Control and Coordination

In human beings, the control and coordination take place through the nervous system and the endocrine system that
produce and secrete hormones. The five sense organs in our body, eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin are called receptors
and these organs functions by receiving information from the environment around us.

Gustato receptors: Detect taste, located in taste buds.

Thermo recepetors: Detect heat and cold, located in skin.
Olfactory receptors: Detect smell, located in olfactory epithelium in nasal cavities.
Phono receptors: Detect sound, located in inner ear.
Therefore, the response and coordination in both humans and animals involve the sense organs, the nervous
system and hormones.

What is the Nervous system?

The nervous system consists of nerve fibres and nerve cells which transmit impulses of the nerve between different parts
of the body.
It is a system found in animals that synchronizes its functions by passing signals to and from different parts of the body.
It is brought about by the nervous system after it detects any physical response on any part of the body due to various
changes such as temperature, pressure, light, etc.
Furthermore, the nervous system coordinates with the endocrine system to react accordingly. This system of control and
coordination is brought about after the involvement of various internal systems working in sync to respond in accordance.
The neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. It receives and transmits electrical nerve impulses.
A neuron comprises of:
• cell body
• dendrites
• axon
The cell body consists of a nucleus and granular cytoplasm called Nissl’s granules.
Dendrites are several branched, finger-like projections that transmit nerve impulse towards the cell body.
The axon arises from the cell body which is branched at the distal end. The cells of the axon are called Schwann cells
which are covered by a myelin sheath. The space between the myelin sheath is known as Nodes of Ranvier. The end of
the axon contains bulb-like structures called the Synaptic Knob.

Passage of impulse:

Impulse is a self-propagated electrical current that travels from one end to another of a neuron for the passage of a
message.

The pathway is stimulus dendrites cell body axon axon terminal

Passage of stimulus.

• A stimulus received by a neuron travel through it in the form of an electrical disturbance.

• During rest the outer surface of a neuron is positively charged while the interior has negative charge.

• Stimulus causes opening of ion channels which makes the outer surface negatively charged, while interior becomes
positively charged.
• This creates the impulse which moves forward.
• The posterior region returns to the condition of rest.
• At the end of the neuron, the impulse is passed on the next neuron, an organ, muscle, or gland in the form of a
neurotransmitter.
• Neurotransmitter is a chemical secreted by axon terminal for transmission of impulse to the next neuron, muscle,
gland or organ. Ex: Glutamic acid, Acetylcholine.
Synapse.
• It is a narrow gap present between two neurons where an axon terminal comes in contact with dendrites of another
neuron.
• Axon terminal is extended to form presynaptic knob
• Post synaptic depression – The dendrites terminal is broadened and depressed.
• Synaptic cleft- A narrow fluid filled space present between the two terminals.
• As the impulses reach the presynaptic knob, it stimulates the release of neuro transmittors into cleft.
• Neurotransmitter molecules come in contact with membrane of post-synaptic depression.
• It functions as stimulus and produces an impulse in the dendrite part of the second neuron.
• Because of the release of neurotransmitter at one side of the synapse, impulse travels through the neurons only in one
direction.

Neuromuscular junction:
• It is the place of motor end plate of a neuron with the surface of the muscle.
• Motor end plate consists of a number of knobbed branches.
• A knob is plugged into shallow depression present on surface of muscle fibre called sole plate.
• On excitation the knob of motor end plate passes out acetylcholine which reaches receptors on the surface of muscle.
• The excitation spreads over the whole muscle fibre, the latter contracts.

Reflex action:
• Reflex action is a nerve mediated, automatic, involuntary and spontaneous response to a stimulus acting on a specific
receptor without consulting the will.
• On being pricked or coming in contact with hot surface or flame, the hand is withdrawn even before pain is perceive
by brain.
• Ex: Wider opening of pupil in dim light, narrowing of pupil in strong light, salivation when food is eaten, secretion
of digestive enzymes when food reached the alimentary canal.
• Reflex arc: Reflex actions require a stimulus, a receptor organ, sensory neuron, a part of central nervous system,
motor neurons and effector organs.
• The pathway taken by a stimulus to travel from receptor organs to effector organ is known as reflex arc.
• Stimulus Receptor organ Sensory neurons CNS Motor neurons Effector organs
Response.
• (i) Receptor organ: It is a tissue or organ which receives the stimulus for initiating nerve impulse, eg skin, eye, ear.
• (ii) Sensory neuron: They conduct impulses from receptor to central nervus system.
• (iii) part of central nervous system: It is spinal cord for most of the apparent reflex that orginate in the trunk and
limbs of the body.
• In CNS, the impulse is transferred from sensory neuron to motor neuron through a relay neuron or inter neuron.
• There is no processing of the impulse during reflex action.
• (iv) Motor neurons: They conduct motor impulse from CNS to the effector neuron.
• (v) Effector neuron: It is a muscle, gland or organ. The effector organ is activated by motor impulse to provide a
suitable response to the stimulus.

Functions of Nervous system:

• Control: Nervous system exerts control over the functioning of different tissues, organs and parts of the body.
• Coordination: It coordinates the activity of different nut inter-related organs so as to perform a particular function.
• Surroundings: It makes an animal aware of its surroundings with the help of sense organs.
• Internal environment: Nervous system gathers information about the internal environment of the body.
• Higher faculties: Intelligence, reasoning, memory, emotions, will etc are due to nervous sytem.
• Invoulntary movements: They are movements of internal organs carried out by a section of nervous sytem without
consulting the will of the indivual.
• Reflexes: They are immediate, automatic, protective and useful neural responses to stimuli.

Human Brain
Brain

Fore brain Mid brain Hind brain

Olfactory lobes Cerebral Peduncle Pons
Cerebrum Corpora quadrigemina Cerebellum
Diencephalon Medulla
Oblongata

• It is the widest and uppermost part of the CNS which weighs 1.5Kg and constitute 98% of the total nervous system.
• It is differentiated into fore brain, mid brain and hind brain.
Fore Brain: It is the thinking part of brain, it has olfactory lobes, cerebrum and diencephalon.
• Olfactory lobes: They are a pair of widely separated club shaped structures which occur on inferior surface of
surface of cerebrum.
• Each olfactory lobe consists of an anterior olfactory bulb and a posterior narrow olfactory stalk.
• These lobes can relay sense of smell received form olfactory epithelium of nose.

Cerebrum: It is the largest part of the brain which occupies the front, lateral and superior parts of the brain.
• It has two closely placed cerebral hemispheres separated by a longitudinal fissure.
• The cerebral hemispheres are attached inferiorly by a thick nerve band called corpus callosum.
• Internally each corpus callosum has fluid filled cavity called lateral ventricle.
• There is a thick outer layer of grey matter called cerebral cortex and inner to it is white matter called cerebral
medulla.
• The convolutions in brain, the elevations are called gyri while the depression is called sulci.
• The right cerebral hemisphere controls the functioning of left parts of the body while the left cerebral hemisphere
controls the right parts of the body.
• Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into 4 parts: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital.
• Frontal lobes: it is the centre of intelligence.
• They control the movements of facial muscles, chewing, swallowing, movement of tongue and lips.
• Parietal lobes: They are situated in the upper area, it is the centre of sensation of pain, pressure and temperature.
• Temporal lobes: They lie on lateral sides, they control hearing, smell, recall of audio-visual events and some
components of speech.
• Occipital lobes: They occur in hinder part, they have the perception of light.
Diencephalon: It lies in the inferior side of the cerebrum.

• It has epithalamus on its roof, thalami on the sides and hypothalamus on floor.
• Epithalamus helps for filtering out cerebrospinal fluid from the blood.
• Thalami relay sensory impulses from medulla oblongata and they also regulate activity of smooth muscles.
• Hypothalamus is the region which determines our hunger and fullness.
• It also has control centres for thirst, fatigue, sleep, sweating, body temperature and emotions.
• It also secrets a number of hormones, 10 of the control anterior part of pituitary while two hormones pass into
posterior pituitary to function as its hormones.
Mid brain: It is the small area having two thick fibrous tracts and four swelling.
• Fibrous tracts are called cerebral peduncles, they connect hind brain with fore brain.
• The four swelling are known as compora quadrigemina, they are connected with reflex movements of head, neck and
trunk in response to light, sight and sound stimuli.
Hind brain: It is the posterior involuntary part of brain.
• It has three parts, cerebellum, pons and medulla.
• Cerebellum lies behind cerebrum and above medulla oblongata.
• It coordinates muscular activity of the body and also maintaining equilibrium or posture of the body as during
straight walking, riding, jumping, lifting etc.
Pons:
• It is a cross wise bundle of nervous tissue that lies on the anterio ventral side of medulla oblongata.
• It connects the cerebellum, medulla and cerebrum.
• It functions as relay centre among different parts of brain.

Medulla Oblongata:
• It is the hindermost part of the brain which lies below cerebellum.
• It controls many involuntary activities like respiratory centre for regulating rate of breathing, cardiac centre for
regulating rate of heart beat, regulation of blood pressure.
• Reflex centre for swallowing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, salivation peristalsis etc.

How are Nervous organs protected?

• Both brain and spinal cord are protected from mechanical injury and shock by bony cases around them.
• Brain is covered by cranium or brain box of skull.
• Spinal cord is protected by vertebral column.
• Additional protective covering is present called meninges, occur between brain or spinal cord and the surrounding
skeleton.
• They are three in number- Outer durameter, middle arachnoid and outer piameter.
• Cerebrospinal fluid occurs between piameter and arachnoid.
• Meninges and cerebrospinal fluid around brain spinal cord protect them from shock.

Endocrine system

• It is a system of isolated ductless glands that pour their secretion directly into circulatory system for passage into
different targets.
• Endocrine system offers in coordination with nervous system.

Need for endocrine system:

• Nervous system controls and coordinates many body functions as it has a well spread network of neurons.
• Messages travel very fast in the form of electrical impulses.
Limitations:
• Nerve impulses do not reach each and every cell of the body.
• The effect of nerve impulse is of short duration.
• Nerve impulses cannot pass continuously
• A small gap is required between two impulses.
These disadvantages are overcome by endocrine system:
• The stimulated glandular cells secrete chemicals that diffuse throughout the body.
• Cells have receptors for picking up chemical information.
• The information can pass persistently, the passage of information is of course slower, however influences all the
cells of the target.
• A multiple effect can also be produced.
Ex: Adrenaline reduces blood supply to skin and digestive system but increases the same to skeletal or voluntary
muscles.
This increase in breathing rate and heartbeat. The body becomes ready to deal with an emergency.
Further, endocrine system controls and coordinates many processes of the body where nervous system has no role.
Components of Human Endocrine system.
• The major components of human system are hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroid,
thymus, adrenal, gonads, pancreas.
Hypothalamus: It lies at the floor of diencephalon, hypothalamus produces neurohormones which are passed on to
pituitary gland for controlling its activity.
• They are of 2 types, releasing hormones and inhibitory hormones.
• Two hormones, elaborated by hypothalamus are directly passes to neurohypophysis for secretion, They are
oxytocin and vasopressin.
Pituitary gland:
• It is a small pea sized oval gland that is attached to the inferior surface of hypothalamus by a stalk.
• It has three parts- anterior, middle and posterior
Anterior pituitary:
• Growth hormone or Somatotrphic hormone: the hormone stimulates body growth by increased anabolic activity,
retention of calcium, synthesis of proteins, enlargement of long bones, muscles and visceral organs.
• Increased secretion leads to gigantism while deficient secretion produces dwarfism.
• Prolactin: It stimulates growth of mammary glands during pregnancy and lactation.
• Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): It stimulates thyroid to produce and release its hormone.
• Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH): It activates adrenal cortex to produce its hormone.
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH):it stimulating sperm formation in males, growth of ovarian follicles and
secretion of oestrogen from them in females.
• Luteinising hormone (LH): in females the hormone stimulates ovulation and secretion of progesterone, in males the
hormone is also called interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH). It helps to secrete testosterone.
Middle Lobe of pituitary:
• Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH): The hormone causes dispersal of melanin or pigment granules causing
darkening of skin.
Posterior lobe of pituitary:
• It produces two hormones which are actually neurosecretion products of hypothalamus.
Oxytocin and Vasopressin or Antidiuretic hormone (ADH):
• Oxytocin: The hormone stimulates uterine contractions during child birth and milk ejections during sucking of
infants.
• It is also called birth hormone and also love hormone as it enhances social bonding, modulates fear and anxiety,
induces calmness and closeness.
• Vasopressin or Antidiuretic hormone: It is essential for reabsorption of water from distal convoluted tubule,
collecting tubules for producing concentrating urine.
• Deficiency of hormones causes disorder called diabetes insipidus (it produces a lot of dilute urine in short intervals
resulting in excessive thirst and dehydration).

Thyroid: It is the largest endocrine gland which is attached to trachea below larynx.
• It secretes iodine containing hormone called thyroxine.
• Thyroxine controls basal metabolic rate (BMR).
• It regulates carbohydrates, protein and fat metabolism required for balanced growth and maintenance.
• Deficiency of dietary iodine causes enlargement of thyroid which results in swelling of neck.
• The disorder is called iodine deficiency goitre.

Parathyroid: They are two pairs of small oval yellow glands which lie at the back of thyroid.
• It secrets parathormone.
• The hormone maintains optimum level of blood calcium and phosphorous by reducing their excretion and
metabolism from bones
Thymus:
• It is a soft, pinkish, bilobed gland which lies near the heart.
• The gland about maturation of T-lymphocytes.
• It secretes hormone thymosin required for formation of lymphocytes.
Adrenal gland:
• They are a pair of yellowish, flat, pyramid like glands which lie over the upper end of kidneys.
• Each gland has an outer yellow adrenal cortex and inner reddish adrenal medulla.
• Adrenal medulla produces hormone, adrenaline (emergency hormone)
• It is produces in response to cold, joy, anger fear and emotional stress.

Gonads: They are testes in males and ovaries in females.

Testes: Under the influence of LH the interstitial or Leydig cells of testes produce the male sex hormone called
testosterone.
• It stimulates the development of external genitalia in foetus, development of beard, moustache, and low pitch voice
at puberty, growth of bones and muscles.
Ovaries.
• They produce mature ova under the influence of FSH.
• Maturing ova produce female sex hormone called oestrogen, necessary for secondary sex organs and external
female sex characters like breasts.
• The corpus luteum secretes female hormone progesterone (helps in thickening of uterine wall, attachment of
embryo to uterine wall.
Pancreas:
• It is a heterocrine gland with exocrine part producing pancreatic juice.
• The endocrine part is represented by islets of Langerhans.
• Two important pancreatic hormones are insulin and glucagon.
• Cells, tissues and organs recognise and absorb glucose only in the presence of insulin.
• In liver and muscles, insulin helps in conversion of absorbed glucose into glycogen.
• In deficiency of insulin, the cells fail to recognise and absorb glucose.
• As a result blood level of glucose rise with more and more glucose coming from digestive tract.
• Extra glucose is excreted through urine, the disorder is called diabetes mellitus.
• Glucagon is secreted by alpha cells of islets of Langerhans.
• It is required for metabolization of glucose from glycogen and other sources.

COORDINATION IN PLANTS

• Plants do not have nerves and muscles, their response to stimuli is not immediately observed.
• It takes a long time to find response in the form of movements, it is because plants show chemical coordination that
regulates their movement.
• Plants movements are mostly movement of curvature.
• Curvature movements are changes in orientation of plant parts in relation to others like bending, twisting and
elongation.
• The agent, factor or change in environment which causes movement or any other type of reaction is called stimulus.
• The region of plant stimulus is called response.

Growth independent movements (Plants movement due to turgor pressure).

• They occur in plant organs which have regions of bending where cells shrink or swell up due to loss or gain of
turgidity.
• The movements are commonly reversible and turgor movements can be automatic.
• Automatic turgor movements are those movements which occur due to turgor changes caused by intrinsic factors.
• Sleep movement or nyctinasty movement occurs in response to turgor changes in leaves. Ex: Oxalis.

Immediate response to stimulus:

• A very quick response to stimulus is observed in the leaves of sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica).
• The stimulus is touch, injury, electric current.
• The response consists of upward folding of leaves and drooping down of petiole.
• The stimulus of touch or shock received by any part of the leaf is converted into either an electrochemical potential.
• The same travels at the rate of 20cm/sec, and reaches the base of leaf.
• Here, large thin-walled cells occur, on the upper side of leaf base and lower side of leaf and petiole base.
• As the impulse/chemical reaches here, the thin-walled cells eject K+ ions and then water.
• They shrink in size resulting in folding and drooping movements.
• The leaf recovers after 10min

Plant movements due to growth:

• Unequal or differential growth in different parts of an organ results in its bending and other types of movements.
• Automatic movements of growth: They are shown by apical regions of stem and tendrils. While growing, the
apical of these organs bend in different directions resulting in their rotation.
• It helps in the climbing stems and tendrils to find support for climbing.
• Paratonic movements of growth: They are growth movements in response to an external stimulus.
Two types of its – Nastic and tropic.

Trophic movements of growth:

• They are directional growth movements of curvature in which the direction of movement is determined by the
direction of stimulus.
• Trophic movements generally occur in root and stem.
• The movements are phototropism, geotropism, hydrotropism, thigmotropism and chemotropism.

Phototropism:
• It is the directional growth movement of curvature which occurs in response to exposure to light.
• The region of photoreception is shoot apex while region of response is in the area of elongation.
• Stem generally bend towards the direction of light. They are positive phototrophic.
• Leaves generally come to lie at right angles to light.
• Roots are either neutral or negatively phototrophic.
• Phototrophic movement is generally caused by increased auxin on the dark side and lesser auxin on the illuminated
side.
• It causes more growth on the dark side of stem causing it to bend towards the source of light.
• The opposite happens in root where less auxin stimulates growth while higher auxin inhibits growth.

Geotropism:
• It is the directional growth movement of curvature which occurs in response to force of gravity.
• Main root is positively geotropic, while main stems or shoots are negatively geotropic.
• Negative geotropism is also seen in pneumatophores of mangrove plants.

• Tilt a well-watered potted plant horizontally. Keep watering the plant on alternate days.
• Observe after a week that the apical part of the shoot has bent upwardly due to its negative geotropic nature.
• The apical part of the root has similarly bent downward due to its positive geotropic movement.
• Negative geotropic response of shoots is useful in standing up of lodged crop plants.
• Seedlings coming out of the seeds placed in different directions in the soil will pass their shoots upwardly out of
soil, while their roots will bend downwardly.

Hydrotropism:
• It is directional growth movement of curvature which occurs in response to unilateral stimulus of water.
• It is shown only in roots.
• Roots are positive hydrotrophic.
• Positive hydrotrophic movement of root is stronger than their geotrophic response.
• This can be tested by placing germinating seeds in moist saw dust contained in a sieve.
• The radicles will pass down and come out of the sieve pores under the influence of gravity.
• However after some growth, they bend back and enter the saw dust again showing that hydrotrophic response is
stronger than geotropic movement.

Thigmotrophism:
• It is directional growth of movement of curvature which occurs in response to stimulus of contact.
• It is found in twiners and tendrils.
• After initial contact with support, the tendril shows less growth in the region of contact and more growth on the
other side.

Chemotropism:
• It is directional growth movement of curvature that occur in response to a chemical stimulus.
• It is best seen in growth of pollen tube towards ovule.
• Pollen tube passes inside style, ovary and reaches an ovule.
• Here every region produces its own nutrients and chemotactic chemicals for growth and passage of pollen tube.

PLANT HORMONES
The phytohormones or plant hormones are diffusible chemical substances other than nutrients produced naturally in plants
which regulate growth, development, differentiation, response to environment and a number of physiological processes.
Plant hormones are generally synthesised away from the region of action.
They are called plant growth regulators.
Five major types of plant hormones are auxins, gibberellins, cytokinin’s (growth promoters)
Abscisic acid (plant inhibitor).
Ethylene is gaseous hormone which has dual function of inhibition and promotion of growth.
Auxin
• They are plant hormones which are capable of promoting cell elongation, especially of shoot.
• The most common natural auxin is indole 3 acetic acid (IAA).
• Cell enlargement: They bring about growth of cells
• Root formation: They are essential for root formation on stem cuttings.
• It also stimulates respiration that provides energy for various active processes.
• Apical bud does not allow sprouting of nearby buds due to high concentration of IAA in it.
• IAA prevents premature falling of leaves and fruits.
• Spraying unpollinated flowers with dilute solution of IAA produces seedless fruits.
Gibberellins:
• These are weakly acidic plant hormones, which produce cell elongation of leaves and increased internodal length of
genetically dwarf plants in particular.
• They break dormancy of buds and seeds.
• It also induces parthenocarpy (seedless fruits).
Cytokinin:
• These are the plant hormones which produce cell division.
• Coconut milk and apple fruit extract are rich in cytokinin’s.
• Cytokinin synthesised in root tip from where they reach shoots.
• They are required for differentiation of cells and tissues.
• It increases resistance to disease and temperature extremes.
• They are required for phloem transport.
Ethylene:
• It is a gaseous hormone which promotes transverse growth but inhibits longitudinal growth
• It is formed by all parts but maximum synthesis occurs during ripening of some fruits.
• It promotes senescence and abscission of leaves.
• It breaks dormancy of different plant organs.
• The hormone is essential for ripening of fleshly fruits.
Abscisic acid:
• It is mildly acidic general growth inhibitor of plants that counteracts growth promoting hormone.
• It is also called stress hormone.
• It induces dormancy for overcoming stress condition.
• It checks excessive transpiration by causing closure of stomata.
• It induces dormancy of buds and seeds.
• It also promotes flowering in some plants.