Studio Thinking from the Start: The

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Studio Thinking from the Start
THE K–8 ART EDUCATOR’S
HANDBOOK
JILLIAN HOGAN / LOIS HETLAND / DIANE B.
JAQUITH / ELLEN WINNER

Foreword by David P. Nelson

Illustrations by Nicole Gsell
To the teachers and students who make Studio Thinking come alive
Additional resources (including teacher-created materials, tables, and links to videos) are available at
www.studiothinking.org and/or tcpress.com/studiothinking

Published simultaneously by Teachers College Press, 1234 Amsterdam Avenue, New York, NY 10027
and the National Art Education Association, 901 Prince St., Alexandria, VA 22314

Copyright © 2018 by Teachers College, Columbia University

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, or any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission from the publisher. For reprint permission and other subsidiary rights requests,
please contact Teachers College Press, Rights Dept.: tcpressrights@tc.columbia.edu

Cover Design: Nicole Gsell

Text Design: Lynne Frost

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Hogan, Jillian, author. | Hetland, Lois, 1953–, author. | Jaquith, Diane B., author. | Winner,
Ellen, author. | Gsell, Nicole, illustrator.
Title: Studio thinking from the start : the K–8 art educator’s handbook / Jillian Hogan, Lois Hetland,
Diane B. Jaquith, Ellen Winner ; foreword by David P. Nelson ; illustrations by Nicole Gsell.
Description: New York, NY : Teachers College Press, [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and
index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018016980 (print) | LCCN 2018032635 (ebook) | ISBN 9780807776995 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780807759158 (pbk. : acid-free paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Art—Study and teaching (Elementary—United States).
Classification: LCC N353 (ebook) | LCC N353 .H64 2018 (print) | DDC 372.5/044—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018016980

ISBN 978-0-8077-5915-8 (paper)

ISBN 978-0-8077-7699-5 (ebook)
 Contents

Foreword by David P. Nelson

Acknowledgments

INTRODUCTION: Hidden in Plain Sight

Studio Thinking: A Lens
Teachers Weigh In
About This Book
Developing Your Lens
A Note About “Pedagogical Appropriation”
Where to Find More

PART I: Understanding Studio Thinking

1 The Studio Habits of Mind

What Are Habits of Mind?
Using the Studio Habits: Micah’s Self-Portrait
DEVELOP CRAFT: Technique and Studio Practice
ENGAGE & PERSIST: Finding Passion and Sticking with It
ENVISION: Imagining and Planning
EXPRESS: Finding Meaning
OBSERVE: Looking Closely
REFLECT: Question & Explain and Evaluate
STRETCH & EXPLORE: Play, Use Mistakes, and Discover
UNDERSTAND ART WORLDS: Domain and Communities
Studio Habit Clusters
Studio Habits as Entry Points
In the Classroom: Catherine Karp’s 5th-Graders Put Everything Together
 Things to Think About

2 Studio Structures
Adapting Studio Structures to the Elementary School
Zeroing in on Each Studio Structure
Moving from Structure to Structure: Transitions
Things to Think About

PART II: Enacting Studio Thinking

3 Portraits of Practice
“Let’s Make Some Art”—Julie Toole
Hand, Mind, Heart, and Community—Celia Knight
“I Have Something That Might Work Better for You”—Kitty Conde
Things to Think About

4 Portraits of Planning
What Does It Mean to Make Art?—Nicole Gsell
Planning a Year in a Choice-Based Class—Wynita Harmon
Working Together on Scope and Sequence—Caren Andrews and Jennifer
Stuart
District-Level Planning and Professional Development—Elementary Art
Teachers of Acton-Boxborough, Massachusetts
Things to Think About

PART III: Evaluating and Sharing

5 Assessment
Quality Assessment
Assessment and Motivation
Getting Concrete
Conclusion
Things to Think About
6 Beyond the Art Room: Studio Thinking for Advocacy and Integration
Making Habits Visible
Keeping Parents in the Loop
Collaborating with the School Community
Committing to Studio Thinking: A Day at the Maya Lin School
Things to Think About

APPENDICES: Resources for Teachers

Appendix A: Making Studio Habits Visible
Appendix B: Student Planning and Reflection
Appendix C: Reflecting on Completed Works
Appendix D: Talking About Art
Appendix E: Documentation—Collecting and Keeping Everything
Together
Appendix F: Connections Between the Studio Thinking Framework and
the National Core Arts Standards

References
Index
About the Authors

Full-color mini-posters that illustrate each of the eight Studio Habits of

Mind appear after page 152
 Foreword

SOME YEARS AGO, a slim volume called Studio Thinking was

recommended to me. I was a professor teaching courses in both music and
humanities, and the book elucidated certain practices that I, as an artist as
well as a scholar, was instinctively attempting to incorporate in my
classrooms, and it inspired other ideas that improved my pedagogy.
Later, as a university provost, I often recommended Studio Thinking and
its updated edition, Studio Thinking 2, to faculty from various disciplines
with an introduction along the lines of, “It is one of the most helpful volumes
about teaching practices I’ve ever seen.” Little did I know at the time that I
would one day have the privilege of working alongside one of the authors,
Lois Hetland.
When the request came from Teachers College Press to pen the Foreword
to this new iteration of the text, Studio Thinking from the Start, I immediately
agreed. I did so because I believe strongly in the value of the Studio Thinking
lens, and because I want to commend the book—heartily—not only to
elementary teachers but also to principals and other administrators who will
learn much, as I have, about what makes for a successful classroom.
Studio Thinking isn’t just about the art studio. It is about thinking. The
imaginative and creative work of the studio doesn’t really exist without
thinking, and the best thinking doesn’t really exist without imagination and
creativity. The broad value of this work stems from the fact that learning is an
art.
Teaching too is an art, and good teachers are always honing their craft. In
an age when standardized tests too often force teachers to focus inordinately
on the (supposed) product, Studio Thinking is a welcome reminder of the
significance of process. I appreciate how this book encourages a process
rooted in the prospect that learning—artistic and otherwise—begins with the
human capacity to “see”: to observe, to behold, to imagine. With the current
demands placed on teachers (and administrators), a focus on the primary
practice of seeing is not only welcome, but necessary.
If we want our students to think, if we want them to learn, we must
engage them in habits of mind that cultivate their innate abilities. The habits
of artists in their studios can help all of us who teach to hone our techniques
in every classroom engaged in the art of learning and can aid administrators
to see possibilities to enrich our schools for the sake of learners and teachers
alike.
This book has its genesis in the practice of real teachers. Teachers who
read it will find much that is familiar. The author-researchers, who are
themselves teachers, have learned from teachers and then have given their
findings back to the field. Teachers have used the results of that research in
their classrooms and then have given more feedback to the researchers, who
then have shared the discoveries of that circle of scholarship and practice in
this volume, designed especially for elementary educators.
As Jillian Hogan, Lois Hetland, Diane Jaquith, and Ellen Winner
illuminate what many good teachers already do, they help us reflect on
common practices that are truly beneficial, they make explicit some practices
that for many are tacit, and they share what for many may be new practices.
These author-researchers help us enter the classroom with a new lens.
To my colleagues in administration, especially superintendents,
principals, and university deans of education, I commend Studio Thinking
from the Start. I recommend you take the time to try on the Studio Thinking
lens and then consider how it might be useful to the classroom teachers with
whom you work. Perhaps read it with a group and try out some of the ideas.
See how the habits of mind, studio structures, and studio practices might help
you allocate resources and support faculty as they create compelling
classrooms that engage every child in the joy of learning.
No work is more important than that done by teachers who prepare our
youngest citizens. They cultivate in students the habits of mind that set the
course for a lifetime of learning, and yet they receive too little compensation,
too little recognition, and not nearly enough thanks.
If you are a teacher, I hope you will see this book as a gift from its
authors and the many teachers who have helped shape its content. The
knowledge and practices recommended here will help you in your work. As
you continue to hone your craft, I hope you enjoy the fruit of your labor with
young people who have the potential to create the kind of world we all want
to live in.

—David P. Nelson, Ph.D.

President, Massachusetts College of Art and Design
Boston, Massachusetts
 Acknowledgments

WE THANK John Landrum Bryant for his belief in our work and the
support he has provided over the years through the Bauman Foundation. We
are also grateful to Shirley Veenema and Kimberly M. Sheridan for their
central contributions to the original development of the Studio Thinking
framework.
We have been fortunate to have had the opportunity to visit, speak with,
and receive emails and resources from teachers all over the United States.
We’re grateful for the opportunity to learn from all of you. We especially
thank those who gave their time in the compilation of this book:

Dana Adams
David Ardito
Fernando Aguilar
Agusta Agustsson
Caren Andrews
Justin August
Eileen Barnett
Amy Billstrom
Amy Birkan
Tracey Broback
Robin Brooks
Sharron Cajolet
Camille Calica
Hillary Campbell
Carolyn Carr
Alane Paul Castro
Raquel Cardoso
Deborah Clearwaters
Kitty Conde
Rosette Costello
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Fig. 261.—Valves of a Chiton
separated to show the
various parts (anterior valve
uppermost): a, a,
articulamentum; b, beak; j,
jugum; pl, pl, pleura; t, t,
tegmentum.
 Fig. 262.—Valves of Chitonellus
separated out (anterior valve
uppermost): a, a,
articulamentum; t, t,
tegmentum. × 2.
The Polyplacophora are characterised, externally, by their usually
articulated shell of eight plates or valves, which is surrounded and
partly kept in position by a muscular girdle. These plates overlap like
tiles on a roof in such a way that the posterior edge of the first,
cephalic, or anterior valve projects over the anterior edge of the
succeeding valve, which in its turn overlaps the next, and so on
throughout. Seven-valved monstrosities very rarely occur.
A certain portion of each valve is covered either by the girdle or by
the valve next anterior to it. This portion, which is whitish in colour
and non-porous in structure, forms part of an inner layer which
underlies the rest of the substance of the valve, and is called the
articulamentum. The external portion of the valves, or tegmentum, is
generally more or less sculptured, and is largely composed of chitin,
impregnated with salts of lime, thus answering more to a cuticle than
to a shell proper. It is very porous, being pierced by a quantity of
minute holes of two sizes, known as megalopores and micropores,
which are connected together by minute canals containing what is
probably fibrous or nerve tissue, the mouths of the pores being
occupied by sense organs connected with these nerves. The
tegmentum of the six intermediate valves is generally divided into
three triangular areas by two more or less prominent ribs, which
diverge from the neighbourhood of the median beak or umbo. The
space enclosed between these ribs is known as the median area or
jugum, the other two spaces as the lateral areas or pleura. The ribs
terminate with the edge of the tegmentum, and are not found on the
articulamentum. In certain genera these areas are either non-
existent, or are not distinctly marked. The sculpture of the lateral
areas (which is, as a rule, much stronger than that of the median
area) will generally be found to resemble that of the anterior valve,
which has no proper median area. In the posterior valve the median
area is very small, while the sculpture of the rest of the valve
corresponds to that of the lateral areas generally (see Fig. 261).
 Fig. 263.—First, fourth, and eighth
valves of a Chiton, showing l.i,
laminae of insertion; n, n,
notches; s.l, s.l, sutural
laminae. × 2.
The articulamentum of the intermediate valves is divided into two
equal parts in the middle of the anterior edge, opposite to the beak,
by a sinus. Each of the portions thus formed is again divided by a
notch or suture into two unequal parts, the anterior of which is known
as the sutural lamina, and is more or less concealed by the valve in
front of it, while the lateral part, or lamina of insertion, is entirely
concealed by the girdle. The articulamenta of the anterior and
posterior valves are either simple or pierced by a series of notches
(Fig. 263).
The girdle of the Chitonidae varies considerably in character.
Sometimes its upper surface is simply corneous or cartilaginoid, with
no other sculpture than fine striae, at others it is densely beset with
spines or bristles, or tufted at intervals with bunches of deciduous
hairs; again it is marbled like shagreen or mossy down, or covered
with serpent-like scales. The width of the girdle varies greatly, being
sometimes very narrow, sometimes entirely covering all the valves
(Cryptochiton). As a rule, its outer edge is continuous, but in
Schizochiton it is sharply notched over the anus.
A description has already been given of the dorsal eyes in Chiton
(p. 187), the nervous system (p. 202), the branchiae (p. 154), the
radula (p. 228), and the generative system (p. 126).

Fig. 264.—Girdles of various Chitonidae. A, Radsia sulcata

Wood, × 2; B, Maugeria granulata Gmel., × 3; C,
Enoplochiton niger Barnes, × 3; D, Acanthochiton fascicularis
L., × 4; E, Tonicia fastigiata Sowb., × 4.
The recent Chitons are thus classified by Dr. W. H. Dall:—
Section I. Chitones Regulares.—Anterior and posterior valves
of similar character.
A. Leptoidea.—Insertion plates obsolete, or, if present, unslit;
Leptochiton, Hanleyia, Hemiarthrum, Microplax.
B. Ischnoidea.—Insertion plates sharp, smooth, fissured; with
eaves; Trachydermon, Callochiton, Tonicella, Schizoplax, Leptoplax,
Chaetopleura, Spongiochiton, Ischnochiton, Callistochiton.
C. Lophyroidea.—Insertion plates broad, pectinated, projecting
backward; Chiton, Tonicia, Eudoxochiton, Craspedochiton.
 D. Acanthoidea.—Insertion plates thrown forward; Sclerochiton,
Acanthopleura, Dinoplax, Middendorffia, Nuttallina, Arthuria,
Phacellopleura.
Section II. Chitones Irregulares.—Posterior valve abnormal, or
with a sinus behind.
E. Schizoidea.—Posterior valve fissured; Lorica, Schizochiton.
F. Placiphoroidea.—Posterior valve unslit, internally ridged, umbo
nearly terminal; Enoplochiton, Ornithochiton, Plaxiphora.
G. Mopaloidea.—Posterior valve with posterior sinus and one slit
on each side; Mopalia, Katherina, Acanthochiton, Notoplax.
H. Cryptoidea.—With double sutural laminae; Cryptoconchus,
Amicula, Cryptochiton.
I. Chitonelloidea.—Posterior valve funnel shaped; laminae thrown
forward; Chitonellus, Choneplax.

Fig. 265.—Chitonellus fasciatus Quoy; ant, anterior

end.
Sub-order 2. Aplacophora.—Animal vermiform, foot absent, or a
mere groove, cuticle more or less covered with spicules.
According to Marion, one of the principal authorities on the group,
the Aplacophora are perhaps Amphineura whose development has
been arrested at an early stage, their worm-like exterior being due to
adaptation to surroundings. They have hitherto been found chiefly in
the N. Atlantic and Mediterranean, generally at considerable depths,
and often associated with certain polyps in a way which suggests a
kind of commensalism.
Fam. 1. Neomeniidae.—Foot a narrow groove, intestinal tube
without differentiated liver, kidneys with common exterior orifice,
sexes united, ctenidia present or absent. Genera: Neomenia (Fig.
266), Paramenia, Proneomenia, Ismenia, Lepidomenia, Dondersia.
 Fig. 266.—Neomenia carinata
Tullb.: a, anus; gr, ventral
groove; m, mouth.

Fig. 267.—Chaetoderma
nitidulum Lov.: a, anus; m,
mouth. × 3.
Fam. 2. Chaetodermatidae.—Body cylindrical, no ventral groove,
liver a single sac, kidneys with separate orifices into the branchial
cloaca, two bipectinate ctenidia. Single genus, Chaetoderma (Fig.
267).

Order II. Prosobranchiata

 Visceral loop twisted into a figure of 8 (streptoneurous), right half
supra-intestinal, left half infra-intestinal; heart usually in front of the
branchia (ctenidium), which is generally single; head with a single
pair of tentacles; animal dioecious, usually marine, more or less
contained within a shell, operculum generally present. Cambrian to
present time.
Sub-order 1. Diotocardia.—Heart with two auricles (except in the
Docoglossa and Helicinidae), branchiae bipectinate, front end free;
two kidneys, the genital gland opening into the right (except in
Neritidae); nervous system not concentrated; no proboscis or siphon,
penis usually absent.
(a) Docoglossa (p. 227).—Heart with a single auricle, ventricle
not traversed by the rectum, visceral sac not spiral, shell widely
conical, non-spiral, no operculum; radula very long, with few hooked
teeth in each row.
Fam. 1. Acmaeidae.—Left ctenidium alone occurring, free on a
long stalk. Cretaceous——. Principal genera: Pectinodonta, front
part of head much produced, radula 0 (1. 0. 1.) 0; Acmaea (=
Tectura), with sub-genera Collisella and Collisellina, no accessory
branchial ring, shell closely resembling that of Patella, but generally
with a distinct internal border; Scurria, accessory branchial ring on
the mantle.
Fam. 2. Lepetidae.—No ctenidia or accessory branchiae, animal
generally blind. Pliocene——. Principal genera: Lepeta; Propilidium,
apex with internal septum; Lepetella.
Fam. 3. Patellidae.—No ctenidia, the osphradial patch at the base
of each alone surviving, a circlet of secondary branchiae between
the mantle and sides of the foot. Ordovician——. (i.) Patellinae.—
Three lateral teeth on each side, two of them anterior. Principal
genera: Patella, branchial circlet complete; chief sections Patella
proper, Scutellastra, Ancistromesus (A. mexicana Brod., measures
8–14 in. long); Helcion, branchial circlet interrupted in front;
Tryblidium (Ordovician).—(ii.) Nacellinae.—Two developed laterals
on each side, one anterior. Genera: Nacella, branchial circlet
complete; Helcioniscus, branchial circlet interrupted in front.
 (b) Rhipidoglossa (p. 225).—Ventricle of the heart traversed by
the rectum (except in Helicinidae), one or two ctenidia; jaw in two
pieces, radula long, marginals multiplied, rows curved.
Of all the Gasteropoda, this section of the Diotocardia approach
nearest to the Pelecypoda, particularly in the least specialised forms.
The auricle, the branchiae, and the kidneys are in many cases
paired, and more or less symmetrical. The ventricle is generally
traversed by the rectum, there is a long labial commissure between
the cerebral ganglia, special copulative organs are usually absent,
while the shell is often nacreous, like those of Pelecypoda of a
primitive type.
Section I. Zygobranchiata.—Two ctenidia, shell with apical or
marginal slit or holes, corresponding to an anal tube in the mantle (p.
265).
Fam. 1. Fissurellidae.—Two symmetrical ctenidia and kidneys,
visceral mass conical, shell conical, elevated or depressed, with a
single anterior or apical slit or impression; no operculum. Jurassic
——. (i.) Fissurellinae. Shell wholly external, apex entirely removed
by perforation, apical callus not truncated posteriorly; central tooth
narrow. Genera: Fissurella (Figs. 171, p. 261; 178, p. 265),
Fissuridea, Clypidella. (ii.) Fissurellidinae. Shell partly internal,
otherwise as in (i.); central tooth broad, mantle more or less reflected
over the shell, apical hole very wide. Genera: Fissurellidaea,
Pupillaea, Lucapina, Megatebennus, Macroschisma, Lucapinella.
(iii.) Emarginulinae. Shell usually wholly external, apex usually not
removed by perforation, sometimes with internal septum, anal tube
in a narrow slit or sinus. Genera: Glyphis, externals of Fissurella, but
holecallus truncated behind; Puncturella (sub-genera Cranopsis and
Fissurisepta), slit just anterior to the apex, a small internal septum;
Zeidora, large internal septum as in Crepidula: Emarginula, shell
elevated, slit very narrow, on the anterior margin (in subg. Rimula, it
is between the apex and the margin), radula bilaterally asymmetrical;
Subemarginula, margin indented by a shallow groove; Scutus (=
Parmophorus) shell oblong, depressed, nicked in front, largely
covered by the mantle.
 Fig. 268.—Scutus australis Lam.,
Australia: m, m, mantle; sh,
shell, × ⅔.
Fam. 2. Haliotidae.—Right ctenidium the smaller, epipodial line
broad, profusely lobed; shell rather flattened, spire short, last whorl
very large, with a row of perforations on the left side, which become
successively obliterated; through these holes, the posterior of which
is anal, pass tentacular appendages of the mantle; no operculum.
Cretaceous——. Single genus, Haliotis; principal sub-genera
Padollus, Teinotis.
Fam. 3. Pleurotomariidae.—Central tooth single, narrow, about 26
laterals, 60 to 70 uncini. Shell generally variously trochiform,
nacreous, operculate, with a rather broad marginal sinus in the last
whorl; as this sinus closes up it forms an “anal fasciole” or “sinus
band.” Cambrian——. Principal genera: Scissurella, epipodial line
with several long ciliated appendages at each side, shell very small,
slit open, sinus band extending nearly to apex; Schismope, anal slit
closed in the adult into an oblong perforation; Murchisonia
(Palaeozoic only), shell long, turreted, whorls angulate or keeled with
a sinus band; Odontomaria (Palaeozoic only), shell tubular, curved;
Polytremaria (Carboniferous), shell turbinate, slit a series of small
holes connected by a passage; Trochotoma, shell trochiform,
perforation consisting of two narrow holes united by a slit;
Pleurotomaria, branchiae almost symmetrical, radula as above, shell
variously spiral.
In Pleurotomaria we have the case of a genus long supposed to
be extinct. More than 1100 fossil species have been described, and
within the last 38 years about 20 specimens, belonging to 5 species,
have been discovered in a living state.

Fig. 269.—Pleurotomaria
adansoniana Cr. and F., Tobago.
× ½.
Fam. 4. Bellerophontidae.—Shell nautiloid, spire generally
concealed, aperture large, sinus or perforations central (Fig. 179, p.
266). Ordovician—Trias. Genera: Bellerophon, Trematonotus,
Cyrtolites.
Section II. Azygobranchiata.—One ctenidium (the left) present.
Fam. 1. Cocculinidae.—A single cervical ctenidium, foot broad, no
eyes, shell patelliform, with caducous spire. Single genus, Cocculina.
Deep water.
Fam. 2. Stomatellidae.—A single (left) ctenidium, front third free,
shell nacreous, spiral or patelliform, depressed, last whorl large.
Jurassic——. Genera: Stomatella (subg. Synaptocochlea, Niphonia),
shell depressed, spirally ribbed, spire short, operculum present;
Phaneta, fluviatile only, shell trochiform, imperforate, last whorl
keeled, sinuate in front; Stomatia, spire short, surface tubercled or
keeled, no operculum; Gena, shell haliotis-shaped, surface smooth,
aperture very large; Broderipia, shell patelliform, spiral apex often
lost.
 Fam. 3. Cyclostrematidae.—Tentacles ciliated, thread-like, snout
bilobed, foot truncated in front, angles produced into a filament, shell
depressed, umbilicated, not nacreous. Eocene——. Principal
genera: Cyclostrema, Teinostoma, Vitrinella.
Fam. 4. Liotiidae.—Epipodial line with a lobe behind each eye-
peduncle, shell solid, trochiform, longitudinally ribbed or trellised,
aperture round, operculum multispiral, hispid, corneous, with a
calcareous layer. Silurian——. Principal genera: Liotia,
Craspedostoma (Silurian), Crossostoma (Jurassic).

Fig. 270.—Monodonta canalifera

Lam., New Ireland. (After
Quoy and Gaimard.)
Fam. 5. Trochidae.—Snout short, broad, frontal lobes often
present, epipodial line furnished with cirrhi; shell nacreous, variously
spiral, operculum corneous, multispiral, nucleus central (Fig. 182, p.
268). Silurian——. (i.) Trochinae.—Frontal lobes present, lateral
teeth (= side centrals) 5 only, no jaws, peristome incomplete.
Principal genera: Trochus (subg. Cardinalia, Tectus, Infundibulum,
Clanculus), Monodonta (subg. Diloma), Cantharidus (subg. Bankivia,
Thalotia), Gaza (subg. Microgaza), Callogaza, Bembix, Chlorostoma.
(ii.) Gibbulinae.—Frontal lobes and jaws present, laterals often more
than 5, peristome incomplete. Principal genera: Gibbula (subg.
Monilia, Aphanotrochus, Enida), Minolia, Circulus, Trochiscus,
Livona, Photinula, Margarita, Solariella, Calliostoma, Turcica,
Basilissa, Euchelus (subg. Olivia, Perrinia). (iii.) Delphinulinae.—No
frontal lobes, jaws present; shell solid, surface spirally lirate, scaly,
spinose, umbilicate, peristome continuous. Single genus, Delphinula.
(iv.) Umboniinae.—Eyes pedunculate, left tentacle attached to a
frontal appendage, mantle reflected over edge of aperture, lateral
teeth 6 on each side; shell polished, peristome incomplete, umbilicus
generally closed by a callosity. Principal genera: Umbonium, Ethalia,
Isanda, Camitia, Umbonella, Chrysostoma.

Fig. 271.—Phasianella australis

Gmel., Australia.
Fam. 6. Turbinidae.—Epipodial line with slender cirrhi, snout
broad, short, eyes pedunculate at outer base of tentacles, a frontal
veil between tentacles; shell turbinate, solid, aperture continuous,
operculum solid, calcareous, usually paucispiral, convex exteriorly
(Fig. 182, p. 268). Silurian——. (i.) Phasianellinae.—Shell bulimoid,
polished, not nacreous, coloured in patterns, aperture oval. Single
genus, Phasianella (Fig. 271). (ii.) Turbininae.—Shell very solid,
nacreous within, aperture circular or long oval. Principal genera,
Turbo, whorls rounded above and below, spines, if present,
becoming more prominent with age, operculum smooth or granulose,
nucleus sub-central; subg. Callopoma, Ninella, Marmorostoma,
Sarmaticus, Prisogaster; Astralium, whorls flattened above and
below, spines, if present, becoming less prominent with age,
operculum oblong, often excavated at centre, last whorl large,
nucleus marginal or sub-marginal; subg. Lithopoma, Imperator,
Guildfordia, Bolma, Cyclocantha, Uvanilla, Cookia, Pomaulax,
Pachypoma. (iii.) Cyclonematinae.—Shell nacreous, umbilicate,
operculum conical outside, whorls scalariform. Principal genera:
Cyclonema, Horiostoma (?), Amberleya (Silurian to Lias). (iv.)
Leptothyrinae.—Shell small, solid, depressed, operculum nearly flat,
nucleus sub-central. Genera: Leptothyra, Collonia (?).
 Fam. 7. Neritopsidae.—Tentacles wide apart, long, eyes on short
peduncles at the outer base; shell solid, neritiform or naticoid,
aperture semi-lunar or oval; operculum (Fig. 183, p. 269) thick,
calcareous, non-spiral, exterior face smooth, interior face divided into
two unequal parts, with a broad median appendage. Devonian——.
Principal genera: Neritopsis (one recent species), Naticopsis
(Devonian to Miocene).
Fam. 8. Macluritidae.—Shell discoidal, whorls few, longitudinally
grooved behind, right side convex, deeply umbilicated, left side flat;
operculum very thick, nucleus excentrical, internal face with two
apophyses, one very large. The general appearance is more that of
an inequivalve bivalve, such as Requienia, than of a spiral
gasteropod. Palaeozoic——. Single genus, Maclurea.
Fam. 9. Neritidae.—Snout short, tentacles long, eyes pedunculate
at their outer base, branchia triangular, free at the front end,
epipodium without cirrhi, penis near the right tentacle; shell solid,
imperforate, turbinate to almost patelliform, spire short, internal
partitions absorbed (p. 168), columellar region broad, edge simple or
dentate, operculum calcareous, spiral or non-spiral, with prominent
apophyses on the interior face, one of which locks behind the
columellar lip. Jurassic——. Principal genera: Nerita (Fig. 13, p. 17);
Neritina (chiefly brackish water and fluviatile), sub-genus Clithon,
usually coronated with spines; Velates (Tertiary), Neritoma
(Jurassic), Deianira (Cretaceous), Septaria (= Navicella), shell more
or less narrowly patelliform, with terminal apex, aperture very large,
with a broad columellar septum, operculum too small for the
aperture, more or less covered by the integument of the foot;
fluviatile only; Pileolus (Jurassic to Cretaceous).
Fam. 10. Hydrocenidae.—Branchia replaced by a pulmonary
chamber, eyes at the outer base of the tentacles, marginals of the
radula very oblique, centrals often wanting; shell small, conical,
whorls convex, operculum calcareous, with a prominent apophysis.
Recent. Principal genera: Hydrocena, Georissa.
Fam. 11. Helicinidae.—Branchia replaced by a pulmonary
chamber, heart with one auricle; shell globular, with a short spire,
internal partitions absorbed; operculum without apophysis.
Carboniferous——. Principal genera: Helicina (Fig. 18b, p. 21; subg.
Alcadia, Schasicheila, Heudeia, Calybium), Eutrochatella (subg.
Lucidella), Stoastoma, Bourcieria, Dawsonella (Carboniferous).
Fam. 12. Proserpinidae.—Branchia replaced by a pulmonary
chamber, mantle partly reflected over the shell, eyes sessile; shell
depressed, discoidal, columella folded or truncated at the base,
whorls with one or more internal plicae, internal partitions absorbed,
no operculum. Eocene——. Single genus; Proserpina, subg.
Proserpinella, Cyane, Dimorphoptychia (Eocene), and Ceres (Fig.
18c, p. 21).
Sub-order II. Monotocardia.—Heart with one auricle, one
ctenidium (the left), monopectinate, fused with the mantle (except in
Valvata), one kidney, not receiving the genital products, nervous
system somewhat concentrated, proboscis and penis usually
present.
(a) Ptenoglossa.—Radula with formula ∞. ᴑ. ∞, teeth similar
throughout, outermost largest (p. 224).
Fam. 1. Ianthinidae.—Snout prominent, blunt, no eyes, shell
helicoid, fragile, bluish, no operculum; eggs carried on a raft of
vesicles attached to the foot (Fig. 42, p. 126). Pelagic only. Pliocene
——. Genera: Ianthina, Recluzia.
Fam. 2. Scalariidae.—Shell long, turriculate, whorls often partly
uncoiled, with longitudinal ribs and prominent lamellae, aperture
circular, operculum spiral, corneous, animal carnivorous. Ordovician
——. Principal genera: Scalaria, Eglisia, Elasmoneura (Silurian),
Holopella (Silurian to Trias), Aclis.
(b) Taenioglossa.—Radula with normal formula 2.1.1.1.2,
marginals sometimes multiplied (p. 223).
Section I. Platypoda.—Foot more or less flattened ventrally.
Fam. 1. Naticidae.—Foot very large, produced before and behind,
propodium reflected upon the head, eyes absent or buried in the
integument, central and lateral tooth of the radula tricuspid, middle
cusp strong; shell globular or auriform, outer lip simple, operculum
corneous or calcareous, nucleus excentrical. Carboniferous ——.
Principal genera: Natica, with many sub-genera; Ampullina (Tertiary);
Amaura; Deshayesia (Tertiary); Sigaretus (Fig. 91, p. 186), shell
auriform, last whorl very large, operculum much too small for the
aperture.
Fam. 2. Lamellariidae.—Mantle reflected over more or less of the
shell, shell delicate, no operculum. Eocene——. Principal genera:
Lamellaria, shell completely internal, transparent, auriform; some
species deposit their eggs on compound Ascidians (p. 74); Velutina,
shell almost entirely external, paucispiral, with a thick periostracum;
Marsenina, shell auriform, partly internal; Onchidiopsis, shell a
membranous plate, internal.
Fam. 3. Trichotropidae.—Branchial siphon short, eyes on the outer
side of the tentacles; radula closely allied to that of Velutina; shell
conical, last whorl rather large, periostracum thick and hairy,
operculum blunt claw-shaped, nucleus terminal. Cretaceous——.
Genera: Trichotropis, Torellia.
Fam. 4. Naricidae.—Tentacles broad in the middle, with sessile
eyes at the exterior base, propodium narrow, quadrangular, a large
epipodial veil on each side of the foot; shell naticoid, cancellated,
with velvety periostracum. Jurassic——. Single genus: Narica.
Fam. 5. Xenophoridae.—Foot divided by a groove, anterior portion
the larger; central tooth heart-shaped, with blunt cusps, lateral large,
roughly triangular, marginals long, falciform; shell trochiform,
somewhat flattened, attaching various fragments externally.
Devonian——. Single genus, Xenophora (Figs. 25, 26, p. 64).
Fam. 6. Capulidae.—Ctenidium deeply and finely pectinate,
visceral sac scarcely spiral, penis long, behind the right tentacle;
shell roughly patelliform, with scarcely any spire, interior polished,
usually with a septum or internal plate of variable form, no
operculum. Devonian——. Principal genera (Fig. 155, p. 248);
Capulus, shell cap-shaped, no internal plate; Platyceras (Palaeozoic,
see p. 76), Diaphorostoma (Palaeozoic), Addisonia (?); Crucibulum,
internal appendage funnel-shaped; Crepidula (including Crepipatella
and Ergaea), shell slipper-shaped, with a large septum; Calyptraea
(including Galerus and Trochita), internal lamina semi-spiral.
Fam. 7. Hipponycidae.—Foot aborted, animal sedentary,
adductor-muscle shaped like a horse’s hoof, fastened on the ventral
side to the region of attachment, or to a thin calcareous plate which
closes the aperture like a valve; ventral side of the body surrounded
by a mantle with papillose border, which corresponds
morphologically to the epipodia, head emerging between the dorsal
and ventral mantles. Shell thick, bluntly conical, surface rugose.
Eocene ——. Genera: Hipponyx; Mitrularia, a narrow half funnel-
shaped appendage within the shell.

Fig. 272.—Two specimens of

Crepidula (marked a and b)
on an old shell of Murex
radix Gmel.
Fam. 8. Solariidae.—Foot large, eyes sessile, near the outer base
of the tentacles, radula abnormal (p. 224); shell more or less
depressed, lip simple, umbilicus wide, margins often crenulated,
operculum variable. The proper position of the family is quite
uncertain. Ordovician——. (i.) Solariinae. Genera: Solarium, shell
depressed, highly finished, angular at periphery, operculum
corneous, central tooth absent, laterals and marginals numerous,
long, and narrow; Platyschisma (Silurian). (ii.) Toriniinae. Genera:
Torinia, whorls usually rounded, operculum (Fig. 183) conically
elevated, spiral externally, central tooth present, marginals few, edge
pectinated; Omalaxis. (iii.) Euomphalinae, shell planorbiform, whorls
rounded. Genera: Euomphalus, Ophileta, Schizostoma,
Eccyliomphalus (all Palaeozoic).
Fam. 9. Homalogyridae.—Tentacles absent, eyes sessile, central
tooth unicuspid on a quadrangular base, laterals and marginals
replaced by an oblong plate; shell very small, planorbiform. Recent.
Single genus: Homalogyra, whose true position is uncertain.

Fig. 273.—Solarium
perspectivum Lam., Eastern
Seas.
Fam. 10. Littorinidae.—Proboscis short, broad, tentacles long,
eyes at their outer bases, penis behind the right tentacle;
reproduction oviparous or ovoviviparous, radula very long; shell
turbinate, solid, columella thickened, lip simple, operculum corneous,
nucleus excentrical. Jurassic——. Principal genera: Littorina (radula,
Fig. 16, p. 20), Cremnoconchus (p. 16), Fossarina; Tectarius, shell
tubercled or spinose; Risella, base slightly concave; Lacuna, shell
thin, grooved behind the columellar lip.
Fam. 11. Fossaridae.—Shell turbinate, solid, small, white, spirally
ribbed, outer lip simple. Miocene——. Principal genus, Fossarus.
Fam. 12. Cyclophoridae.—Ctenidium replaced by a pulmonary
sac, tentacles long, thread-like (radula, Fig. 17, p. 21); shell variously
spiral, peristome round, often reflected, operculum circular.
Terrestrial only. Cretaceous——. (i.) Pomatiasinae, shell high,
conical, longitudinally striated, operculum consisting of two laminae
united together. Single genus, Pomatias. (ii.) Diplommatininae, shell
more or less pupiform, peristome thickened or reflected, often
double. Genera: Diplommatina (subg., Nicida, Palaina, Paxillus,
Arinia), shell dextral or sinistral, small, columella often denticulated;
Opisthostoma (Fig. 208, p. 309), last whorl disconnected, often
reflected back upon the spire. (iii.) Pupininae, shell more or less
lustrous, bluntly conical, lip with a channel above or below. Genera:
Pupina (subg., Registoma, Callia, Streptaulus, Pupinella, Anaulus),
Hybocystis (Fig. 205, p. 305), Cataulus, Coptochilus,
Megalomastoma. (iv.) Cyclophorinae, shell turbinate or depressed,
operculum corneous or calcareous. Genera: Alycaeus,
Craspedopoma, Leptopoma, Lagochilus, Cyclophorus (Fig. 206, p.
306); including Diadema, Aulopoma, Ditropis, and others),
Aperostoma (including Cyrtotoma and others), Cyathopoma,
Pterocyclus (subg., Myxostoma, Spiraculum, Opisthoporus, and
Rhiostoma (Fig. 180, p. 266), Cyclotus, Cyclosurus, and
Strophostoma.
Fam. 13. Cyclostomatidae.—Ctenidium replaced by a pulmonary
sac, tentacles obtuse, foot with a deep longitudinal median groove;
central tooth, lateral, and first marginal more or less bluntly cusped,
second marginal large, edge pectinate; shell variously spiral, spire
usually elevated, aperture not quite circular; operculum generally
with an external calcareous and an internal cartilaginoid lamina,
rarely corneous. Terrestrial only. Cretaceous——. Genera:
Cyclostoma (subg., Leonia, Tropidophora, Rochebrunia, Georgia,
Otopoma, Lithidion, Revoilia), Cyclotopsis, Choanopoma (subg.,
Licina, Jamaicia, Ctenopoma, Diplopoma, Adamsiella), Cistula
(subg., Chondropoma, Tudora), Omphalotropis (subg., Realia,
Cyclomorpha), Hainesia, Acroptychia.
 Fig. 274.—Cyclostoma
campanulatum Pfr., Madagascar.
Fam. 14. Aciculidae.—Ctenidium replaced by a pulmonary sac,
tentacles cylindrical, pointed at the end, eyes behind their base, foot
long and narrow; central tooth and lateral very similar, pinched in at
the sides, external marginal broad, edge finely pectinate; shell small,
acuminate, with a blunt spire, operculum corneous. Terrestrial only.
Tertiary——. Genus, Acicula (= Acme).
Fam. 15. Truncatellidae.—Ctenidium replaced by a pulmonary
sac, proboscis very long, eyes sessile, behind the base of the
tentacles, shell small, evenly cylindrical, apex truncated in the adult.
Eocene——. Genera: Truncatella (subg., Taheitia, Blanfordia, and
Tomichia), Geomelania (subg., Chittya and Blandiella), Cecina (?).
Fam. 16. Rissoidae.—Eyes at the external base of the tentacles,
epipodium with filaments, operculigerous lobe with appendages;
central tooth pleated at the basal angles, lateral large, bluntly
multicuspid, marginals long, narrow, denticulate at the edge; shell
small, acuminate, often elaborately sculptured, mouth entire or with a
shallow canal, operculum corneous. Marine or brackish water.
Jurassic——. Principal genera: Rissoa (subg., Folinia, Onoba,
Alvania, Cingula, Nodulus, Anabathron, Fenella, Iravadia, and
others), Scaliola (shell agglutinating fragments of sand, etc.),
Rissoina (lip thickened, operculum with an apophysis as in Nerita),
Barleeia, Paryphostoma (Eocene).
Fam. 17. Hydrobiidae.—Eyes at the outer base of the tentacles,
penis behind the right tentacle, prominent, operculigerous lobe
without filaments; radula rissoidan, central tooth often with basal