Geophysical Research Letters - 2024 - Zhang - Mantle Plume Lithosphere Interactions Beneath The Emeishan Large Igneous

RESEARCH LETTER Mantle Plume‐Lithosphere Interactions Beneath the
10.1029/2023GL106973
Emeishan Large Igneous Province
Key Points:
Anqi Zhang1,2, Zhen Guo3 , Juan Carlos Afonso1,4 , J. Gregory Shellnutt5 , and
• Image the thermochemical structure Yingjie Yang1,6
beneath the Emeishan Large Igneous
Province via novel joint inversions 1
Department of Earth and Space Sciences, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China, 2State Key
• Reveal plume refertilization of the
lithosphere beneath the Emeishan Laboratory of Geodesy and Earth's Dynamics, Innovation Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology,
Large Igneous Province's inner zone Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China, 3Department of Ocean Science and Engineering, Southern University of
• Image complex mantle circulation Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China, 4Faculty of Geo‐Information and Earth Observation (ITC), University of
patterns beneath the Emeishan Large Twente, Enschede, the Netherlands, 5Department of Earth Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan,
Igneous Province region 6
Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Geophysical High‐resolution Imaging Technology, Southern University of
Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
Supporting Information:
Supporting Information may be found in
the online version of this article. Abstract The formation of large igneous provinces (LIPs) has been widely believed to be linked to mantle
plume activity. However, how the plume modifies the overlying lithosphere, particularly its compositional
Correspondence to: structure, remains uncertain. Here, we characterize the deep thermochemical structure beneath the Emeishan
Z. Guo, LIP (ELIP), which is a well‐known Permian plume‐related LIP in China, by taking a multi‐observable
guoz3@sustc.edu.cn probabilistic inversion. Our results find a clear correlation between the lithospheric composition with the ELIP's
concentric zones. We infer that the fertile feature of the lithospheric mantle in the ELIP's inner zone was caused
Citation: by the plume‐derived fertile magmas which infiltrated into and chemically refertilized the ambient depleted
Zhang, A., Guo, Z., Afonso, J. C., lithosphere. This plume‐modified lithospheric compositional structure is likely to be preserved after the plume
Shellnutt, J. G., & Yang, Y. (2024). Mantle
event, while the present lithospheric thermal structure has been mainly influenced by the subsequent thermal‐
plume‐lithosphere interactions beneath the
Emeishan Large Igneous Province. tectonic activity. Our results improve our understanding of the physicochemical interactions between the
Geophysical Research Letters, 51, lithosphere and ancient plume.
e2023GL106973. https://doi.org/10.1029/
2023GL106973
Plain Language Summary Gaining insights into the nature of large igneous provinces (LIPs) helps
Received 24 OCT 2023 understand mass extinction and climate change in the past, since the outpouring of large accumulations of
Accepted 22 DEC 2023 igneous rocks associated with LIPs could alter ancient climates and environments. Here, we focus on a well‐
known plume‐related LIP during the Permian in China, Emeishan LIP (ELIP), to construct its deep
Author Contributions: thermochemical structure based on a multi‐observable probabilistic inversion method. Our results suggest that
Conceptualization: Anqi Zhang,
the bulk fertile feature (not depleted by melt extraction) of the lithospheric mantle in the vicinity of the ELIP's
Zhen Guo, Juan Carlos Afonso
Data curation: Zhen Guo inner zone was caused by the plume‐derived fertile magmas which infiltrated into the ambient depleted
Formal analysis: Anqi Zhang (deficient in minerals extracted by partial melting of the rock) lithospheric mantle and chemically refertilized it
Methodology: Juan Carlos Afonso
Software: Juan Carlos Afonso
by melt‐rock interaction. However, the imaged thermal structure shows a large ongoing asthenospheric
Supervision: Zhen Guo upwelling and small‐scale thermal convection, implying that the present‐day lithospheric thickness has been
Writing – original draft: Anqi Zhang mainly influenced by the subsequent tectonic events. Our results improve the understanding of the
Writing – review & editing: Anqi Zhang,
Zhen Guo, Juan Carlos Afonso,
physicochemical interactions between the lithosphere and ancient plume and contribute to the knowledge of the
J. Gregory Shellnutt, Yingjie Yang nature of LIPs.
1. Introduction
Large igneous provinces (LIPs) are characterized by voluminous emplacements (spatial extent > 105 km2) of
primarily mafic extrusive and intrusive rocks in a short period of time (<5 Myr) (Coffin and Eldholm, 1994). As
such, many LIPs are thought to have been caused by mantle plumes, which brought deep mantle materials and
© 2024. The Authors. energy to the surface, and contributed to global environmental catastrophes (Koppers et al., 2021). The Late
This is an open access article under the Permian Emeishan large igneous province (ELIP) is a well‐recognized LIP in China and has been linked to the
terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution‐NonCommercial‐NoDerivs end‐Guadalupian mass extinction (Courtillot et al., 1999; Xu et al., 2010). It is located in the westernmost part of
License, which permits use and the Yangtze Block and adjacent to the southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, SW China (Figure 1a). The
distribution in any medium, provided the ELIP is structurally divided into inner (INZ), intermediate (IMZ), and outer zones (OTZ) (Figure 1b) according to
original work is properly cited, the use is
non‐commercial and no modifications or the amount of crustal uplift inferred from the erosional state of the Maokou limestone (He et al., 2003). As
adaptations are made. evidenced by the voluminous (∼3 × 105 km2) radiating mafic dyke swarms, high‐temperature picritic lavas, short
ZHANG ET AL. 1 of 10
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Geophysical Research Letters 10.1029/2023GL106973
Figure 1. (a) Tectonic divisions of southwestern China and the range of figure (b) is indicated by a red rectangle. (b) Geological map of the ELIP and adjacent areas; the
yellow dashed lines show the boundaries of the inner, intermediate, and outer zones of the ELIP defined by He et al. (2003). (c) Global paleogeographic plate
reconstruction at 260 Ma (modified from Huang et al., 2018).
eruptive duration and other geological and petrological research, the formation of the ELIP is generally
considered to be related to the activity of a mantle plume (e.g., Ali et al., 2005; Chung and Jahn, 1995; He
et al., 2003; Li et al., 2015; Shellnutt, 2014; Xiao et al., 2004; Xu et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2006, 2021a).
Furthermore, previous geophysical studies have identified high seismic velocity layers and layered mafic‐
ultramafic intrusion in the crust and discovered evidence for magmatic underplating at the Moho, which are
all consistent with the expectation of a mantle plume‐related LIP (Deng et al., 2016; Li et al., 2021; Liu
et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2004). Recently, Liu et al. (2021) observed a northeast‐trending zone of high shear wave
velocity and negative radial anisotropy in the lithospheric mantle of the INZ and IMZ, and interpreted them as a
mafic‐ultramafic, dike‐dominated intrusions that constituted the magma storage system during the emplacement
of the ELIP.
While these observations support the plume model for the origin of the ELIP and highlight its influence on the
crustal structure, much less is known about: (a) the physicochemical modifications of the deep lithosphere created
by the mantle plume, (b) whether these modifications are still preserved or have been overprinted by later tectonic
events, and (c) their influence on the post‐Permian tectonic evolution of the region. For instance, Xu et al. (2004)
interpreted a lens‐shaped high velocity structure in the mantle beneath the INZ as ultra‐depleted residues left
behind after extensive melt extraction from the plume head. However, the extremely large velocity variation
associated with this velocity anomaly (∼0.4 km/s) cannot be explained only by depletion effects due to melt
extraction (Afonso et al., 2010). It is also unclear how that material would be preserved in place for >250 Ma
unless it became part of the lithosphere; but this would imply a thick (>150 km) present‐day lithosphere beneath
the INZ, which is at odds with many previous studies (An and Shi, 2006; Huang et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2017).
Likewise, Deng et al. (2014) applied a gravity‐stripping method in an attempt to detect deep compositional
anomalies presumably related to the action of the plume. They reported a large residual anomaly close to the
center of the INZ, which was interpreted as resulting from high density mafic rocks that crystallized from injected
mafic magma derived from the plume. However, since gravity alone cannot separate shallow from deeper density
anomalies, much of the residual signal reported in the INZ was likely controlled by the well‐known crustal density
anomalies in this region (e.g., Chen et al., 2015; Li et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2017). To reduce these ambiguities and
gain a deeper understanding of plume‐lithosphere interactions and their role on subsequent lithospheric evolution,
it is necessary to characterize both the first‐order compositional structure of the entire lithosphere as well as its
present‐day thermal structure. Both of these fields, however, have received little attention in the ELIP region.
The objective of this paper is to explore the physicochemical interactions between the lithosphere and the Permian
mantle plume in the ELIP region by examining the thermochemical structure of the whole lithosphere and sub‐
lithospheric upper mantle. To do so, we adopt the thermodynamically‐constrained multi‐observable probabilistic
method of Afonso et al. (2013a, 2013b, 2016), which exploits the complementary sensitivities of different ob-
servables to shallow versus deep compositional and thermal anomalies, and it is therefore particularly well‐suited
for the task at hand. Our results provide a sound genetic interpretation of present‐day geophysical anomalies and
motivate a new evolutionary model of the ELIP that considers the thermochemical modification of the whole
lithosphere due to the impingement of a mantle plume and its effects on the subsequent tectonic evolution of the
region.
2. Data and Methods

2.1. Data
In this study, we jointly invert Rayleigh wave dispersion data, surface heat flow (SHF), upper mantle geoid
anomalies and absolute elevation data (Figure S1 in Supporting Information S1) using a multi‐observable
probabilistic inversion method (Afonso et al., 2013a, 2013b, 2016, 2022). These data sets provide crucial
complementary sensitivities to the lithospheric thermal and compositional state and thus reduce uncertainties
associated with the modeling of individual observables (Afonso et al., 2013b). Rayleigh wave dispersion curves
were taken from the recent ambient noise tomography (ANT) and teleseismic two‐plane‐wave tomography
(TPWT) study of Ning and Chen (2022). These authors obtained Rayleigh wave phase velocity maps at period
ranges of 10–50 s and 20–140 s from ANT and TPWT, respectively. We extracted dispersion curves at the period
range of 10–140 s from these two sets of dispersion maps by taking the weighted average of both data sets at the
overlapping periods of 20–50 s (more weight was assigned to ANT and TPWT at shorter and longer periods,
respectively). SHF data were taken from the continental China heat flow data set of Jiang et al. (2019). We
removed some extreme SHF values (<20 and >150 mWm 2), which are believed to be associated with local,
shallow perturbations from groundwater circulation and thus not representative of the large‐scale lithospheric
geotherm. Elevation data came from the GTOPO30 global elevation model (http://lta.cr.usgs.gov/GEOPO30); we
applied a low‐pass filter to the raw data to remove high‐frequency components with wavelengths <50 km.
Filtered/upper mantle geoid height data associated with density anomalies at depths ≲400 km were acquired from
the global model of Afonso et al. (2019).
To take advantage of the high resolution of the Rayleigh wave phase velocity maps, we subdivided our study
region into 341 1D columns with a surface area of 0.5° × 0.5°. For the non‐seismic data, we adopted a different
resolution based on the assumptions and limitations of the 1D approximation to solve their forward problems
(Qashqai et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019), that is, the elevation, geoid height and SHF data associated with each 1D
column were computed using a moving average method with a window size of 1° × 1°. The means and variances
computed by averaging all non‐seismic data points in each 1° × 1° cell were used, respectively, as input data and
associated uncertainty during the inversion.
2.2. Method
Details on the inverse method can be found in Afonso et al. (2013a, 2013b, 2016) and Qashqai et al. (2018). The
inverse problem is solved by adopting a Bayesian inference approach, which allows us to combine prior infor-
mation on both observable data and model parameters with information from observed data and physical models
(forward problems) to define a high‐dimensional posterior probability density function (PDF) over the parameter
and data space (Tarantola, 2005). This posterior PDF represents the most comprehensive solution to the inverse
problem, but in our case it has no tractable analytical expression. Therefore, a powerful Markov Chain Monte
Figure 2. (a) Predicted lithosphere‐asthenosphere boundary depth. (b) Bulk Mg# of the lithospheric mantle. The yellow solid lines mark the positions of the vertical
profiles shown in Figure 3.
Carlo (MCMC) sampling strategy, based on the Delayed Rejection Adaptive Metropolis algorithm of Haario
et al. (2006) which avoids the sampling of low probability regions, is used to obtain samples of the posterior PDF.
In this study, we used a total of 340,000 simulations per column, 50,000 simulations in the initial pre‐adaptive
stage and subsequently updated the proposal distribution every 20,000 new samples (i.e., 14 updates). This re-
sults in a total of 115.94 × 106 simulations for the entire region. In each simulation, the forward problems involve
(a) obtaining lithospheric geotherms by solving the steady‐state heat transfer equation subject to Dirichlet
boundary conditions at the surface (typically Ts = 10℃) and at the bottom of the lithosphere (TLAB = 1250℃); (b)
computing the stable mineral assemblages in the upper mantle and their physical properties (e.g., VP, Vs, ρ) via
Gibbs free‐energy minimization (Afonso et al., 2016; Connolly, 2009); (c) computing fundamental mode Ray-
leigh wave dispersion curves; (d) predicting geoid anomalies; and (e) solving the isostatic balance equations.
The model parameterization is similar to that employed in our previous work (Zhang et al., 2021b). Each 1D
column contains a four‐layer crust (sediments, upper, middle, and lower crust) over two upper mantle layers
(compositional layers, lithospheric and sub‐lithospheric mantle). Crustal model parameters include thermal
conductivity (κ), coefficient of thermal expansion (α), compressibility (β), bulk density at surface conditions
(ρSTP), Vp/Vs ratio, thickness (h), and radiogenic heat production (RHP). The first three parameters are kept
constant (Table S1 in Supporting Information S1), while the remaining four are treated as unknowns and retrieved
by the inversion; their priors are given in Table S2 in Supporting Information S1. The parameters that define the
upper mantle are the depth to the lithosphere‐asthenosphere boundary (LAB), the major oxides (CaO‐FeO‐MgO‐
Al2O3‐SiO2) of each mantle compositional layer (these oxides make up ∼ 99% of the mantle), and five tem-
perature nodes in the sub‐lithospheric mantle (Tbuffer, Tint1, Tint2, Tint3, Tbottom) (Table S2 in Supporting Infor-
mation S1) equally spaced within the LAB and the bottom of the model (400 km depth). The initial sedimentary
thickness was taken from the CRUST1.0 model (Laske et al., 2013) and the initial Moho depth was taken from the
receiver function study of He et al. (2014). The data fits and resolution of our model are assessed in Supporting
Information S1.
3. Results
3.1. Lithospheric Thickness and Compositional Structure
Figure 2a shows a map of the LAB depth beneath the ELIP region. In this study, the (thermal) LAB is identified as
the depth to the 1250°C isotherm (Afonso et al., 2013a, 2016). Our results reveal a relatively thick lithosphere
beneath the Sichuan Basin (SCB) (LAB ∼160 km depth), in agreement with numerous previous studies (e.g., An
and Shi, 2006; Huang et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2021, 2017). Toward the south and west, the lithosphere becomes
progressively thinner, reaching just ∼70 km in the southwest of the study area (Figure 2a). There is no obvious
relationship between lithospheric thickness variation and the three zones of the ELIP. Rather, this province is
characterized by a significant difference between its northern (thicker lithosphere) and southern (thinner litho-
sphere) parts. There is only a minor spatial correlation between the OTZ and a region of slightly deeper LAB in
the southern parts. Figure S16a in Supporting Information S1 shows the estimated uncertainties in LAB depth.
These are around 10 km in most areas, but reach ∼20 km beneath the SCB, mainly on account of the increase in
the standard deviation of the seismic data with depth.
Following common practice, we summarize the bulk composition of the mantle in terms of its magnesium number
(Mg# = 100 mol. MgO/(mol. MgO + mol. FeO)), which is considered to be a good proxy for assessing the
depleted versus fertile character of the mantle, as well as of its physical and chemical properties (Afonso
et al., 2010, 2013a; Griffin et al., 2009). As shown in Figure 2b, the most prominent/robust features in the bulk
Mg# of the lithospheric mantle are the low values (fertile mantle) in and around the INZ of the ELIP and the
relatively high values (depleted mantle) in the OTZ. Due to the lack of constraints from mantle xenoliths in the
study region, we set the compositional parameter space in the inversion to be large enough to cover most of the
natural variability observed in mantle samples (from highly depleted to highly fertile, Table S2 in Supporting
Information S1). Because of this, but also due to the lower sensitivity to composition offered by the inverted
geophysical observables, Mg# is the least constrained field, exhibiting relatively large uncertainties (Figure S16b
in Supporting Information S1). Nevertheless, we emphasize (a) that the large‐scale pattern of average lithospheric
Mg# is robust and (b) that the absolute magnitude of the Mg# is likely underestimated in Figure 2b due to both the
low sensitivity of the observables and the spatial smoothing applied to the field (see Supporting Information S1
and Figures S7–S9). In addition, our approach has been validated in many regions around the world where mantle
xenoliths are abundant (e.g., Afonso et al., 2016, 2022; Zhang et al., 2020, 2021b).
3.2. Cross Sections of Temperature, Density and Vs

Two cross‐sections (locations indicated in Figure 2b) of temperature, density and Versus are shown in Figure 3;
horizontal slices at different depths are provided in Figure S17 in Supporting Information S1. The depths to the
Moho and LAB along the profiles in Figure 3 are denoted by blue and purple lines, respectively, whereas the
average bulk Mg# of the lithospheric mantle is indicated by hatched lines.
Profile A‐A’ along 26.5°N traverses the whole ELIP from the west to the east. In the crust, a deep Moho and a
high‐density, high‐velocity lower crust are imaged beneath the INZ (also seen in Figures S17 and S18 in Sup-
porting Information S1). These features have been also imaged by previous studies (e.g., Chen et al., 2015; Liu
et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2004) and interpreted as mafic‐ultramafic underplating material. We note that the density
and seismic wave speeds of the upper and middle crust beneath the INZ are also higher than those in the sur-
roundings, possibly indicating localized magmatic intrusions into shallower levels of the crust. These features can
also be observed in profile B‐B’, which runs across the INZ from south to north along 102°E. In the upper mantle,
a shallow LAB is imaged beneath the INZ, while the IMZ and OTZ show a deeper LAB. As seen in Figure 2b, the
average bulk Mg# of the lithospheric mantle is lowest in the INZ (Mg# < 90.6) and gradually increases toward the
OTZ (>90.6).
4. Discussion
4.1. Plume‐Modified Lithospheric Composition
Our imaged compositional structure of the lithospheric mantle shows a clear correlation with the ELIP's
concentric zones, that is, a more fertile mantle (low Mg#) in and around the INZ and a more depleted mantle (high
Mg#) in the OTZ. Previous studies have indicated that the INZ is the impact site of the rising plume head and that
the anomalously fast/dense lower crust represents large volumes of crystallized mafic magmas derived from the
plume head (e.g., Chen et al., 2015; Deng et al., 2014; He et al., 2003; Li et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2017; Xu
et al., 2004). Therefore, it seems appropriate to assume that the Mg# that we image in this work is a frozen‐in
signature associated with the ancient plume responsible for the ELIP. During the eruption time of the ELIP
(∼260 Ma; Shellnutt et al., 2020), the Yangtze Block was located near the equator (∼2.4°N) according to
Paleozoic plate reconstructions (Figure 1c; Huang et al., 2018). Subsequent tectonic/deformational events that
affected the ELIP region were associated with the closure of the Paleo‐Tethyan Ocean, the collision between the
Figure 3. Vertical cross sections of temperature (first row), density (second row), and shear wave velocity (third row) along
the AA’ and BB’ profiles (shown in Figure 2). Moho and LAB depth are denoted with blue and purple solid lines,
respectively. The probability density of Mg# of lithospheric mantle and their means (solid lines) along these two profiles are
shown in the fourth row.
North China Craton and South China Block in the Mesozoic and the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates
during the Cenozoic (e.g., Ali et al., 2005; Shellnutt, 2014; Xu et al., 2021). Although modest changes in the LAB
depth are to be expected, there is no evidence for major magmatic/volcanic activity associated with these tectonic
episodes that could have substantially affected the composition of the lithospheric mantle via partial melting, melt
metasomatism or fluid flushing (Jiang et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2021). Moreover, a relatively thin lithosphere is
observed beneath the INZ of ELIP, thus we suspect that the ultra‐depleted mantle after extensive melt extraction
(plume head) did not become a part of the lithosphere of ELIP and could be recycled with the mantle convection
during the last 260 Ma.
It is commonly suggested that plume‐supplied heat can cause significant partial melting of the sub‐continental
lithospheric mantle and produce highly refractory residual lithologies (Hei et al., 2018; Kamenetsky
et al., 2012; Xiao et al., 2004; Xu et al., 2004). However, the low lithospheric Mg# imaged in the INZ argues
against this view and is more compatible with a scenario where most of the melt is generated within and around
the plume head (the region where substantial partial melting occurs) and percolates through the overlying lith-
ospheric mantle, modifying it via melt refertilization. Zheng et al. (2015) suggested that sufficient melt generation
for refertilization is only possible if the lithosphere is thin enough for substantial decompression melting to occur
beneath the LAB. Considering the voluminous flood basalts in the Emeishan region, the inferred underplating and
intrusion of mafic melts beneath the INZ (Section 3), the high (>1500°C) estimated mantle potential temperatures
Figure 4. Cartoon showing the interaction between the Permian mantle plume with the lithospheric mantle and crust beneath
the ELIP, resulting in a refertilized lithospheric mantle.
(Tp) of the low‐Ti basalts, and concentration of picritic rocks found in the inner zone (indicative of high‐degree
melting of the mantle plume; Shellnutt and Jahn, 2011, Shellnutt and Pham, 2018; Xu et al., 2020), we infer that
the mantle plume that created the ELIP was emplaced into an already thinned lithosphere. In this scenario,
extensive mafic‐ultramafic magmas were generated from the central plume head and transported through and
injected into a relatively thin lithospheric mantle (Figure 4). This process will not only lower the Mg# of the
peridotites via addition of incompatible elements such as Ca, Fe, Al, but it may also result in the crystallization of
for example, eclogitic dikes. Although our inversion can only image an aggregated average of these two
compositional modifications (or lithologies), we note that both produce changes in the bulk properties of mantle
rocks that would be imaged by the inversion as regions of low Mg# (see Appendix A in Afonso et al., 2013a).
Liu et al. (2021) recently reported seismic anisotropy results in the INZ and IMZ that point to the presence of
dominantly vertical networks of dikes in the lithospheric mantle beneath the INZ, whereas a mixture of vertical
and horizontal dikes and sills were inferred around the Moho and within the crust. Both observations are
compatible with a model where large amounts of plume‐derived fertile magmas infiltrate into the depleted
lithospheric mantle and chemically refertilized it by melt‐rock interaction and diking. Some of these melts would
eventually pond at or near the Moho and/or intrude into the crust, where they will create complex magma storage
systems consisting of sills, dikes and magma chambers (Liu et al., 2021). In contrast, areas where the plume head
encountered thicker lithosphere (e.g., IMZ and OTZ; Figure 4), only low‐degree partial melting occurred and the
magnitude of lithospheric refertilization weakened. In particular, the OTZ seemed to have retained its original
refractory character. This observation is also consistent with the seismic anisotropy results of Liu et al. (2021) and
the more cratonic character of the crust beneath the OTZ (Figure 3; Shellnutt, 2014; Chen et al., 2015; Zou
et al., 2022).
Moreover, our lithospheric compositional structure provides new evidence for the size of the plume head.
Although the spatial extent and volume of ELIP are smaller than other notable LIPs, that is, Siberian Traps,
Deccan Traps, and Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, the size of the plume head is still poorly constrained (Liu
et al., 2022). Our compositional structure confirms that strongly plume‐modified lithosphere is mainly within the
INZ and has a diameter of ∼400 km. Nevertheless, the diameter of the surface flood basalt province can be larger
as indicated by previous studies (∼1,200–1,800 km) (Jiang et al., 2018; Li et al., 2017) (Figure 4).
4.2. Ongoing Mantle Upwelling and Small‐Scale Convection
While there is a clear spatial correlation between lithospheric compositional anomalies and the concentric zones
of the ELIP, the same is not the case for the pattern of the LAB. Previous seismic studies (Huang et al., 2015;
Yang et al., 2017) and our predicted thermal structure revealed a thin lithosphere (<100 km) beneath the INZ and
southwestern ELIP. In particular, there is a dominant gradient in lithospheric thickness from NNE to SSW
(Figure 2a). This suggests that, regardless of the lithospheric structure at the time of plume impingement, the
present‐day LAB could have been affected by subsequent geodynamic/tectonic processes, that is, the continuous
convergence between Indian and Eurasian plates since ca. 55 Ma (Griffin et al., 1998; Hou et al., 2022; Xu
et al., 2000; Yin and Harrison, 2000). Although it is unclear how these subsequent processes influenced the
lithosphere after the impingement of the plume, significant lithosphere thinning occurred in the surroundings of
the ELIP at the end of the Paleozoic, except in the SCB. Yet, despite the subsequent thermal perturbations, the
compositional signatures beneath the INZ (and toward the E‐NE) left behind by the Permian plume are still
recognizable in the crust and in the lithospheric mantle.
Yet, regardless of the process that produced a shallow LAB beneath and around the INZ, it is likely that such
lithospheric structure influenced asthenospheric dynamics by acting as a focus point for subsequent mantle up-
wellings (Duvernay et al., 2022). The deep high‐temperature anomaly (>1400°C) in profile B‐B’ (Figure 3)
shows evidence of large‐scale mantle upwelling that is focused by thin lithosphere beneath southwestern ELIP.
This anomaly is paired with a low‐temperature and high‐velocity anomaly toward the north, located near the
transition region between the thick and thin lithosphere and separated from the high‐temperature anomaly by a
distance of about 300–350 km (similar to the typical wavelength of small‐scale convection in the upper mantle;
e.g., King and Anderson, 1995; Duvernay et al., 2021). This pattern is clearly reminiscent of a sub‐lithospheric
upper mantle convection cell. Whether it corresponds to edge‐driven convection, shear‐driven upwelling or a
forced convection cell driven by the upwelling of deep hot mantle remains beyond the capability of this study.
However, we note that the high‐temperature anomaly originates at depths >250 km and perturbs the temperature
field of the lithosphere up to low crustal levels, which may point to the presence of an active upwelling. This, in
turn, tends to retard lithospheric cooling and favor the preservation of thin lithosphere.
5. Conclusions
In this work, we jointly inverted new Rayleigh wave dispersion data, SHF, geoid height, and elevation data with a
probabilistic inversion method to obtain a thermochemical model of the lithosphere and sublithospheric mantle
beneath the ELIP and surrounding areas. Our imaged Mg# of the lithospheric mantle shows low values (more
fertile) in the INZ but high values (more depleted) in the OTZ, implying a plume‐modified lithospheric
composition. We demonstrate that both the injection of fertile magmas generated from the hot mantle plume head
into the ambient depleted lithospheric mantle and chemical interactions with surrounding rocks resulted in the
INZ experiencing more significant lithospheric refertilization than the OTZ. We propose that the mean
composition of the lithospheric mantle that we image today is primarily the remnant of the magmatic processes
related to the impingement of the ancient plume, whereas the present‐day lithospheric thickness has been mainly
influenced by later tectonic events. Our present‐day temperature model reveals a thin lithosphere and a high
temperature anomaly beneath the southwestern ELIP that suggest a large ongoing asthenospheric upwelling. This
upwelling triggers smaller‐scale thermal convection patterns via interactions with the present‐day lithospheric
structure that are difficult to elucidate with traditional seismological techniques. Our results provide unprece-
dented observational information on the complex thermochemical interactions between an ancient plume, derived
magmatism, small‐scale convection and lithospheric structure beneath the ELIP region.
Data Availability Statement

The multi‐observable probabilistic inversion code is available at Afonso et al. (2016) or downloaded from https://
www.juanafonso.com/software. The Rayleigh wave dispersion curves, elevation, geoid height, and surface heat
flow data were taken from Ning and Chen (2022), GTOPO30 global data set (https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/GTOPO30),
Afonso et al. (2019), and Jiang et al. (2019), respectively. All the filtered data and our final output model (3D
temperature, density, shear wave velocity, depth to the lithosphere‐asthenosphere boundary, and magnesium
number) are available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7644990.
Acknowledgments References
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RESEARCH LETTER Mantle Plume‐Lithosphere Interactions Beneath the

2. Data and Methods

3.2. Cross Sections of Temperature, Density and Vs

4.2. Ongoing Mantle Upwelling and Small‐Scale Convection

Data Availability Statement

References From the Supporting Information

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