International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078

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International Journal of Hydrogen Energy

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Characteristics of different flow patterns for proton exchange membrane

water electrolysis with circular geometry
Alamir H. Hassan a, b, Zhirong Liao a, *, Kaichen Wang a, Feng Xiao a, Chao Xu a,
Mostafa M. Abdelsamie b
a
Key Laboratory of Power Station Energy Transfer Conversion and System of MOE, School of Energy, Power and Mechanical Engineering, North China Electric Power
University, Beijing, 102206, China
b
Mechanical Power Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering - Mattaria, Helwan University, Cairo, 11718, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling editor: Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev This study comprehensively analyzes five circular-shaped flow field configurations (one-path, two-path, two-
channel, two-segment, and four-segment serpentine), using membrane electrode assembly (MEA) area of 38.5
Keywords: cm2. Here, it aims to identify the optimal pattern in terms of velocity, pressure, liquid saturation, temperature,
Proton exchange membrane and current density distribution. Further, a comparison is conducted between the uniformity index, polarization
Flow pattern
curves, and average membrane temperature curves of various cases. Using a finite element method, a three-
Circular geometry
dimensional, non-isothermal, two-phase model is developed based on the conservation equations of mass, mo­
Serpentine
Uniformity index mentum, electric charge, energy, and species. To confirm modelling reliability, the numerical results have been
validated and demonstrated a strong match with the experimental data. Findings indicate that the one-path,
followed by the two-path serpentine pattern, yield the most favorable flow distribution and temperature uni­
formity within the PEMWE. Conversely, the four-segment serpentine flow pattern results in the least desirable
outcomes. At a cell voltage of 2.1 V, the uniformity index of liquid saturation, temperature and current density
and average membrane temperature for one-path and two-path serpentine patterns exhibit reductions of 70 and
29 %, 95.5 and 95.2 %, 33 and 31 %, and 9.1 and 6 K, respectively, compared to four-segment serpentine design.
Moreover, the four-segment, two-segment, and two-path serpentine flow patterns exhibit optimal performance in
terms of polarization curves.

Although PEMEC demonstrates competitiveness across multiple as­

1. Introduction
The escalating global energy demand has led to the overconsumption
of fossil fuels, exacerbating air pollution and the phenomenon of global
warming [1–5]. As a result, hydrogen has attracted considerable atten­
tion due to its potential as a viable clean fuel alternative in addressing
pressing environmental issues. Additionally, it serves as a low-emission
and sustainable fuel option. The integration of renewable energy sources
into hydrogen production and its subsequent application across in­
dustries is widely acknowledged as a pivotal strategy to achieve carbon
neutrality [6–9]. Proton exchange membrane water electrolysis
(PEMWE) holds great promise as an efficient technique for producing
hydrogen, especially as paired with renewable energy sources. This
technology presents an array of advantages, including improved per­
formance, elevated current density, the capability to yield highly puri­
fied hydrogen, heightened flexibility, and enhanced safety features [10].
pects, there continue to be opportunities for improvement, specifically
in pricing and durability. One potential strategy entails optimizing heat
and flow distribution within the cell. A uniform distribution of liquid
water is essential for achieving optimal mass transport characteristics
and ensuring consistent heat removal. This significance stems from the
dual role of liquid water as both a reactant and a coolant in the process
[11]. Therefore, a multitude of flow pattern designs have been
conceptualized and applied to PEMWEs. The flow field configuration
plays a pivotal role in influencing hydrothermal and polarization per­
formance distribution within the PEMEC. In the absence of a
well-defined flow field pattern, the bubbles produced tend to accumu­
late on the surface of the porous layer. This accumulation poses chal­
lenges in their timely removal, resulting in reduced available catalyst
surface for the electrochemical reaction and increased concentration
overpotential [12].
Furthermore, the uniformity and homogeneity of reactant

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhirong.liao@ncepu.edu.cn (Z. Liao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.10.346
Received 20 September 2023; Received in revised form 28 October 2023; Accepted 31 October 2023
Available online 18 November 2023
0360-3199/© 2023 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.H. Hassan et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078

Nomenclatures Greek symbols

Ԑ GDL Porosity
A Active area, m2 εcl CL Porosity
CP Fluid heat capacity at constant pressure, J kg-1 K-1 ρ Density, kg m-3
Eexc Activation energy, kJ mol-1 μ Dynamic viscosity, Pa s
Etn thermo-neutral voltage, V σ Surface tension, N m-1
F Faraday constant, C mol-1 σs The electronic conductivity of the electrode, S m-1
i Current density, A m -2 σe Ionic conductivity of membrane, S m-1
i0 Exchange current density, A m -2 φe Ionic potential, V
io,ref Reference exchange current density, A m-2 φs Electronic potential, V
K Permeability, m2 α Transfer coefficient for reaction
k Thermal conductivity, W m-1 K-1 λ Relative humidity of the membrane
Kr Relative permeability η Activation overpotential, V
P Pressure, bar ηV voltage efficiency
R Universal gas constant, J mol-1 K-1 ζ Specific active surface area, m-1
S Source term θ Contact angle,o
s Liquid saturation
T Temperature, K Abbreviations
u Velocity vector, m s-1 ACH Anode flow channel
Vcell Cell voltage, V ACL Anode catalyst layer
Veq Equilibrium potential, V AGDL Anode gas diffusion layer
CCH Cathode flow channel
Subscripts CCL Cathode catalyst layer
act Activation CGDL Cathode gas diffusion layer
an Anode MEA Membrane electrode assembly
cat Cathode PEM Membrane
e Electrolyte PEMFC Proton exchange membrane fuel cell
eff Effective PEMWE Proton exchange membrane water electrolysis
f Fluid mixture TPEM Average membrane temperature
g Gas Ui Current density uniformity index
l Liquid water US Liquid saturation uniformity index
s Solid UT Temperature uniformity index
tn Thermo-neutral

distribution, along with the concentration of reactants and products,
significantly hinge upon the rate of electrochemical processes occurring
at the catalyst layer. This intricate interplay is further affected by con­
siderations such as the mechanical support provided to the MEA, the
extent of the solid rib area ensuring high electronic conductivity and
facilitating efficient electron transfer, the efficacy of thermal control
mechanisms, and the temperature distribution throughout the cell. It’s
important to note that these aspects are substantially influenced by the
shape, configuration, and geometric characteristics of the chosen flow
pattern design [13,14]. The existence of an uneven distribution of re­
actants across the active area results in an imbalanced consumption of
catalyst layer substance, degrading the system’s overall performance.
Moreover, the presence of temperature maldistribution can lead to
localized hotspots, reducing the cell’s lifespan [15]. Given these con­
siderations, constructing the flow field pattern in a manner that gua­
rantees a homogeneous dispersion, thereby mitigating the occurrence of
localized high-temperature regions and safeguarding against the corro­
sion of valuable catalysts.
In this context, various literature has been established to examine
different flow field patterns and their features. However, most of these
studies have primarily focused on rectangular geometries. Nie et al. [16]
explored the parallel flow pattern through numerical and experimental
methods, revealing non-uniform temperature distribution and fluid ve­
locity, particularly noting elevated temperatures at the cell center and
exit header regions, along with lower fluid velocity at the central flow
field area [17]. This parallel configuration effectively lowered pressure
drops, maintaining relatively consistent pressure levels, and conse­
quently mitigating flow turbulence and rates, which aids in preventing
electrocatalyst corrosion [18]. In contrast, Majasan et al. [19] found that
the lengthy flow path results in the formation of an annular flow regime
in a serpentine pattern at high current density, leading to the accumu­
lation of gas and obstruction of channels, ultimately causing a decline in
performance. On the other hand, the annular flow regime was not
observed for the parallel pattern, resulting in superior cell performance
in the parallel design compared to the serpentine configuration at high
current density. Nonetheless, Ruiz et al. [20] uneven hydrogen con­
centration distribution in parallel channels due to low velocities and
non-homogeneous flow rates.
The serpentine design enhances hydrogen generation, current den­
sity, and temperature uniformity but exacerbating the pressure loss.
Similarly, the multi-serpentine shape offers comparable benefits with
lower pressure drop [20]. The serpentine flow pattern exhibits a more
even uniform temperature distribution than a parallel counterpart,
resulting in reduced heat stresses, prolonged membrane lifespan, and
minimized energy loss within the system. Modifying factors like channel
length, channel count, and corner numbers amplifies water delivery to
reaction surfaces, yielding higher water decomposition rates into
hydrogen [15]. As the reactant gases’ diffusivity increases, the mass
transport resistance issue is mitigated, leading to an enhancement in cell
performance [21]. The notable pressure drop in the serpentine flow
pattern has potential benefits to enhance the reactant diffusion towards
the porous electrode beneath solid rib structures [13,15,22]. In
serpentine designs, augmented mass transfer between the channel and
diffusion layer, attributed to secondary flow induction, results in
improved cell performance. Additionally, the serpentine turns further
strengthening of the secondary flow, enhancing cell performance.
Therefore, performance augmentation is feasible by increasing the
number of segments or channel paths within each segment [22].

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A.H. Hassan et al.
Toghyani et al. [23] used metal foams as flow distributors, utilizing
convection and conduction for effective heat dissipation, consequently
lowering maximum temperatures. Metal foam exhibits superior perfor­
mance due to its low-temperature gradients, homogeneous current
density, high hydrogen production, and reduced pressure drop
compared to both parallel and serpentine configurations. Zhuang et al.
[24] employed a parallel flow field design to examine the impact of
channel height and width. An increase in the channel height can lead to
a simultaneous increase in voltage and gas percentage, while also
resulting in a decrease in pressure drop. However, it should be noted
that augmenting the channel width may lead to an elevation in voltage
and a reduction in pressure drop, but the proportion of gas increases.
The available literature indicates a significant lack of research
regarding circular geometric flow patterns for PEMWE, and mostly
rectangular shapes have been applied. Among the limited studies on
circular PEMWE flow patterns, Bjerrum et al. [25] investigated a novel
membrane variant utilizing a phosphoric acid-doped Aquivion material,
employing three different flow patterns for analysis. A
corrosion-resistant material was required due to elevated temperatures,
potential, and acidic environment. Olesen et al. [11] studied the flow
and temperature maldistribution in circular-planar interdigitated flow
fields for the anode. Their findings indicated that mass flow maldistri­
bution can be reduced using equal land area sizes, minimizing the width
between the longest and increasing it between the shortest channels.
Reducing channel bending at the broadest land areas is essential to
mitigate hotspot formation. In another search by Olesen et al. [26], three
circular geometry interdigitated flow fields were scrutinized. Optimum
charge, heat, and mass distribution were accomplished by maintaining
uniform solid rib width across the channels. However, the presence of
uneven distributions of current density and flow led to the appearance of
hotspots across all three flow patterns.
Furthermore, the radial and spiral flow patterns for circular shapes
are used for the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) [27–29].
For radial flow patterns, reactants enter the circular flow field through a
centrally located tube and travel radially outward through channels
[30]. Spiral channels exhibit a comparatively longer flow length, leading
to higher pressure drop than parallel or synthetic designs. Hence, the
incorporation of multiple concentric spirals in the design results in a
reduction in the hydraulic resistivity of the channels by effectively
diminishing their lengths [29]. However, the presence of scattered
outlets along the outer edges of spiral and radial configurations in­
troduces increased system complexity, particularly when integrating
PEMFCs into larger stack configurations [13]. To circumvent these
complexities, this study adopts a single inlet position and one exit
location while designing the current flow patterns to simplify stack
manufacture and avoid associated limitations.
It is clear from the literature study that designing flow fields for the
PEMWE with rectangular shapes has garnered much interest. However,
a substantial gap exists when it comes to exploring flow patterns for
circular geometries. Thus, this paper endeavors to bridge this gap by
investigating various circular-shaped flow patterns that ensure a more
uniform distribution of reactants, current density, and temperature,
while keeping pressure drop minimal. In this regard, a comprehensive
analysis of various circular-shaped flow fields has been carried out using
a three-dimensional, non-isothermal, two-phase PEMWE model. Based
on the simulation results, the discussion focuses on analyzing the overall
system performance, encompassing velocity, pressure, liquid saturation,
temperature, and current density distributions across the five circular-
shaped flow field configurations. Furthermore, a comparative assess­
ment is conducted including the uniformity index, polarization curves,
and average membrane temperature (TPEM) curves of proposed flow
fields. The findings of the current study hold the potential to signifi­
cantly improve our comprehension of how distinct circular flow struc­
tures impact the mass and heat transfer performance of PEMWE.
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International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078
2. Model description
2.1. Physical model
The computational domain of PEMWE consists of several compo­
nents, including a Nafion membrane (PEM), anode flow channel (ACH),
cathode flow channel (CCH), anode catalyst layers (ACL), cathode
catalyst layers (CCL), anode gas diffusion layers (AGDL), and cathode
gas diffusion layers (CGDL). For example, the schematic diagram of the
computational domain for one-path serpentine shows in Fig. 1. During
operation, water is introduced into the ACH and subsequently flows
through the porous AGDL. It then reaches the ACL, where water un­
dergoes split into oxygen, hydrogen ions, and electrons. The hydrogen
ions subsequently traverse the PEM and proceed to the cathode. At the
cathode, the electrons flowing through the external circuit engage with
hydrogen ions to generate hydrogen gas. Furthermore, the intake cath­
ode channel is provided with water to induce the convection phenom­
enon (the drag force by the convection of water), which facilitates the
efficient removal of hydrogen gas from the cell and reduces the chance
of gas crossover [31]. Table 1 illustrates the PEMWE module’s
geometrical characteristics.
The serpentine flow exhibits regular performance as a result of its
effective mass transfer and uniform distribution of reactants throughout
the flow channels [32]. Even though the one-path serpentine configu­
ration augments the channel’s length, it results in a significant pressure
drop and a pronounced concentration gradient of species from the inlet
to the outlet [33]. Thus, four other designs with multiple serpentine
channels are proposed, as shown in Fig. 2b-e, aiming to mitigate the
pressure drop and reduce the energy requirements for water pumping.
The flow pattern is divided into two parallel channel paths for a two-
path serpentine pattern, as shown in Fig. 2b. This division effectively
reduces the path length and the number of turns. Additionally, the total
flow rate is evenly distributed between the two channels. The length of
the route and the inlet flow rate are reduced by half compared to a one-
path serpentine pattern, and the number of turns is 8 along the path for
the two-path serpentine pattern. From Fig. 2c, the two-channel
serpentine configuration involves initially connecting each pair of
channels in parallel and subsequently interconnecting them in a
serpentine pattern. In the case of a two-segment serpentine configura­
tion, as depicted in Fig. 2d, the flow pattern is divided into two distinct
patterns. Each pattern is designed to flow on half of the cell, thereby
reducing the overall path length and flow rate. The inlet flow rate and
path length are reduced by 50 % compared to one-path serpentine. In
the case of a four-segment serpentine, the flow field pattern is parti­
tioned into four segments. Each segment is designed to flow over an
equal active area. This deliberate design approach effectively minimizes
the path length, number of turns, and flow rate. The total inlet flow rate
of liquid water for all patterns is 0.24 l/min. The description features of
the proposal flow patterns are stated in Table 2.
Fig. 1. The schematic diagram of the computational domain of the PEMWE
model for one-path serpentine.
A.H. Hassan et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078

Table 1 the reaction area, while gas species movement occurs from the catalyst
The geometrical features of the PEMWE module. layer to the channel. Both movements flow in the opposite direction of
Parameters Value each other. The capillary pressure is derived by the pressure relation
between two phase fluids (liquid water - gas), as illustrated in the
Channel height, mm 1
Channel width, mm 2 following [40].
Channel rib, mm 2 ( ε )0.5
MEA area, cm2 38.5 Pc = Pg − Pl = σ cos θ J(s) (4)
MEA diameter, mm 35 K
Thickness of CGDL, μm 300
Thickness of CCL, μm 20 where θ, σ , s and K indicate to contact angle between liquid water and
Thickness of PEM, μm 178 solid porous, liquid water surface tension, liquid saturation, which
Thickness of ACL, μm 20 varies between 0 and 1, and porous layer permeability, respectively. The
Thickness of AGDL, μm 300
Leverette function, denoted as J(s), characterizes the relationship be­
tween capillary pressure and liquid saturation, which can be calculated
2.2. Model assumptions as Eq. (5) [41].
{
1.417(1 − s)− 2.12(1 − s)2 +1.263(1 − s)3 , 0o < θ <90o
This paper provides the electric charge, energy, species, mass, and J(S) = (5)
1.417s − 2.12s2 +1.263s3 , 90o < θ <180o
momentum conservation equations. The following assumptions are
utilized in order to facilitate the solution process of the PEMEC model The velocity of the liquid and gas phases is determined by applying
[11,34–38]. Darcy’s law, as demonstrated in Eqs. (6) and (7) [42].
Krl
• Hydrogen and oxygen are considered to be ideal gases that are ul = − K ∇Pl (6)
μl
incompressible.
• Water is presently in its liquid phase, and water vaporization is Krg
disregarded. ug = − K ∇Pg (7)
μg
• The system operates under steady-state conditions.
• The porous medium is treated as isotropic and homogeneous. where Krl and Krg denote the relative permeabilities of liquid water and
• All contact resistances are not considered. gas in porous zones, which can be mathematically expressed as a func­
• Hydrogen and oxygen crossover is ignored, and a fully hydrated tion of liquid saturation [43], as presented in Eqs. (8) and (9).
membrane is assumed.
• The gravity effect is neglected. Krl = s3 (8)

Krg = (1 − s)3 (9)

2.3. Numerical model
By employing Eq. (7) and Eq. (2) can be reformulated as Eq. (10)
[39].
On the basis of the mass, energy, charge, and momentum conserva­
[( ) ]
tion equations, a 3-D numerical model using COMSOL Multiphysics is ρg Krg
constructed to explore the complicated multi-physical phenome and the ∇. − K ∇Pg = Sg (10)
μg
distinctive flow characteristics of various circular geometries in
PEMWE. The movement of gas and liquid water is described by imple­ The governing equation of gas and liquid transport can be refor­
menting a two-fluid model, whereby the relationship between gas and mulated by substituting Eq. (4) and Eq. (6) into Eq. (10), as follows [36]:
liquid water is demonstrated by capillary pressure. Also, the impact of
∇.(− D∇s)+β.∇s = Sg (11)
liquid water saturation on the kinetics of chemical processes is adapted
through the Butler-Volmer equation. ρg Krg ( ε )0.5 dJ(s)
D=K σ cos θ (12)
μg K ds
2.3.1. Conservation of mass and momentum
The mass transfer process through the PEMWE is demonstrated by ( )
the conservation equations of mass and momentum. These equations are d μl Krl
μg Krg
employed in the ACH, CCH, ACL, CCL, AGDL, and CGDL. The mass
β = ρg ul (13)
conservation equation for the two-phase model can be expressed as Eqs. ds
(1) and (2) [39].
where D and β denote the diffusion and convection coefficients,
∇.(ρl ul ) = Sl (1) respectively.

∇.(ρg ug ) = Sg (2) 2.3.3. Charge conservation

The Butler-Volmer equation accurately illustrates the kinetics regu­
where S, u, and ρ represent the source term due to water consumption lating the oxygen and hydrogen evolution reaction that occurs on the
and gases generation, velocity, and density, respectively. The subscripts anode and cathode sides. The current density at the anode and cathode is
l and g indicate liquid water and gas. The conservation momentum modified according to the Butler-Volmer equation in order to demon­
equation is determined as Eq. (3) [23]. strate the impact of liquid water saturation on the chemical reaction, as
∇.(ερ→
u→u )= − ε∇P + ∇.(εμ∇→
u ) + Su (3) well as the influence of reactant concentration, which can be calculated
as follows [44,45]:
where Su , P, ε, and μ are the source term, pressure, porosity, and dy­ [ (
αan .F.ηact,an
) (
− αcat .F.ηact,an
)]
namic viscosity, respectively. ian = sζan i0,an . exp − exp (14)
R.T R.T

2.3.2. Transport liquid and gas species

In the porous zones, the liquid water migrates from the channel to

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Fig. 2. 2-D Schematic diagram of different flow patterns, including (a) one-path, (b) two-path, (c) two-channel, (d) two-segment, and (e) four-segment serpentine
flow patterns.

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A.H. Hassan et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078

Table 2
The description features of different flow field patterns.
Pattern The total area of solid ribs The total area under the channel Path length Number of turns Active area Inlet flow rate
2 2 2
One-path serpentine 18.2 cm 20.3 cm 102 cm 17 turns 38.5 cm 0.24 l/min
Two-path serpentine 18.3 cm2 20.2 cm2 51 cm 8 turns by path 0.12 l/min by path
Two-channel serpentine 18 cm2 20.5 cm2 51 cm by each pair 9 turns 0.24 l/min
Two-segment serpentine 18.1 cm2 20.4 cm2 51 cm 17 turns by segment 0.12 l/min by segment
Four-segment 18.1 cm2 20.4 cm2 25.5 cm 9 turns by segment 0.06 l/min by segment
serpentine

[ ( ) ( )]
αan .F.ηact,cat − αcat .F.ηact,cat electronic conductivity and σe is the membrane ionic conductivity which
icat = sζcat i0,cat .. exp − exp (15)
R.T R.T can be defined as a mathematical function that varies with the water
content (λ) and temperature, as Eq. (22) [50].
where ζ, α, ηact , F, i0 , and R denote the specific active surface area, [ ( )]
1 1
charge transfer coefficient, activation overpotential, faraday constant, σ e (T)= exp 1268 − ∗(0.5139λ − 0.326) (22)
303 T
exchange current density, and universal gas constant, respectively. The
exchange current density (io ) is dependent on temperature, which can be
calculated as Eq. (16) [46]: 2.3.4. Energy conservation equation
[ ( )] The energy equation represents the heat transfer phenomenon,
io = io,ref ∗exp
− Eexc 1
−
1
(16) which characterizes the temperature distribution within the PEMWE
R T 353.15 [50]. The energy equation can be expressed as the following:
( ) ( )
where Eexc denotes the activation energy for the reactions. The electro­ ∇. ρeff CPeff uT − ∇. Keff ∇T = ST (23)
chemical properties of the PEMWE module are stated in Table 3. The
anode and cathode activation overpotential can be evaluated using Eqs. ρeff = (1 − ε)ρs +ερf (24)
17 and 18 [47,48]:
CP eff = (1 − ε)CPs +εCPf (25)
ηact,an = φs − φe − Veq (17)
Keff = (1 − ε)ks +εkf (26)
ηact,cat = φs − φe (18)
where CP , and k are the heat capacity and thermal conductivity. Table 4
where φe and φs are the ionic and electronic potential. Veq represents the illustrates the thermophysical properties and operating conditions of the
equilibrium potential and can be estimated as Eq. (19) [49]. PEMWE module. The subscripts eff, s, and f denote effective, solid area,
and fluid mixture, respectively. ST represents the heat source, which
Veq = 1.229 − 0.9×10− 3 (T − 298.15) (19)
encompasses multiple components, consisting of the heat released due
The electrons transfer through the porous electrode, whereas the to irreversible processes at the anode and cathode, the ohmic heat
membrane is responsible for the transport of protons. The presence of produced within the electrode and membrane, and the entropy heat
transmission resistance leads to the occurrence of ohmic losses. The related to the electrochemical reactions [58]. The source’s terms of the
ohm’s law can describe the movement of ionic and electronic equation governing equations are demonstrated in Table 5.
as Eqs. 20 and 21.
2.3.5. Uniformity index
∇.ie = ∇(− σe ∇φe ) = Sφe (20)
The uniformity index has been introduced to enable more compre­
hensive analysis and better comparison of various flow patterns con­
∇.is = ∇(− σs ∇φs ) = Sφs (21)
cerning liquid saturation, temperature, and current density distribution,
where Sφs and Sφe are the source term of electronic and ionic phases creating exciting possibilities for improved understanding and knowl­
inside ACL and CCL owing to the loss rate of electrons and protons edge. This study explores the uniformity index as a metric for quanti­
during electrochemical reactions, respectively. σ s is the electrode’s fying temperature, liquid saturation, and current density deviations
from their respective average values at the AGDL/ACL and ACL/PEM
interfaces. The uniformity index can be expressed as Eq. (27) [58].
Table 3 ∫∫ ⃒ ⃒
⃒φ − φavg ⃒dA
The electrochemical characteristics of the PEMWE module.
Uφ = A ∫∫ (27)
Parameters Value Ref φavg dA
A
CGDL and AGDL Permeability, m2 10-12 [51]
CCL and ACL Permeability, m2 10-13 [51]
PEM Permeability, m2 4.7 × 10-9 –
where φ and φavg indicate the local and average water saturation values,
CGDL and AGDL Porosity 0.5 [52] temperature, and current density at the interfaces. The uniform distri­
CCL and ACL Porosity 0.25 [52] bution grows as the homogeneity index lowers. In other words, the
Anode reference exchange current density [ia,ref ], A/m2 0.1 [53] distribution is completely uniform when the uniformity index equals
Cathode reference exchange current density [ic,ref ], A/m2 1 × 104 [54]
zero.
Anode transfer coefficient [αan ] 0.5 [55]
Cathode transfer coefficient [αcat ] 0.5 [55,56]
Electrode Conductivity, S/m 1000 [52] 2.3.6. Voltage efficiency of PEMWE
Anode reference specific surface area, 1/m 1 × 106 [34] The present research examines voltage efficiency to evaluate the
Cathode reference specific surface area, 1/m 1 × 106 [34] performance of the PEMWE. As the voltage efficiency increases, there is
contact angle, [θ],o 80 [40]
an indication of an improvement in the polarization performance of
Surface tension [σ], N/m 0.0625 [40]
Activation energy [Eexc ] , kJ/mol 53.99 [57] PEMWE. This metric allows for determining the deviation between the
The water content of membrane [λ] 20 [38] actual stack voltage and the theoretically optimal stack voltage under
Faraday constant [F], C/mol 96485 [39] ideal conditions. The voltage efficiency can be expressed as Eq (28) [56,

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Table 4 which is equal to 1.48 V Vcell indicates the cell voltage.

Thermophysical properties and operating conditions of the PEMWE module.
Parameters
AGDL specific heat, J/(kg
K)
CGDL specific heat, J/(kg
K)
CCL specific heat, J/(kg K)
Membrane-specific heat,
J/(kg K)
Iridium-specific heat, J/
(mol K)
specific heat of Liquid
water, J/(kg K)
Oxygen-specific heat, J/
(mol K)
Hydrogen-specific heat, J/
(mol K)
Titanium density, kg/m3
Membrane density, kg/m3
Carbon density, kg/m3
Iridium density, kg/m3
Platinum density, kg/m3
Liquid water density, kg/
m3
Membrane thermal
conductivity, W/(m K)
Titanium thermal
conductivity, W/(m K)
Carbon thermal
conductivity, W/(m K)
Iridium thermal
conductivity, W/(m K)
Platinum thermal
conductivity, W/(m K)
Liquid water thermal
conductivity, W/(m K)
Hydrogen thermal
conductivity, W/(m K)
Oxygen thermal
conductivity, W/(m K)
Liquid water dynamic
viscosity, Pa s
Oxygen dynamic
viscosity, Pa s
Hydrogen dynamic
viscosity, Pa s
Gas constant, J/(mol K)
Inlet temperature, K
Inlet water velocity, m/s
Inlet flow rate, l/min
Inlet liquid water
saturation
Outlet pressure, bar
67].
Etn
ηV =
Vcell
where ηV is voltage efficiency. Etn represents the thermo-neutral voltage,
Value Ref 2.3.7. Boundary conditions
The top surface of AGDL, except the ACH/AGDL interface, is exposed
523 [59]
to the cell voltage (Vcell), while the bottom side of CGDL, except the
894.4 [60] CCH/CGDL interface, is grounded. The remaining outside surfaces have
insulation. In the setting of mass transfer, liquid water enters with
130 [60] constant inlet velocity and fixed liquid saturation at the entrance of the
1090 [60]
anode and cathode. The pressure at the outlet is 1 bar, which acts on the
123.083866 + 0.0227306637T + 5.77336771 [61] exit of the cathode and anode channels. Walls are non-slip with zero
× 10-6T2-9.09424198 × 10-10T3 flux. For heat transfer, the temperature of the incoming flow at the
4187 [60] entrance of both the anode and cathode channels is 353.15 K. The
remaining external boundaries, except the intake and exit channels, are
25.431 + 1.371 × 10-2T- 4.281 × 10-6T2 [60]
thermally insulated. The boundary conditions are shown in Table 6.
28.890–8.314 × 104T +1.914 × 10-6T2 [60]
2.3.8. Numerical procedure and model validation
4500 [59] The numerical model is constructed using COMSOL Multiphysics
1980 [62]
1800 [63]
software, which facilitates the computation of the governing equations
22500 – by implementing the finite element method. The numerical model is
21400 [64] implemented on a Dell workstation equipped with a central processing
998 [65] unit (2.7 GHz CPU) operating at a frequency of 2.7 GHz, featuring 32
cores, and accompanied by a random-access memory (RAM) capacity of
0.21 [66]
192 GB. A set of four modules is employed to address the phenomena of
15.2 [59] charge transfer, mass and momentum conservation, gas transport, and
heat transfer. These modules include the Secondary Current Distribution
2.979–2.869 × 10-3T + 1.048 × 10-6T2 [60] module, the Free Flow in Porous Media module, the Classical PDE
module and the Heat Transfer module. P1+P1 is the name of a dis­
224.8972–0.7897348T + 0.003103721T2 [60]
-5.5254 × 10-6T3 + 3.597758 × 10-9T4 cretization technique that utilizes linear elements to create discrete
77.8–2.282 × 10-2T+ 2.483 × 10-5T2- 5.037 × [60] models of pressure and velocity. The coupled multigrid solver solves the
10-9T3 non-linear algebraic matrix systems [68]. The computational domain is
-0.9004 + 8.388 × 10-3T-1.118 × 10-5T2 [60]
split into several structured hexahedral meshes, as shown in Fig. 3a. The
7.444 × 10-2+3.777 × 10-4T [60] iteration technique is repeated until the residual errors in the fluid flow
and heat transfer modules are below 10-3. The verification of mesh
-3 -5 2
8.83 × 10 +6.204 × 10 T [60]
-4
3.55 × 10 [40] Table 6
Boundary conditions for the numerical model.
2.34 × 10-5 [40]
Equations Boundaries Boundary conditions
8.915 × 10-6 – Transport Liquid and gas Anode and cathode inlet Liquid water saturation:
species san,in = scat,in = 0.9
8.3145 [39] Anode and cathode outlet − n.Di ∇si = 0
353.15 – Fluid transport: mass and Cathode inlet Average velocity inlet:
2 – momentum u = ucat,in
0.24 – conservation Anode inlet Average velocity inlet:
0.9 – u = uan,in
Anode and cathode outlet Pressure outlet: P =
1 – Pcat = Pan = 1 bar
Electric Charge Top AGDL side, except for Electric potential: φs =
conservation ACH/AGDL interface Vcell
Bottom CGDL side, except Electric ground: φs = 0
for CCH/CGDL interface
Energy conservation Anode and cathode inlet Temperature inlets:
(28)
Tan,in = Tcat,in = Tin
Anode and cathode outlet Heat transfer outlets: −
n⋅q = 0

Table 5
The source’s terms of the governing equations.
Equation AGDL ACL PEM CCL CGDL

Momentum −
μ 2
ε u −
μ 2
ε u −
μ 2
ε u −
μ 2
ε u −
μ
ε2 u
K K K K K
Liquid phase mass conservation - ian MH2 O - - -
−
2F
Gas phase mass conservation - ian MO2 - icat MH2 -
4F 2F
Electrical potential - ian - − icat -
Protonic potential - − ian - icat -
Energy σs (∇φs )2 T(dVeq ) σe (∇φe )2 ηact,cat icat + σs (∇φs )2 + σs (∇φs )2 σs (∇φs )2
ηact,an ian + σs (∇φs )2 + σs (∇φs )2 −
dT

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A.H. Hassan et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078

Fig. 3(a). Grid map, (b) Mesh independence test, and (c) Polarization curve comparison between the current model and experimental data [19].

independence is conducted to establish the autonomy of the results from

Table 7
the specific mesh employed. The verification of grid independence is
The operating conditions and geometric parameters during the validation study.
performed for the flow patterns, as mentioned earlier. The relationship
between current density and the number of computational cells for the Operating condition and geometric Values Values
parameters
one-path serpentine flow pattern is illustrated in Fig. 3b. It is evident
that the number of mesh for parallel computation is estimated to be Pattern Square Square
approximately 341,664 cells. serpentine serpentine
Length, mm 30 30
It is imperative to compare the model results and experimental data Temperature, K 353 318
to ensure the accuracy of the aforementioned numerical model. The Pressure, bar 1 1
polarization curve obtained from the experiment by Majasan et al. [19] Water flow rate, ml/min 15 15
is chosen as the reference for verification purposes. A specially designed AGDL Thickness, μm 350 350
CGDL Thickness, μm 190 190
model is created to possess the same geometric characteristics and
PEM type Nafion 115 Nafion 115
operational circumstances described in Ref. [19]. Table 7 displays the Ribs width, mm 1.76 1.76
input data and geometric parameters utilized within the simulation Channel depth, mm 1.6 1.6
model during the validation study. The maximum error in cell voltage Channel width, mm 1.76 1.76
measurements is ±1.86 % at an operating temperature of 353 K and Error in measurements of cell voltage, V ±1.86 % ±2.04 %

±2.04 % at an operating temperature of 318 K. These results suggest a

strong agreement between the model and experimental data, as shown
in Fig. 3c. As a result, the current model can precisely analyze the

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A.H. Hassan et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078

PEMEC operations. ACL interface, along with the uniformity index of temperature and
current density at the ACL/PEM interface. Furthermore, determining the
3. Results and discussion maximum temperature difference at the ACH/AGDL interface and the
TPEM are investigated. Finally, the investigation focuses on analyzing the
This section presents an analysis of the numerical results for five flow polarization curves and a comprehensive comparison of various circular
patterns. Firstly, the velocity distributions at the middle of ACH and the flow patterns. The entry flow is at the bottom and the outflow is above
pressure, liquid saturation and temperature at the ACH/AGDL interface for all flow patterns.
are compared. The local current density at the ACL/PEM interface is also
analyzed. These comparisons are made for different circular geometry 3.1. Velocity distribution
flow patterns, all at a cell voltage of 2.1 V. Additionally, the discussion
revolves around the uniformity index of liquid saturation at the AGDL/ Fig. 4 depicts the velocity distribution for various flow

Fig. 4. Velocity distribution in the middle of ACH for different flow patterns, including (a) one-path, (b) two-path, (c) two-channel, (d) two-segment, and (e) four-
segment serpentine flow patterns.

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A.H. Hassan et al.
configurations in the mid of the ACH. Based on the observations in
Fig. 4, the maximum velocity is 3.56, 3.29, 2.03, 1.6, 0.85 m/s for the
one-path, two-channel, two-path, two-segment, and four-segment
serpentine flow patterns, respectively. The one-path serpentine dem­
onstrates the highest flow velocity, while the flow velocity decreases as
the number of flow paths increases in alternative serpentine types. As
the number of flow paths increases, the inlet flow rate of liquid water is
divided into the inlet channels for all paths, resulting in a decrease in the
flow velocity at each path. The velocity at the turning point is relatively
lower compared to other regions. This is primarily due to the generation
Fig. 5. Pressure distribution at the ACH/AGDL interface for different flow patterns, including (a) one-path, (b) two-path, (c) two-channel, (d) two-segment, and (e)
four-segment serpentine flow patterns.
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International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078
of secondary flow, which induces inward turbulence as a result of the
alteration in direction [69]. As a consequence, the rate of mass transfer
to the active area under this region is increased. As illustrated in Fig. 4c,
for the two-channel serpentine design, it is observed that the upper
channel exhibits a higher velocity compared to the lower channel in
each pair of channels. This phenomenon occurs as a result of the flow
being divided, with a portion entering the lower channel and the
remaining flow being compelled to enter the upper channel. The minor
losses experienced in Tee with branch flow (the lower channel) are
greater compared to line flow. This is primarily due to flow separation
A.H. Hassan et al.
occurring at the edges of the lower channel, resulting in increased hy­
draulic resistance for flow to enter the lower channel [70]. Conse­
quently, a smaller amount of flow enters the lower channel (branch
channel) while the remaining flow is forced to enter the upper channel.
Fig. 6. Liquid saturation distribution of (a) one-path, (b) two-path, (c) two-channel, (d) two-segment, (e) four-segment serpentine flow patterns, and (f) The US at the
AGDL/ACL interface for various flow patterns.
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International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078
3.2. Pressure distribution
In this sub-section, the analysis focuses on the estimation of the
pressure drop and the pressure distribution for different flow arrange­
ments at the ACH/AGDL interface. This is illustrated in Fig. 5, with a cell
voltage of 2.1 V. It was observed that the pressure drops for one-path,
A.H. Hassan et al.
two-channel, two-segment, two-path, and four-segment serpentine de­
signs are 255000, 84000, 57000, 48000, and 9000 Pa, respectively. In
the case of the one-path serpentine pattern, it is observed that the
pressure drop is significantly higher compared to other types. This is due
to factors such as elevated velocity, longer paths, increased number of
turns, and multiple changes in flow direction. The parasitic load of
pumping power rises with the increase in pressure drop. Hence, it is
necessary to consider the additional power consumption associated with
a one-path serpentine design. In order to address the issue of pressure
drop and minimize energy consumption during pumping, alternative
serpentine patterns are employed in this study. These patterns effec­
tively decrease velocity, path length, and the number of turns, which
lessens the pressure drop.
The pressure drop associated with four-segment serpentine flow
patterns is approximately 9000 Pa, which is low compared to other
serpentine designs. Lower velocity and shorter flow paths reduce pres­
sure loss in four-segment serpentine arrangements. This leads to a
decrease in the hydrodynamic resistivity of the flow-field pattern. At an
identical path length of 51 cm for both two-path and two-segment
serpentine patterns, the pressure drop in the two-path serpentine
configuration is reduced by 9000 Pa compared to the two-segment
serpentine configuration. This reduction can be attributed to the
decreased number of turns in the two-path serpentine design. Therefore,
the pressure drop is increased with increasing the number of turns. Also,
the pressure drop of a two-path serpentine configuration is 39000 Pa
higher compared to a four-segment serpentine pattern with a similar
number of turns. This increase may be ascribed to the two-path
serpentine design’s greater route length and higher flow velocity.
In brief, the reduction in pressure loss may be attributed to lower
velocity, shorter flow routes, and a lesser number of turns.
3.3. Liquid saturation distribution
The distribution of liquid water saturation at the ACH/AGDL inter­
face is demonstrated in Fig. 6(a–e) for different flow structures at a cell
voltage of 2.1 V. The entirety of the liquid water is compelled to move
continuously from the entry to the exit. The water undergoes continuous
consumption through a reaction along the flow path, resulting in a
progressive rise in gas concentration along the same path. Consequently,
the liquid saturation decreases as it approaches the outlet. The
maximum difference of liquid saturation is 0.26, 0.29, 0.25, 0.28, and
0.29 for one-path, two-path, two-channel, two-segment, and four-
segment serpentine arrangements, respectively. It is important to high­
light that the lower liquid saturation at the outlet is observed in the two-
path, four-segment, and four-segment serpentine patterns. This obser­
vation indicates an improvement in the electrochemical reaction and a
reduction in the activation overpotential, leading to an elevation in the
oxygen concentration for those designs. On the other hand, higher liquid
saturation is observed in the one-path and two-channel serpentine flow
patterns, suggesting a lower occurrence of chemical reaction and oxygen
production.
From Fig. 6e, it can be observed that the four-segment serpentine
pattern demonstrates the lowest level of uniformity in liquid saturation.
The observed pattern exhibits variations in liquid saturation levels
within the central region of the cell. Consequently, an uneven distri­
bution of reactants occurs at the active area, resulting in inadequate
consumption of the catalyst layer material. This imbalance ultimately
leads to a degradation in the electrochemical performance of the catalyst
layer and expedites the overall failure of the system [15]. From Fig. 6c,
liquid saturation is relatively higher in the high channel of each pair for
a two-channel serpentine design.
The uniformity index of liquid saturation (US) at the AGDL/ACL
interface for different flow arrangements is shown in Fig. 6f. The find­
ings reveal that the US rises as the cell voltage rises. This is because a
higher cell voltage induces more electrochemical reactions, leading to
an enhanced rate of splitting water into gases. This, in turn, leads to an
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International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078
increase in the US, which is observed to rise from 0.0123 to 0.104 when
the voltage is raised from 1.5 to 2.1 V for the two-segment serpentine
pattern. The one-path serpentine pattern has the best US of 0.047 at a
cell voltage of 2.1 V, indicating an excellent distribution of liquid
saturation, followed by two-segment serpentine pattern with US of 0.1 at
a cell voltage of 2.1 V. Hence, the distribution of reactants in the active
area is more evenly achieved with a one-serpentine pattern, which re­
sults in the preservation of the catalyst layer material, thereby effec­
tively prolonging the operational lifespan of the PEMWE. As previously
stated, the four-segment serpentine design exhibits the poorest distri­
bution, with a US of 0.16 at a cell voltage of 2.1 V. The US decreases by
0.111 for a one-path serpentine flow pattern, 0.055 for a two-segment
serpentine flow pattern, 0.045 for a two-channel serpentine flow
pattern, and 0.028 for a two-path serpentine pattern compared to four-
segment flow pattern.
In summary, the one-path serpentine pattern demonstrates the
highest US, implying a superior distribution of liquid saturation. It is
then followed by the two-segment serpentine pattern. This leads to
maintaining the catalyst layer material, thereby significantly extending
the operational lifespan of the PEMWE. On the other hand, the four-
segment serpentine pattern exhibits the smallest degree of uniformity
in liquid saturation.
3.4. Temperature distribution
In this sub-section, the temperature distribution at the ACH/AGDL
interface is clarified in Fig. 7. This analysis is conducted at a cell voltage
of 2.1 V, considering various flow configurations. The temperature
within serpentine patterns gradually rises from the inlet to the outlet.
This phenomenon can be ascribed to the heat generation resulting from
the electrochemical reaction and the subsequent reduction in liquid
water saturation. From Fig. 7, the maximum temperatures for different
patterns are as follows: 366 K for one-path serpentine, 370 K for two-
channel serpentine, 380 K for two-segment serpentine, 381 K for four-
segment serpentine, and 382 K for two-path serpentine. It is found
that the lowest maximum temperature occurs along the one-path
serpentine pattern. The reason is the elevated velocity, which results
in an enhanced convection heat transfer coefficient. Consequently, this
leads to an improved rate of heat transfer. Additionally, as the velocity
diminishes within the serpentine configuration, the convection heat
transfer coefficient undergoes a reduction, leading to an elevation in the
maximum temperature. The temperature experienced a decrease in the
turning region. The detected phenomenon can be attributed to the
generation of secondary flow, which leads to the development of tur­
bulence. This turbulence enhances the heat transfer rate and subse­
quently lowers the temperature within the designated regions.
It is noted from Fig. 7b-d that the two-path serpentine pattern has the
highest maximum temperature of 382 K. even though the two-path
serpentine pattern has a reduced flow velocity than the two-segment
and four-segment serpentine designs. The two-segment serpentine
pattern exhibits an equivalent path length and more turns than the two-
path serpentine configuration. Increasing the number of turns has the
effect of decreasing the maximum temperature. As a result, the
maximum temperature of the two-segment configuration is lower than
the two-path serpentine pattern. The two-path serpentine configuration
offers a greater flow path length than the four-segment serpentine
design. This extended flow path allows for a longer duration for the flow
to acquire thermal energy from the electrochemical process, resulting in
an increase in temperature. Hence, the maximum temperature achiev­
able with the two-path serpentine design surpasses that of the four-
segment serpentine design. Furthermore, from Fig. 7c, the high chan­
nel of each pair in the two-channel serpentine pattern demonstrates
lower temperatures than the low channel. This temperature difference is
attributed to the higher liquid saturation present in the high channel of
each pair. Liquid water fulfills a dual role by serving as reactants and
coolants. Consequently, the temperature decreases as liquid saturation
A.H. Hassan et al.
Fig. 7. Temperature distribution at the ACH/AGDL interface for different flow patterns, including (a) one-path, (b) two-path, (c) two-channel, (d) two-segment, and
(e) four-segment serpentine flow patterns.
rises. It is essential to note from Fig. 7e that the central region of the
four-segment serpentine pattern undergoes temperature variations,
encompassing both low and high levels. Consequently, this leads to an
increased level of thermal stress, specifically in these designated areas.
In conclusion, a decline in temperature was found inside the turning
zone. The observed phenomena may be ascribed to the creation of sec­
ondary flow, leading to the emergence of turbulence. The occurrence of
turbulence enhances the efficiency of heat transfer, resulting in a sub­
sequent reduction in temperature within the specified regions. The
phenomenon of augmenting the quantity of turns leads to a reduction in
the peak temperature. Moreover, it can be seen that when the level of
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International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078
liquid saturation rises, there is a concomitant reduction in temperature.
The two-path serpentine pattern exhibits the greatest recorded
maximum temperature.
Fig. 8a illustrates the maximum temperature difference at the ACH/
AGDL interface for different flow designs. It is observed that there is a
direct correlation between the voltage of the cell and the maximum
temperature. As the voltage rises, the maximum temperature also in­
creases. This phenomenon can be attributed to more chemical processes,
resulting in overpotential and irreversibility elevation. This causes an
increase in overall heat production and temperature. Hence, the uneven
temperature distribution can be ascribed to the electrochemical process.
A.H. Hassan et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078

Fig. 8b. The elevated temperatures of the worst cases are observed using
two-path and four-segment serpentine patterns. The TPEM is approxi­
mately 369.5 and 369.2 K, respectively, at a cell voltage of 2.1 V. On the
other hand, the best flow pattern is a one-path serpentine flow pattern
with TPEM close to 360 K at a cell voltage of 2.1 V, followed by 363.5 K
for two-channel serpentine. This is primarily due to the high flow ve­
locity of the one-path and two-channel serpentine design. Those designs
enhance the forced convection through the porous electrode, resulting in
improved heat transfer and effective control of overtemperature within
the PEMWE. Therefore, implementing a one-path serpentine configu­
ration increases PEM materials’ longevity.
Fig. 9 depicts the temperature uniformity index (UT) for various flow
patterns at the ACL/PEM interface. The UT increases with raising the cell
voltage. As mentioned above, the uneven temperature distribution is
attributed to the electrochemical process. The UT increases by 0.0172
when the voltage is raised from 1.3 to 2.1 V. The best temperature
distribution is for the one-path serpentine pattern, followed by the two-
path serpentine pattern, which mitigates thermal stress in those pat­
terns. The UT is 0.00706 and 0.00765 for one-path and two-channel
serpentine flow patterns, respectively, at a cell voltage of 2.1 V. The
flow velocity is an important variable that impacts the distribution of
temperature uniformity. Specifically, an increase in flow velocity results
in enhanced effects on the uniformity distribution of temperature. Two-
path, four-segment, and two-segment serpentine flow arrangements are
the dangerous cases that have the highest values of UT, implying a
temperature mal-distribution in these arrangements. These flow pat­
terns show an approximate increase in the UT by 0.0091 compared to the
one-path serpentine design.

3.5. Local current density distribution

The local current density distribution at the ACL/PEM interface for

different flow patterns is depicted in Fig. 10(a–e) at a cell voltage of 2.1
V. It is noticed that a significant increase in local current density is
present beneath the solid rib. This occurrence can be attributed to the
dominant influence of electrical conduction on local current density
distribution. Electrons exhibit enhanced conductivity within the solid
rib, thereby facilitating a more efficient electrochemical process in the
corresponding regions. Consequently, this phenomenon results in
heightened local current densities underneath those zones. Additionally,
the local current densities in the porous electrode are lower beneath the
flow channel. Electrons encounter hindrance when attempting to pass

Fig. 8. (a) The maximum temperature difference at the ACH/AGDL interface

and (b) The TPEM for various flow patterns.

Although the two-path serpentine pattern has a lower flow velocity than
the two- and four-segment serpentine designs, it has a higher maximum
temperature difference. As previously stated, the two-path serpentine
has a smaller number of turns than the two-segment serpentine and a
longer flow path than the four-segment serpentine. The maximum
temperature differences for the two-path serpentine, four-segment
serpentine, and two-segment serpentine designs at a cell voltage of
2.1 V are 29.8 K, 28.8 K, and 26.28 K, respectively. The one-path
serpentine exhibits the lowest maximum temperature difference,
thereby indicating a more uniform temperature distribution. This
particular attribute significantly mitigates thermal stress and improves
the longevity of the PEMWE.
It is imperative to avoid exposing the system to very high tempera­
tures to mitigate the risk of deterioration of materials and membrane
drying. Therefore, this part presents a discussion on the average mem­
brane temperature (TPEM) for different flow patterns, as depicted in
Fig. 9. The UT at the ACL/PEM interface for various flow patterns.

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A.H. Hassan et al.
Fig. 10. The local current density distribution of (a) one-path, (b) two-path, (c) two-channel, (d) two-segment, (e) four-segment serpentine flow patterns, and (f) The
Ui at the ACL/PEM interface for various flow patterns.
through liquid water, obstructing their pathway to the external circuit.
As a result, the existence of water reduces the current density in the
areas below the flow channel. As an illustration, the local current density
for one path serpentine pattern is approximately 24000 A/m2 under­
neath the solid rib, whereas it is nearly 19500 A/m2 beneath the flow
channel.
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International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078
Furthermore, the local current density gradually increases from the
entrance to the outflow, which matches the corresponding temperature
rise. Therefore, based on the observed correlation between this trend
and the rise in temperature, it’s reasonable that temperature potentially
plays a contributory role in influencing current density distribution.
Generally, as the temperature rises, the open-circuit voltage falls, and
A.H. Hassan et al.
the exchange current density rises. As a result, the activation over­
potential is lowered, leading to an enhanced rate of electrochemical
reactions on both ACL and CCL. Furthermore, the occurrence of ohmic
losses is mitigated with an increase in temperature due to the corre­
sponding rise in ionic conductivity. The two-path serpentine presents a
maximum local current density of 33100 A/m2 and a high maximum
temperature distribution of approximately 382 K. Also, the maximum
current density values for the four-segment serpentine, two-segment
serpentine, two-channel serpentine, and one-path serpentine flow pat­
terns are 31400, 29200, 27100, and 24900 A/m2, respectively. It is
worth mentioning that these values exhibit a similar trend as the
maximum temperature distribution, which are 381, 380, 370, and 366
K, respectively. In summary, it can be inferred that the current density
distribution is influenced by two primary factors: the solid rib areas and
the temperature distribution.
The uniformity index of current density (Ui) at the ACL/PEM inter­
face is illustrated in Fig. 10f for various flow arrangements. The Ui fol­
lows the same trend as UT and US, increasing as cell voltage increases,
showing an increasing current density maldistribution attributed to an
escalating electrochemical reaction. The Ui exhibits a gradual increase
from 0.00057 to 0.1059 in the case of a one-path serpentine flow
pattern, corresponding to an increase in cell voltage from 1.3 to 2.1 V.
The one-path serpentine pattern has the optimal current density distri­
bution, followed by a two-channel serpentine pattern. The Ui for the
one-path serpentine and two-channel serpentine flow patterns at a cell
voltage of 2.1 V is 0.1059 and 0.1099, respectively.
In summary, the Ui is basically influenced by the temperature dis­
tribution, and it becomes larger as the variation in temperature grows.
The one-path serpentine flow pattern has the optimal uniform current
density and temperature distribution, followed by a two-channel
serpentine flow pattern. The two-path serpentine flow pattern is the
worst uniformity in term of current density distribution due to the high
heat generated at this pattern. The Ui of the two-path serpentine flow
pattern is approximately increased by 12 % compared to the lowest
value.
3.6. Polarization curve
The electrical performance of PEMWE is evaluated by employing a
polarization curve, as depicted in Fig. 11, to analyze different flow
patterns. Generally, the current density rises for all flow patterns as the
voltage increases. The polarization curves of one-path and two-channel
Fig. 11. Polarization curves for various flow patterns.
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International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078
serpentine flows exhibit high similarity. Furthermore, the polarization
curves observed for the four-segment, two-segment, and two-path
serpentine flow patterns exhibit notable resemblance. This phenome­
non can be attributed to the observation that when the maximum tem­
perature difference, as shown in Fig. 8a, is nearly identical, the
polarization curve also demonstrates similar characteristics. This re­
flects that the heat generation through the cell due to the electro­
chemical reaction leads to a maldistribution of temperature and current
density but also improves the polarization curve performance. The
optimal polarization performance is attained by utilizing the four-
segment, two-segment, and two-path serpentine flow patterns. The
current density of one-path and two-channel serpentine flow patterns is
7.5 % less than that of the optimal polarization performance achieved at
a cell voltage of 2.1 V.
3.7. Comprehensive comparison of different flow patterns
This subsection presents a comprehensive comparison of diverse
flow patterns, considering various parameters, including uniformity
indexes, pressure drop, and TPEM at a cell voltage of 2.1 V. Additionally,
it examines voltage efficiency at a current density of 20000 A/m2, as
depicted in Fig. 12. The purpose of this analysis is to evaluate the ben­
efits and drawbacks associated with all of them. The implementation of
the one-path serpentine flow pattern leads to the attainment of the
optimal TPEM, along with the best uniform distribution of liquid satu­
ration, temperature, and current density. This is followed by the two-
channel serpentine pattern. However, it should be noted that the one-
path serpentine pattern displays the highest pressure drop and low
voltage efficiency. In contrast, the pressure drop is significantly reduced
when utilizing the two-channel serpentine flow pattern. The two-path,
two-segment, and four-segment serpentine patterns show poor unifor­
mity indexes and high TPEM. These factors contribute to the escalation of
thermal stress and subsequent reduction in the lifespan of PEMWE.
Hence, the presence of uneven distributions results in the degradation of
both the catalyst layer and membrane material, along with the emer­
gence of hot spots. Conversely, these arrangements demonstrate excel­
lent voltage efficiency and polarization performance with good pressure
drop.
Ultimately, the optimal flow pattern is the one-path serpentine
pattern due to its superior uniformity and temperature distribution
within the PEMWE. This pattern effectively reduces thermal stress and
enhances the lifespan of the PEMWE. Additionally, the two-channel
serpentine flow pattern exhibits improved pressure drop characteris­
tics, making it a viable alternative. However, the polarization perfor­
mance of the two-path, two-segment, and four-segment serpentine
patterns is superior. Further research is required to address the cooling
requirements of the cell and the uniform distribution issues for those
designs.
4. Conclusion
In this study, a comprehensive analysis of five flow patterns with
circular-shaped PEMWE is investigated using a three-dimensional, non-
isothermal, two-phase PEMWE model. These case studies include one-
path, two-path, two-channel, two-segment, and four-segment serpen­
tine flow configurations. The distributions of velocity, pressure, liquid
saturation, temperature, and current density are investigated for five
circular flow fields. In addition, comparisons are made between the
uniformity index, polarization curves, and TPEM. The primary findings
are outlined as follows.
• Flow velocity significantly impacts the homogeneity of temperature
and current density distribution. An increase in flow velocity results
in enhanced uniformity in temperature and current density distri­
bution. Furthermore, the distribution of current density is greatly
influenced by the solid rib region.
A.H. Hassan et al.
Fig. 12. Comparison of (a) uniformity indexes, (b) pressure drop, (c) TPEM, and (d) voltage efficiency for various flow patterns.
• The pressure drop can be effectively reduced by decreasing the ve­
locity, path length, and number of turns. The minimum pressure drop
is noticed in four-segment serpentine flow patterns, measuring
approximately 9000 Pa.
• The one-path serpentine pattern is the most optimal flow pattern for
achieving superior uniformity and temperature distribution within
the PEMWE, as it significantly reduces thermal stress and improves
the lifespan of the PEMWE. Nevertheless, it exhibits a significant
pressure drop and less voltage efficiency.
• The voltage efficiency and polarization performance of the two-path,
two-segment, and four-segment serpentine patterns are commend­
able, accompanied by favorable pressure drop characteristics.
However, it is worth noting that these arrangements exhibit poor
uniformity indexes and elevated TPEM.
• The four-segment, two-segment, and two-path serpentine flow pat­
terns achieve the optimum polarization curve performance with a
current density of 7.5 % more than the worst polarization perfor­
mance achieved at a cell voltage of 2.1 V.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
1076
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 49 (2024) 1060–1078
Acknowledgement
This work is supported by the National Key Research and Develop­
ment Program of China (2022YFB4002102) and the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (No. 22278125).
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