are considered to be the descendants of algae for e.g. Pellia,

Funaria, Marchantia
 The early stages of a moss gametophyte (Prothallus) are algal like in
appearance and tend to suggest that algae were ancestors to these plants.
 They are the first plants to survive on land and considered to be transitional
between terrestrial and aquatic plants (need moist environment).
 They are multicellular with the cells organized into tissues and organs.
 Stems, leaves, roots (rhizoids) and reproductive organs are differentiated.
 They are very small in size (less than 20cm in length) and therefore
non-vascular, growing very close to the ground.
 The life cycle is of heteromorphic i.e. an alternation of generation consisting
of a nutritionally independent haploid gametophyte and a dependant diploid
sporophyte.
The division Bryophyta consists of 3 classes which are Musci, Hepaticeae and the
Anthocerotae.

HEPATICEAE (LIVERWORTS)
 Over 6,000 species are described.
 They are naturally found dwelling in damp soil but sometime found on
mountain.
 The gamatophyte is either thalloid or consist of a stem-like axis with two or
three rows of a leaf-like organ.
 The gametophyte may be monoecious or dioecious.
 Sperms and eggs are produced in gametangia.
 Reproduces asexually by fragmentation or gemmae formation.
 The sporophyte consists of a basal foot, a middle seta and a terminal
capsule.
 E.g Marchantia and Riccia
MUSCI
 There are over 12,000 species known.
 They have the same or similar habitat with liverwort, damp soil.
 The moss dominant phase (gametophyte) bears many erect or prostate stem
like leafy axis.
 The gametophyte may be dioecious or monoecious.
 The male reproductive organ is called antheridium, it is club shaped and
usually elongated, and it is borne in the axis of leaves or at the end of stem –
like axis in terminal cup-like structures.
 The female reproductive organ is called archegonium, it is flask – shaped
organ bearing a neck (upper region) and a swollen lower region called venter.
 They are attached to the substratum by means of rhizoids
 The moss sporophyte (Non dominant phase) usually has a pointed foot at the
basal region, a middle long seta and a terminal capsule which opens by a cap,
producing millions of spores.
 E.gFunaria

Funaria : Vertical section
ANTHOCEROTAE (HORNED LIVERWORTS)

 The smallest group with around 100 described species.
 Both male and female gametes are found embedded on the gametophye,
male at the top while the female is within.
 Possess rhizoids, but all their body (thallus) have the ability to obtain water.
 The sporophyte consists of a bulbous basal foot, a short meristemic region at
the middle portion (no seta) and an elongated pale green capsule.
 E.gAnthoceros
Alternation of generation (Life cycle of Bryophytes)
The life cycle is of alternation of generation i.e. gametophyte and sporophyte. The
gametophyte produces male gametes antherizoids and female gametes ova and the
antherizoids are produced in antheridia and are flagellated. They move
chemotropically from the antheridia to the archegonia. Each enters through neck and
fertilizes an egg inside the ventor where it is produced. Zygote is formed which
develops into an embryo, the embryo is the beginning of the sporophyte.

The sporophyte develops from the embryo following cell division and differentiation.
The sporopyte is diploid, short lived and depends on the gametophyte for nutritional
requirements. It produces capsule inside which haploid spores are produced. Each
spore on germination develops into a haploid gametophyte. The gametophyte is long
lived and independent. It manufactures its food and obtains other requirements from
the substratum on which it is growing using rhizoids. Upon maturity, it produces
gametes which following fertilization forms the sporophyte. This type of life cycle is
described as an alternation of generation. It is haplodiplontic.
Life cycle of Bryophytes

BIO 1204: LECTURE SIX

PTERIDOPHYTE
General Characteristics
 The division pteridophyta includes a group of primitive vascular plants
commonly called pteridophytes.
 The adult plant body in these plants is the sporophyte.
 It shows differentiation in to stem, root, and leaves.
 The stem is mostly herbaceous.
 Leaves may be smaller or larger.
 Vascular tissues are present in all the vegetative part of the body.
 They have lignified cells.
 They are seedless vascular plants.
 Most of the living representatives are small in stature.
Reproduction and Life Cycle

Reproduction involves production of spores inside special structures called
sporangia which occur on the ventral surface of fertile leaves called sporophylls.
Sporangia may sometime be found in groups called sori. The plant may be
homosporous producing only one type of spore or heterosporous producing two
different types of spore (microspores and megaspores). The spores germinate to
produce a haploid gametophyte called prothallus. The homosporous pteridophytes
produce bisexual gametophyte while heterosporous pteridophytes produce
unisexual gametophyte.

In gametophytes, reproduction is of oogamous type. The male sex organ is called

antheridia and the female sex organ is called the archegonia. The antheridia
produce the antherizoids and the archegonia enclose the egg cell. Fertilization
requires water. The diploid zygote is retained in the archegonial Venter where it
develops into an embryo. Subsequently it becomes a young sporophyte and grows
into an independent adult plant. Thus the life cycle includes an alternation of diploid
sporophytic generation with a haploid gametophytic generation. Sporophytic
generation is the dorminant in the life cycle.
Life cycle in homosporous pteridophytes

Life cycle of heterosporous pteridophytes
CLASSIFICATION
Pteridophytes have been divide into four classes namely lycopsida, sphenopsida,
pteropsida and psilopsida.
1) Lycopsida
 About 1,000 species described.
 Leaves relatively small and spirally arranged around the stem
 Include both homosporous and heterosporous forms.
 They reproduce both sexually and asexually.

 Sporophylls are borne in strobili. The antherozoids are biflagellate

or multiciliate.
 The sporophyte is differentiated in to stem, root and leaves.
Example is lycopodium.
2) Sphenopsida
 About 15 species known.
 Leaves relatively small, arranged in whorls around the stem
 Includes only the homosporous forms.
 Asexual reproduction through fragmentation.
 Sporangia are produced upon a specialized structure
(Sporangiophore) present at the apex of the stem.
 Antherozoids are multiciliate.
 Example equisetum
3) Pteropsida
 Over 12,000 species are known.
 Leaves relatively large and are called fronds, spirally arranged
around the stem.
 Include mostly homosporous forms.
 Reproduce both sexually and asexually
 The sporophtye is differentiated in to stem, leaves and root.
 The leaf bears many sporangia on either the margin or the abaxial
face of the leaf lamina.
 The antherozoids are multiciliate. The sex organs are found on the
ventral surface of the heart-shaped prothallus.
 Example is or fern.
4) Psilopsida
 Only 6 species known.
 The sporophyte has a rhizome and aerial shoots which are both
dichotomous. The rhizome has unicellular rhizoids lacking roots.
 The terminal sporangia are borne single at the tips of short or long
branches.
 They are homosporous, antherozoids are multiciliate.
 Reproduce asexually.
 The gametophyte grows under the surface of the ground.

 It has rhizoids and as well as bears antheridia and archegonia
 Example is psilotum.
BIO 1204: LECTURE SEVEN

GYMNOSPERMS
Spermatophytes or phenarogams or flowering plants are seed bearing plants and are
divided into two major groups:
I. Gymnosperms: (Gymnos – naked – sperma – seed) naked seed bearing
plants.
II. Angiosperms (Angion – case; sperma – seed) covered seed bearing
plants.
Gymnosperms are closely related to the higher cryptogams (Non-flowering; seedless
plants) on one hand, thus this group forms intermediate link between the
cryptogams and angiosperms. Gymnosperms produce seeds that are not enclosed
within a fruit. Instead seeds are produced on surfaces of leaf-like structures
(sporophylls) that aggregate to form Cones. Shortly after the seeds mature the
protective scales of the cones open up and the seeds are released.
Cones are specialized seed bearing structures within which the seeds develop.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
- Sporophyte is the dominant generation. Gametophyte generation is severely
reduced to cones.
- Plant body is clearly differentiated into root, shoot and leaves.
- There are complex vascular tissues in root, shoot and leaves. But no vessel in
xylem except in Gnetales, and phloem without companion cells.
- Flowers are primitive and simple in construction and are always unisexual, hence
called flowerless plants.

- They are Heterosporous i.e. form two types of spores:
1) Microspores – the male gametes (pollen pairs) borne on microsprophyll.
2). Megaspores – the female gametes (ovule) borne on megasporophyll.
- Mature seeds lie exposed to the environment, thus they are regarded as naked.
- Male gametes (Pollen) are conveyed to the ovule cone by means of pollen tube to
effect fertilization.
- No fruit formation due to the absence of ovary.
- Pollination is only by air (wind pollinated).
Young sporophyte mature sporophyte
Megasporophyll Microsporophyll
Female cone Male cone
Seed
Meiosis
Megaspore Microspore
Female Gametophyte Male gametophyte
Embryo Endospore
Ovule (egg) Sperm (pollen grain)
Zygote Fertilization Pollination
Life cycle of Gymnosperm (Pine tree cone)
Classification of Gymnosperm
There are eight (8) orders of which 4 have become extinct (they are only known from
their fossils because no representative are known to have survived to the present
day) and the remaining four have living representatives.
Order I – Cycadofilicales (extinct)
Order II – Bennettifales (extinct)
Order III – Pentoxylales (extinct)
Order IV – Cordaitales (extinct)

Order V – Cycadales
Order VI – Coniferales
Order VII – Ginkgoales
Order VIII– Gnetales
Order V- Cycadales (Cycads or Cycadophyta:

Nearly 300 species and 11 genera of Cycads have been described. Examples –
Cycas circenalis C. revolute (a Japanesespp ).
CHARACTERISTICS:
-They primarily grow in tropical and sub-tropical regions where they are useful in
outdoor landscaping.
-Cycads don’t grow outdoors in regions with harsh winters.
- The Stem is woody, un-branched, erect and palm-like, and bears a crown of pinnate
leaves arranged at the top.
- In addition it has small dry leaves.
- They have primary long tap roots.
- Male gametes (pollen) are borne at the apex of the plant which bears
microsporophylls.
- Female gametes (Ovules) are borne on the upper surface of megasporophylls.
-Individual cycad plant produce either female cones or male cones but not both
hence they are are dieocious.
- Pollination by wind and insects.
- After fertilization ovule grows into seed.
Order VI – Coniferales – Largest order represented by six families, 51 genera and

500 species, examples Pines, Cedars, and Hemlocks.
CHARACTERISTICS:
- The most numerous and widespread of the gymnosperms; and are among the
largest trees.
- They are cone-bearing woody trees and shrubs and most of them are found at
higher altitudes.
- Mostly ever-green (do not drop their leaves in the autumn).

- Leaves are usually needle-like which reduce water loss during dry season.
- Are major source of timber as well as paper.
- Tree is heterosporous (produce two different kinds of cones).
- Male pollen cones and Female seed cones are produced on the same tree although
usually on separate branches.
- Pollination by wind or dispersed by seed eating birds or mammals.
- Fertilized ovules become winged seeds.
- Seeds – mature in the second year and dispersed in the third year after fertilization.
- Seeds are eaten by birds and rodents.
Pinus ovuliferous scale (megasporophyll) bearing two winged seeds
Order VII – Ginkgoales - 1 genus and 1 specie.Ginkgo biloba has been found to be
the only surviving specie of a once large group of plants. Many of its relatives
became extinct as a result of an ancient global warming event that occurred about
206million years ago.
CHARACTERISTICS:
- Ginkgo trees grow as tall trees often reaching over 30m.
- Leaves shaped like fans (with parallel venation).
- Are deciduous (losing their leaves during autumn).
- Bear their pollen and ovules on separate trees.
- Wind transfers pollen from male to female trees.
- Combines a vegetative structure like that of conifers, with primitive structures

including a motile male gamete, like those of cycads.

- Native to southwest China and ornamental worldwide.
Order VIII – Gnetales – 3 families, 3 genera and 71 specie, examplesGnetum sp.
CHARACTERISTICS:
- Highest evolved group amongst the Gymnosperms.
- Comprises of unusual plants that share certain features with angiosperms
-Their vascular tissues include vessels in addition to trachieds, as do those of most
angiosperms, (in contrast vascular tissues of other gymnosperms contains only
trachieds).
- Flower is more advanced. Perianths present (petal and sepal).
- Wind pollinated
- Some of them have a kind of double fertilization, a process that is also
characteristics of angiosperms (but double fertilization in flowering plant differs).
- Seed with two cotyledon (dicot type).
CHARCTERISTICS OF LIVING SEED PLANTS GROUPS

Seed plant Flowers/fruit Flagellated Double Endosperm Xylem vessel
group s sperm fertilization
Cycads No Yes No No No
Ginkgo “ Yes “ “ “
Conifers “ No “ “ “
Gnetophtyte “ “ Yes “ Yes
s

BIO 1204: LECTURE EIGHT

ANGIOSPERMS
ORIGIN
Fossil records indicate that angiosperms suddenly became abundant in the early
cretaceous in a great variety of forms and have since then formed the dominant
vegetation on the earth.
Characteristics
 Over 250, 000 species identified.
 Comprise almost 90% of all land plants and virtually all domesticated plants.
 They are the largest evolved group of plants.
 They are widely distributed and thrive well in different ecological conditions.
Based on this, they may be classified as:
 1) Hydrophytes 2) Mesophytes and 3) Xerophytes
 According to their morphology, they may be herbs, shrubs and trees. Some are
climbers and twinners e.g.Pothos

 Mostly are autotrophs but some parasitic varieties are also observed such as
Cuscuta andLoranthus
 They may be annuals, biennials or perennials.
 They lack antheridia and archegonia, complexity of the sporophyte and
reduction of the gametophyte.
 Plant is differentiated into root, stem, and leaves.
 Vascular bundles (conducting tissues) show highest degree of development.
Xylem consists of vessels and trachieds and phloem consists of sieve tube
and cambium cells.
 They bear flowers in which male and female gametes and spores develop.
 Plant may be hermaphrodites or unisexual. Unisexual may be monoecious or
dioecious.
 Pollination takes place mainly through the agency of insects and wind, and this
is followed by fertilization.
 The male gametophyte (pollen grain) bears two male gametes while female
gametophyte bears only one female gamete or egg cell.
 One of the male gametes of the pollen-tube fuses with the egg-cell of the
embryo-sac to form a zygote (oospore) which quickly grows into embryo. The
other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei (in the female gametophyte)
which gave rise to endosperm. This is known as double fertilization (a unique
feature of the angiosperm)
 The ovule and the ovary grow into seed and fruit respectively.
 Roots may be tap root system formed from the radials or adventitious roots
which are secondary in origin.
 Plant bears two types of buds 1). Vegetative, which forms leaves 2).
Reproductive, which forms flowers
 Leaf is a flattened structure, green in colour due to the presence of chloroplast
which is the site for photosynthesis. Veination could be parallel veination or
reticulate veination (network veination).
Classification
Based on the number of cotyledons in the seeds, angiosperms are divided into 2

groups, namely:
1. Monocotyledons 2. Dicotyledons
CHARACTER MONOCOTYLEDONS DICOTYLEDONS

Leaf Parallel veination Reticulate veination
Stem anatomy Vascular bundles scattered, Ring of vascular bundles.
cambium absent, no secondary cambium present giving rise to
growth secondary growth
Root Adventitious root (secondary in Tap root system (primary root)
morphology origin) from the base of the
destroyed primary root.
Root anatomy Vascular bundles more than 5, no Vascular bundles 2 – 5 and
secondary growth vascular cambium formed and
giving rise to secondary growth
Seed Embryo has one cotyledons Embryo has two cotyledons
morphology
Flower Parts usually in threes. Parts mainly in fours or fives.
Often wind pollinated Often insect pollinated
Example Grasses, Orchids, Lilies, maize Pea, Rose, Buttercup,
Dandelion
Edited by @mbashir_20, IDC

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BIO 1204: LECTURE ONE

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 1 2022/2023 SESSION

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 2 2022/2023 SESSION

Figure: Structure of a Bacteriophage.

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 3 2022/2023 SESSION

Figure: Structure of TMV

Culturing virus in developing chick embryo

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 4 2022/2023 SESSION

Culturing virus in bacteria

BIO 1204: LECTURE TWO

Bacteria are a diverse group of (usually) single-celled prokaryotic microorganisms,

Discovered by Anthony Von Leuwenhook in 1683 using magnifying glasses (first

Bacteria are generally:

- Unicellular, achrolophyllous (non chlorophyllous) minute organisms.

Size and Structure

Forms and cell arrangement

(1). Cocci or spherical

These forms are divided on the basis of cell arrangement into:

(2). Bacilli or rod shaped bacilli (Sing: Bacillus)

(4). Vibrio or comma

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 8 2022/2023 SESSION

Figure: Representative cell morphologies of bacteria

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 9 2022/2023 SESSION

A-Monotrichous; B-Lophotrichous; C-Amphitrichous; D-Peritrichous;

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 10 2022/2023 SESSION

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 11 2022/2023 SESSION

Gram – negative cell wall Gram – positive cell wall

3. Cell membrane: The protoplasm bounded by a thick cell membrane present

4. Cytoplasm: It is a granular and viscous substance found between nucleic region

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 12 2022/2023 SESSION

BIO 1204: LECTURE THREE

Some of their distinguishing features include:

Asexual reproduction: occurs through vegetative spores or fragmentation of

Figure 1: Summarized classification of fungi, showing division, sub-division, class

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 15 2022/2023 SESSION

Based on the presence or absence of flagella as well as number and arrangement of

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 16 2022/2023 SESSION

BIO 1204: LECTURE FOUR

Algae are derived from a Latin word “alga”means sea weed

Algae is considered to be a primitive group from which more complex groups of

Habit and Habitat

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 17 2022/2023 SESSION

Figure: A three-dimensional, multicellular thallus.

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 18 2022/2023 SESSION

Asexual reproduction is achieved through any of the following.

Sexual reproduction is an advanced method of reproduction seen in higher forms of

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 20 2022/2023 SESSION

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 21 2022/2023 SESSION

 They are made made up of both unicellular and multicellular species.

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 22 2022/2023 SESSION

BIO 1204: LECTURE FIVE

 Bryophytes are considered to be the descendants of algae for e.g. Pellia,

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 23 2022/2023 SESSION

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 24 2022/2023 SESSION

Funaria : Vertical section

ANTHOCEROTAE (HORNED LIVERWORTS)

Alternation of generation (Life cycle of Bryophytes)

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 25 2022/2023 SESSION

Life cycle of Bryophytes

BIO 1204: GENERAL BIOLOGY IV 26 2022/2023 SESSION

BIO 1204: LECTURE SIX