Simulation and investigation of bioethanol

production considering energetic and

economic considerations
..............................................................................................................................................................

Yaser Alaiwi1,† , Azher M Abed2 , Ghassan Fadhil Smaisim3,4,‡ ,

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijlct/article/doi/10.1093/ijlct/ctad008/7084008 by guest on 24 October 2023

Mohamed Aly Saad Aly5,¶ , Salema K Hadrawi6 and Reza Morovati7, *,
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Altinbas University, Istanbul 34217, Turkey;
2
Department of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration, Al-Mustaqbal University College,
Babylon 51001, Iraq; 3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
University of Kufa, 54001, Iraq; 4 Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials Research Unit
(NAMRU), Faculty of Engineering, University of Kufa, 54001, Iraq; 5 Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering at Georgia Tech Shenzhen Institute (GTSI), Tianjin
University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, China; 6 Refrigeration and Air-conditioning
Technical Engineering Department, College of Technical Engineering, The Islamic
University, Najaf 54001, Iraq; 7 Department of Engineering, Balkh University,
Mazar-i-Sharif 1702, Afghanistan
.............................................................................................................................................
Abstract
Today, the use of alternative fuels that have plant origin has attracted the attention of most countries because
these fuels emit less pollution. In this research, bioethanol production has been evaluated considering solar
energy sources. In the present study, the possibility of developing net-zero energy concepts in a bioethanol
production plant as one of the most consumed energy industries in the field of bio-systems of the country
from a technical and economic perspective was investigated. The purpose of this research is to model
the bioethanol production plant with the aim of achieving zero net energy using a photovoltaic system.
In addition, technical and economic analyses have been used in different approaches for a more detailed
investigation. According to the modeling done, in the zero net energy approach, the results showed that the
maximum production of electrical energy by the photovoltaic cell is 76.6 GWh/y. For this approach, the
return on investment is 10.7 years. The area required to install photovoltaic modules in this approach is very
large and equal to 88 334 m2 .

Keywords: electrical energy; bioethanol; photovoltaic; sustainable development; Keywords: net-zero energy

*Corresponding author:
rezamorovati57@yahoo.com Received 17 October 2022; revised 30 November 2022; accepted 30 January 2023
.................................................................................................................................................................................

1 INTRODUCTION In this regard, different strategies have been introduced and one
of the most important and common strategies presented is the
In the past decades, greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel con- concept of net-zero energy (NZE). This concept was initially used
sumption have become a global problem. Accordingly, reducing to organize energy in the construction sector, which is responsible
greenhouse gas levels was on the agenda of many countries, one for the emissions of 40% of the world’s greenhouse gases [4–
of the most important principles of which is reducing fossil fuel 6]. In the second step, definitions and applications of NZE were
consumption and expanding the use of renewable energy [1–3]. developed by publishing methods at the community and regional
†, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0916-1807
‡, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4856-0640
¶, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0091-2467
 , https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5394-2921
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 191–203
© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which
permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlct/ctad008 Advance Access publication 24 March 2023 191
Alaiwi et al.
levels [7]. The main purpose of defining the concept of NZE
is to reduce energy needs using high levels of energy efficiency
and to meet the energy requirements restricted by the use of on-
site renewable systems. Of course, in this process, the amount of
energy is considered net and over a certain period of time, which
is usually 1 year, and during this period, the complex can export
its surplus of energy to the national grid and deliver the shortage
of its energy needs from the network [8–10].
The NZE concept is generally presented in four approaches:
net-zero site energy (NZSIE), net-zero source Energy (NZSOE),
net-zero energy cost (NZEC) and net-zero energy emissions
(NZEE) in the building complex. In these circumstances,
choosing the final approach in a NZE project depends on the
project’s facilities and objectives, investor objectives, concerns
about greenhouse gas emissions and energy costs [11, 12]. Since
the above concepts only took into account the quantity of energy,
then in the next step and to resolve this defect, the concept of net-
zero exergy (NZEX), which includes both quantity and energy
quality, was also presented [13].
The concept of NZE quickly became a topic of interest globally,
as planned in the ‘Member States Building Energy Performance
Policy’, in which from 31 December 2018, new buildings belong-
ing to public bodies and from 31 December 2020 all new buildings
should be in the form of NZE building (or close to it) [14]. Similar
approximation rules on NZE buildings were also enacted in the
US, Australia, Japan and South Korea, and different countries
are moving rapidly towards the NZE approach in residential
environments [15]. In Iran, the first NZE building was designed
at the Materials and Energy Research Institute in Karaj city with
a view to reducing primary energy consumption and supplying
the energy needed from renewable and clean sources, and in
2014 with an infrastructure of 2000 m2 in two floors and with
educational-research use was put into operation.
Also, in a functional study aimed at reducing the energy needs
of the building, an office complex with the ability to become
a NZE building was designed based on the method of ‘energy
efficiency with efficient energy architecture’ [16]. In another study,
achieving the goal of NZE using the photovoltaic system in a
commercial building located in Ahvaz city was technically and
economically evaluated [17] in recent years; NZE approaches in
agriculture have also been taken into consideration, and studies
on animal husbandry, agriculture, as well as NZE greenhouses
have been conducted in this regard [18, 19].
On the other hand, the industry sector with a share of about
36% of total global energy production in 2017 accounts for 24% of
the world’s carbon dioxide emissions [18, 20]. So this sector is also
one of the structures that must be seriously addressed in order to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In this regard, the European
Union has taken measures in recent years aimed at making
European small and medium enterprises (SMEs) greener and
supports a variety of environmentally friendly measures such as
saving water, saving energy, using renewable energy, minimizing
waste, etc. [21].
In 2015 [22], about 11% of European small and medium-
sized enterprises used renewable energy as their dominant
192 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 191–203
energy source, most of which were equipped with photovoltaic
systems due to the appropriate atmosphere. Commission, 2015,
in a research on the effect of installing solar panels in factories
on reducing pollution globally was investigated, and it was
stated that using an optimal model of a combination of thermal
and photovoltaic plates in industrial plants can reduce annual
emissions by 547.9 kilotons of carbon dioxide equivalent. In [23],
2020 have also been considered in various studies due to the
progress made in the field of NZE, the objective of the net-zero
energy factory (NZEF).
In this situation, since on the one hand, the main energy
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consumption of industries is electricity, and on the other hand,
in industrial plants, it is possible to install photovoltaic systems
and exchange and export electricity to the national grid, so in
these studies, most researchers focus on generating renewable
electricity from the photovoltaic system. In this regard, a review
study was conducted on several zero-net energy plants and sys-
tems deployed in them. Then, using the photovoltaic system,
the researchers presented a method for investigating industrial
processes in NZEFs and examined these factories in terms of
economic justification [24–26].
The energy structure of this plant was designed based on a
photovoltaic system, and options for adapting the energy gener-
ated from this system to production processes were investigated.
Correspondingly, in this factory, the optimized system of a
photovoltaic power plant with energy storage systems and smart
transformers was presented [27]. In another study, an NZEF con-
nected to the modeling network was equipped with a photovoltaic
system. The consumers of this factory consisted of three discrete
processes (turning, milling and grinding) and three continuous
processes (transportation). In this study, the flexibility and
adaptation of the needs of the factory to energy production from
the photovoltaic system were investigated and an optimal energy
storage system was designed and evaluated for it [27, 28].
In a study on a furniture factory in Magdeburg, Germany, a
control strategy for a NZEF was investigated. According to the
design of this factory, the energy needed to achieve the goal of
NZE was provided using a photovoltaic system with a power of
120 kilowatts. Using a new control approach, the researchers were
able to increase the self-consumption index by 29.7% and the
energy delivered to the plant by 20.3% [29].
Based on the above-mentioned cases, in the present study, the
possibility of developing NZE concepts in a bioethanol produc-
tion plant as one of the most consumed energy industries in the
field of bio-systems of the country from a technical and economic
perspective was investigated. The process of this study is that
in the second part of the article, first the bioethanol production
plant is introduced and then the relationships and definitions
of different approaches to NZE are explained. In the following
section, how to model the factory with the aim of achieving
NZEF using the photovoltaic system is expressed and then the
relationships and indicators needed in technical and economic
evaluations are presented. In the third part of this paper, while
presenting the results of technical and economic evaluations in
different approaches, the possibility of using them to achieve the
 Simulation and investigation of bioethanol production

Table 1. Weather data of Najafabad city (derived from software 2.2 Analysis of net-zero energy approaches
(Meteonorm). 2.2.1 Net-zero site energy
Month Average Average Average relative In this approach, the amount of energy generation from renewable
radiation temperature humidity sources in the site should be equal to the total energy needs of
(kWh/m2 ) (◦ C) (%) that complex during 1 year. Therefore, in order to determine
January 108 1.6 52 the amount of energy production needed to reach the NZSIE,
February 131 5.6 38 equation (1) was used [30].
March 166 11 30
April 183 16.2 30  
May 226 21.7 24 EnSi = EnSi − End,j = 0 (1)
i=1 j=1
Jun 241 27 19
In this regard, EnSi is the amount of energy exchanged annu-

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July 244 29.8 20
August 225 28.1 20 ally between the factory and the country’s energy network (MJ).
September 197 23.5 21
Ene, I , Energy annually nth is a renewable energy carrier exported
October 156 17.5 30
November 109 8.7 46 from the factor (MJ) and end,j energy annually Mj yen energy
December 97 3.6 57 carrier delivered to the plant (MJ). In this regard, the NZSIE goal
is achieved when it is EnSi = 0.

mentioned goal in this factory is discussed. In the fourth part,
the main findings of the research are summarized and the best
approach for achieving the NZEF goal is introduced in the
complex.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Bioethanol production factory
In this study, energy and exergy data were extracted from The
Sepahan Bioethanol Industrial Bioethanol Factory located in
Najafabad city of Isfahan province. The county is located at a
longitude of 4.51 degrees east and a latitude of 32.6 degrees north,
with a height of 1650 meters above sea level. Similarly, other
weather data related to Najafabad city including global radiation,
diffusion radiation, average air temperature, average wind speed
and average relative humidity per month are presented in Table 1.
The process of bioethanol production in the industrial
bioethanol production factory is shown as a schema in Figure 1.
The production of bioethanol in this factory is based on raw
materials of sugarcane molasses and sugar beets, corn sugar syrup
and dates as well as their mixture, at the time of data from the
factory, sugarcane molasses was used as the raw material for
bioethanol production. Moreover, the byproducts of this factory
are independent distillation, industrial grade ethanol and vinasse
[30] and are used to carry out various stages of production and
meet the energy needs of the plant, electricity and fuels of natural
gas and gasoline in the plant. The average required values of each
of these carriers were extracted through the energy consumption
data of the plant including electricity and natural gas bills as well
as storage data of gasoline and gasoline fuels.
These values are presented in Table 2 along with primary
energy factor 1 (PEF), the unit price of energy and their emission
coefficient. It should be noted that the primary energy factor
connects the final energy delivered to the complex to the
amount of primary energy required in the extraction, processing,
production, transmission and delivery stages of energy [31].
2.2.2 Net-zero primary energy
In this approach, the amount of energy generated from renewable
sources on the site should be the amount that the complex needs
during 1 year, provided that the amount of energy based on
primary energy is taken into account. In this case, it is necessary to
first convert all energy related to the complex into primary energy
values. For this purpose, primary energy coefficients were used for
different energy carriers, and then energy balance was performed
using equation (2) of energy balance in this approach [30].
   
Enso = Ene,i × p̌r,i − End,j × pn,j = 0 (2)
i=1 j=1
In this equation, EnSo is the amount of initial energy
exchanged annually between the factory and the country’s energy
network (MJ). pr,i is the primary energy credit factor of ith , which
is the carrier of the renewable energy.
It should be noted that in practice, the credit coefficient of
primary energy allocated to renewable energy is considered in
accordance with equation (3) equal to the initial energy coefficient
corresponding to the same energy carrier in the network [32].
p̌r,i = pn,j , and i ≈ j (3)
2.2.3 Net- zero energy cost
In this approach, the amount of energy generated from renewable
sources is to the size that the income generated from the sale
(export) of renewable energy produced on the site is equal to
the amount paid annually for the purchase of energy services
delivered (consumed). The amount of renewable energy required
in this method generally depends on government policies and
pricing strategies. The most widely used pricing strategies for sites
equipped with distributed and network-connected production
systems include total product sales and buy al sell all (BASA1),
net energy measurement (NEM) and net billing (NB) [33].

International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 191–203 193

Alaiwi et al.

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Figure 1. Schemas from the studied bioethanol production factory.

Table 2. Amounts of energies entering the bioethanol production factory.

Energy carrier Annual energy Initial energy Energy Energy emission
consumption coefficient price coefficient

Electrical 5040 (GWh) 3.6 5.28 0.57

Natural Gas 8.1 M m3 1.1 0.78 0.2
Gasoline 12 000 liter 1.1 16.58 0.29
Petrol 6000 liter 1.19 3.16 0.21

In the BASA pricing strategy, the total renewable energy gener- ($bergawatts). This means that only the annual net amount of
ated on-site is calculated by the renewable energy incentive price, energy carriers exported from the factory is calculated by the
and the total energy consumed by the plant is considered by the renewable energy incentive price, and the energy delivered to the
grid energy price. Therefore, in these conditions, energy balance plant is also considered based on the grid energy price. In this
was performed in NZEC method using equation (4) [30, 32]. case, the required energy was carried out in the NZEC approach
using equation (5) [30, 32].
   
CBASA = Eng,i × Cr,i − Enc,j × Cn,j = 0 (4)    
i=1 j=1
CNEM = Ennme,i × Cr,i − EnNMd,i=j × Cn,j
i=j i=j
 
In this equation, CNEM is the annual energy cost exchanged − End,j × Cn,j = 0 (5)
between the factory and the country’s energy network (USD) in i=j
the NZEC approach based on BASA pricing. Eng,i Is the total
annual energy generated in the ith of renewable energy carriers Ene,i > andi ≈ ifEnNMe,i=j = Ene,i − End,j (6)
in the complex (MJ), and cr,i is the related renewable energy
incentive price (dollars per MJ). Also, Enc,j is the total annual Ene,i < andi ≈ if EnNMd,i=j = End,i − Ene,j (7)
energy of jth carrying energy consumed in the plant (MJ) and cn,j
of the corresponding grid energy price.
It should be noted that the incentive price for photovoltaic In this regard, CNEM is the annual energy cost exchanged
energy for solar factories less than 10 MW in the country is 35.39 between the factory and the country’s energy network (USD)

194 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 191–203


in the NZEC approach based on NEM pricing. EnNMe, i = j and
EnNMd,i = j are also exported and delivered at the mj, respectively.
In the NB pricing strategy, the energy exported from the factory
is calculated instantaneously, with the renewable energy incentive
price, and the price of energy delivered from the grid is calculated
at any moment with the network price. Therefore, the required
energy in NZEC approach based on NB pricing was calculated
using equation (8).
   
CNB = Ene,i × Cr.i − End,j × Cn,j = 0 (8)
i=1 j=1
In this regard, CNB is the annual energy cost exchanged
between the plant and the country’s energy grid (USD) in the
NZEC approach based on NB pricing.
2.2.4 Zero net energy emissions
In the zero net energy pollution (NZEE) approach, the factory
must produce sufficient amounts of renewable energy without
emissions throughout the year to compensate for the emissions
emitted by its energy consumption in the exchange of energy with
the country’s energy grid. In this method, the emission coefficient
of energy carriers in the balance is used. This coefficient repre-
sents the total amount of carbon dioxide emissions equivalent to
that of the energy carrier during its production, distribution and
use processes. Equation (9) is used to calculate the required energy
with NZEE approach [34].
    ucts, ideal gas conditions were considered. The temperature and
MCO2eq = Ene,i × ȟr,i − End,j × hn,j = 0 (9)
i=1 j=1
In this equation, MCo2eq is the amount of carbon dioxide
emissions equivalent to the exchanged between the plant and the
country’s energy network (kg). hr, i credit coefficient of emissions
ith carrying renewable energy exported from the factory (kg co2
equivalent to Mj) and hn,j emission coefficient of jth is the energy
carrier delivered to the factory (kg co2 equivalent to mj).
In practice, according to equation (10) the emission coefficient
allocated to the exported renewable energy is considered equal
to the corresponding energy pollution coefficient in the country’s
energy grid [35].
ȟr,i = hn,j, and i ≈ j (10)
2.2.5 Net-zero exergy
In the net-zero exergy approach, the concept of exergy was used to
balance the energy of the bioethanol production factory and the
energy grid of the country. In this definition, the total net exergy
exchanged on the boundary between the site and the network
during 1 year is zero. Exergy is the maximum theoretical work
Simulation and investigation of bioethanol production
extractable from energy (or matter) so that energy (or matter) is
balanced with the surrounding environment through reversible
processes. This thermodynamic feature can provide quantitative
and qualitative measurements of different types of energy and
material flow. Simply put, in the NZEX approach, the factory
should produce as much as exergy consumption over a year from
renewable sources. Therefore, equation (11) was used to deter-
mine the amount of renewable energy generation in the NZEX
approach [30].
 
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Ex = Exe,i − Exd,j = 0 (11)
i=1 j=1
In this regard, Ex is the amount of exergy exchanged annually
between the factory and the country’s energy network (MJ). Exe,i
Is the annual exergy of ith renewable energy carrier exported from
the factor (mj), and Exd,j is the annual exergy of the jth energy
carrier delivered to the plant (mj).
It should be noted that hypotheses and simplifications were
carried out to analyse the exergy of energy carriers [30]. Accord-
ingly, the bioethanol production process was considered a sus-
tainable process so that the flow of different energies and their
conditions during continuous work was unchanged and identical.
As well, only the physical and chemical exergy of energy carriers
were considered in exergy calculations and their potential was
excluded from kinetic exergy. Because in these energy streams,
kinetic exergy values and potential versus physical and chemical
exergy are negligible. It should be noted that for combustion prod-
reference pressure were considered 20◦ C and 1 bar, respectively.
In exergy analysis, electricity is equal to its exergy content. Also,
the chemical exergy of gasoline fuels and gasoline was calculated
using chemical formulas 9.24H4.14C and 18H8C using equation
(12). In this equation, the thermal value of gasoline and gasoline
low 1 (LHV) was 45.2 and 43.4 MJ/kg, respectively. Also in these
conditions, the amount of physical exergy of gasoline is equal
to zero, because their temperature and pressure are equal to the
reference environment [30].
 
H o
ExCH = m × 1.0401 + 0.1728 + 0.0432
C c
s  
H
+ 0.2169 1 − 2.0268 × LHV (12)
c c
In this equation, ExCH is the chemical exergy of gasoline and
gasoline, the number of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulfur
atoms of fuel and LHV are the low thermal value of fuel (mJ/kg),
respectively.
Natural gas exergy was obtained from its physical and chemical
exergy. Equation (13) was used to calculate the amount of physical
exergy of natural gas [36]. It should be noted that the temperature
and pressure of natural gas entering the plant were 20 degrees
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 191–203 195
Alaiwi et al.

Celsius and 1.1 bar, respectively. Table 3. Specifications of solar modules used in modeling.

   Manufacturer Yingley Solar unit

TNG
ExPH
NG = mNG × CNG TNG − T0 − T0 ln Model name YL250P-29b —
T0 Country builder China —
 Module type Poly-silicon (Si-Poly) —
PNG
+ RNG T0 (13) Module area 1.46 m2
P0 Module dimensions 3.5∗ 99∗ 64 cm
Module weight 18.5 Kg
Nominal power 250 W
In this equation, ExPH NG indicates the physical exergy of natural Open circuit voltage (Voc ) 37.73 V
gas (mj) entering the complex throughout the year. MNG is the Short circuit current (Isc ) 8.84 A

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Maximum power point voltage (Vmmp ) 30.23 V
mass of natural gas (kg) imported into the factory throughout the Maximum power point current (Immp ) 8.27 A
year, CNG is the special heat capacity of natural gas (kJ/kg Kelvin Module efficiency 15.4 %
grade), TNG, natural gas temperature (Kelvin), constant gas RNG Fullness coefficient 0.75
0
(kJ Kelvin grade) and PNG natural gas pressure (kPa). Also, the Working temperature 40–85 C
chemical exergy of natural gas was obtained using equation (14)
[36].

H 0.0698 This indicator shows the total energy requirement throughout the
ExCH
NG = mNG × 1.033 + 0.0169 − × LHVNG (14) year compared to the interception of the energy generated in the
C C
photovoltaic system [38].

In this equation, CNG indicates the chemical exergy of natural

t2
gas (mj) entering the complex throughout the year. The exergy of t=t1 min Enc,j=i Eng,i
electricity generated by the photovoltaic system was determined LMIh = t2 × 100 (16)
t=t1 Enc,j
from equation (15) [37].

ExPV = FF × VOC × ISC × t (15) In this regard, LMIh is an annual load matching index (percent-
age) based on hourly data. Furthermore, two indicators of self-
consumption 1 (SCI) and power self-sufficiency index 2 (ESSI)
In this equation, FF is the fullness coefficient, C0V is open cir- were determined using equations (17) and (18). In [39] is the self-
cuit voltage (volt), ISC is short circuit current (amp) photovoltaic consumption index, the ratio of the complex utilization of the
panel and t time interval, respectively. energy generated in the photovoltaic system to the total electricity
generated in this system, and the power self-sufficiency index is
the ratio of the complex utilization of the energy generated in the
2.3 Modeling factory energy system and photovoltaic photovoltaic system to the total power requirement of the factory.
system It should be noted that in equations (16) to (19), the form of
To evaluate different approaches to NZE, the plant energy system deduction indicates the amount of energy self-consumption.
with a grid-connected photovoltaic system was modeled in PVsyst
software. The specifications of photovoltaic modules used in the t2
simulation are presented in Table 3, as well as in the modeling of t=t1 min Enc,j=i , Eng,i
SCI = t2 × 100 (17)
this system, the Blueplanet 1000 TL3 inverter made by Kaco new Eng,i
t=t1
energy company of Germany with nominal power of 1000 kW,
the efficiency of 98.3%, the direct current voltage of 370 volts and t2
min Enc,j=i , Eng,i
t=t1
working voltage of 830–550 volts were used. Solar modules with a ESSI = t2 × 100 (18)
constant angle of 34 degrees to the south and the albedo2 coeffi- t=t1 Enc,j=i
cient of 0.2 were considered. Also, in order to coordinate climate
data in real conditions modeling in the factory, the weather data In regard to the modeling performed in TRNSYS software,
of Najafabad city were extracted from Meteonorm software. Type 109 tools for weather data and on-site sunlight, Type 94a for
Furthermore, according to Figure 2, the real-time conditions photovoltaic system, Type 48a as the network-connected inverter,
of the factory’s energy system to extract hourly data of produc- daily load and weekly load were used for daily factory load and
tion, export, consumption and import of energy in the factory weekly work schedule, respectively. Type 24 tools were also used
were investigated by modeling in TRNSYS software (version 16). for cumulative data, Type 57-unit conversion, Equal for calcula-
In addition, the load matching index 3 was extracted based on tion and extraction of desired indicators and Type 65a for receiv-
equation (16) using the mentioned software (Klein et al., 2004). ing software outputs (Figure 2).

196 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 191–203

 Simulation and investigation of bioethanol production

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Figure 2. Modeling the energy system of the grid-connected factor in TRNSYS software including photovoltaic panel (Type 94a), inverter (Type 48a), weather data
(Type 109-TMY2), load Daily load-2, weekly work schedule (weekly load-2), cumulative data instrument (Type 24), Unit Conversion Tool (Type 57), Calculation
Tool (Equa) and Software Output Receiving Tool (Type 65a).

2.4 Economic assessment Table 4. Data used in an economic evaluation of plant energy and photo-
For economic comparison of different approaches of zero net voltaic system.
energy in this factor, the net present value of 3 (NPV) of the Equipmen Cost Parameters
photovoltaic system was determined using equation (19) [40]. t type ($/kW)


n
CFt
Module 225 Life span 30 years
NPV = −Z + (19) Invertor 175 Energy price inflation rate 10%
t=1
(1 + I)t Structures 60 Decrease rate 10%
Wiring 50 Maintenance factor 1.1
Installation cost 45
In this equation, Z shows the amount of initial investment Other requirements 112
(USD), CFt net cash flow (USD) for the year tum (including Total cost 667
investment gains minus current costs) and I the amount of the rate
of depletion. It should be noted that due to differences in defini-
tions of different approaches to net-present energy, the size of the It should be noted that in order to simplify economic calcula-
photovoltaic system will vary in them and this will lead to different tions and considering the inflationary conditions prevailing in the
initial investments in them. Since the NPV amount is dependent country, all economic calculations were performed at the time of
on the initial investment, therefore, increasing the investment rate the research based on dollar value and with a conversion rate of
will lead to an increase in the NPV value. Accordingly, in order 320 000 Rials per dollar, and also the cost of installing photovoltaic
to make economic conditions more meaningful and equal when system per unit kWh was considered constant. Other economic
comparing approaches, the economic index without dimension assumptions used in equations (19) and (20) and the cost of
(β) was used according to the equation (20). implementing and installing a photovoltaic system are presented
in Table 4.
NPV
β= (20)
Z 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The index (β) was calculated in different approaches under 3.1 Energy requirements in different zero net energy
three pricing strategies, namely BASA, NEM and NB. Corre- approaches
spondingly, energy self-consumption income was considered in In the first stage, the amount of renewable energy generated
NEM and NB pricing strategies based on local grid energy prices. from the photovoltaic system for different approaches of pure

International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 191–203 197

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Figure 3. Annual photovoltaic energy requirements in net-zero energy site (NZSIE), net-zero site of energy (NZSOE), net-zero energy emissions (NZEE), net-zero
exergy (NZEX) and net-zero energy cost (NZEC) in total production and Buy all sell all (BASA), net consumption measurement (NEM) and net billing (NB).

Table 5. Power plant specifications of a photovoltaic system for supplying energy requirements in net-zero site energy (NZSIE) approaches, net-zero site
energy (NZSOE), net-zero energy emissions (NZEE), net-zero exergy (NZEX) and net-zero energy cost (NZEC) in total production and Buy all sell all
(BASA), net energy measurement (NEM) and net billing. (NB).
Zero net energy Nominal Required Number of Number of Initial Investment
approach power (MW) area (m2 ) module inverters (M$)

NZSIE 38.6 250 570 154 330 31 25.7

NZSOE 13.6 88 334 54 406 11 9.1
NZEC (BASA) 1.2 7787 4796 1 0.8
NZEC (NEM) 3.4 22 217 13 684 3 2.3
NZEC (NB) 3 19 269 11 868 3 2
NZEE 15.3 99 657 61 380 13 10.3
NZEX 39.7 257 821 158 791 32 26.5

energy zero was determined (Figure 3). NZEX approach with an
annual production of 76.7 GWh suggested the largest photovoltaic
system. The production of this amount of energy in the NZEX
approach is very close to the total annual energy demand of
74.5 GWh in the NZSIE approach. The NZEC approach based on
BASA pricing strategy proposes the smallest photovoltaic power
plant with an annual production of 2.3 GWh. Also, the amount of
energy required in the NZEC approach based on the NB pricing
strategy was 5.7 GWh and in the NEM pricing strategy was
6.6 GWh.
As can be seen, the amount of energy production in NZEC
approaches is significantly smaller than other definitions of NZE.
The main reason for these findings is the large difference between
the network energy price and the renewable energy incentive
price. Moreover, the required energy in NZSOE and NZEE
approaches was obtained at almost the same level and were 26.3
and 29.6 GWh, respectively. According to the obtained results,
the required photovoltaic power plant was modeled using PVsyst
software, Table 5 considering climatic conditions and covering
energy needs in each approach.
As can be seen in Figure 3, NZEX and NZSIE, with their close
values, have much higher energy production than other NZE
approaches, and choosing them as a zero net energy target will
require a relatively large investment in this area. In this situation,
choosing the NZEX approach is justified for the factory when on
the one hand, energy carriers delivered to the factory benefit from
low levels of exergy (including regional hot water network) and on
the other hand, the energy generated on-site has the highest level
of exergy in order to easily compensate for the exergy delivered.
In this situation, although electricity energy with high exergy
content is generated from a photovoltaic system in the factory
and the second condition of choosing this approach is realized,
it should be noted that the energy delivered to the factor by
the country’s energy grid is in the form of electricity and fossil
fuels that have the highest exergy content. Therefore, in these
circumstances, the exergy compensation delivered to the plant
will require the production of large amounts of renewable energy.
There are also almost identical but inverse conditions in the
NZSIE approach. This means that the justification of NZSIE is
when on the one hand, the energies delivered from the national
grid have the highest quality and efficiency, and on the other hand,
it is possible to export extensive cheap and low-quality energy
(including hot water recovered from the refrigeration system) for
the plant.

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Figure 4. Cumulative annual amounts of production, consumption, export and delivery of energy and load matching index under zero net primary energy (NZSOE)
approach in bioethanol production plant based on hourly data.
If the factory has only the first condition and high-performance
energies are delivered to it, it is not possible to export recycled
energy with high volume and low cost for it, and the export
energy will be purely electric. Therefore, choosing NZEX and
NZSIE approaches due to the type of energy carriers delivered and
exported are not suitable options for this plant in order to achieve
the NZE target.
3.2 Technical evaluation
In order to complete the technical evaluations, by modeling
the energy of the factory and photovoltaic system in TRNSYS
software, the amount of energy production in the photovoltaic
system along with energy consumption, self-consumption,
exported energy, delivered energy and load matching index for
each approach, similar to Figure 4, was extracted. Figure 4 is an
example of the cumulative outputs of the mentioned software
for production, consumption, export and delivery of energy data
and the factory load matching index for the NZSOE approach.
Based on the obtained data, self-consumption and self-sufficiency
indices of electricity were also determined for each approach.
Figure 5 shows the amount of load matching index as well as
self-consumption in different approaches. As can be seen in this
form, energy self-consumption in NZEX and NZSIE, NZEE and
NZSOE approaches show equal values. Nevertheless, according to
the load matching index, the amount of energy self-consumption
in all NZE approaches is very low compared to the total energy
required in the plant. The load matching index values in the four
approaches of NZEX, NZEE and NZSOE were only 6.7%, 6.7%,
6.6% and 6.5% of the total energy needs of the factory. This is due
to the low share of electricity from the energy needs of the factory
and the factory is mainly run based on natural gas.
Also, as shown in Figure 6, the self-consumption index in four
approaches NZEX and NZSIE, NZEE and NZSOE with values of
6.5%, 6.7%, 16.5% and 5 18.18% are at much lower levels than
NZEC’s three approaches of 84.2%, 63.6% and 0.70%, respectively,
Simulation and investigation of bioethanol production
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(in BASA, NEM and NB pricing strategies, respectively). There-
fore, select NZEX and NZSIE NZEE approaches. And NZSOE, as
a zero net energy target, will practically transform the plant into a
solar power plant that spends only a small fraction of the energy
generated in the photovoltaic system to meet its needs. In this
situation, despite creating suitable self-sufficiency in the electricity
sector, a large part of the energy generated in the factory should
be exported to the network. Such performance can become a
challenge for the grid, as a large amount of renewable energy must
be combined with grid energy with great fluctuations throughout
the day and throughout the year [7].
Therefore, in addition to the NZEX and NZSIE approaches
as stated in the previous section, NZSOE and NZEE approach
also lack technical justification for the zero net energy target in
this factory. On the other hand, the required area for installing
photovoltaic modules in these approaches is very high and its
values in NZSOE and NZEE are 334, 88 and 657.99 square meters,
respectively. This area is much more than the existing space of
the factory for the installation of photovoltaic modules, and from
this perspective, the mentioned approaches lack technical and
executive justification. In this situation, the NZEC approach with
a high self-consumption index and balance in the electricity self-
sufficiency index (Figure 6) is technically the most appropriate
approach to achieve the goal of NZE in this plant. Correspond-
ingly, the required area for installing photovoltaic system equip-
ment in this approach is completely in accordance with the space
in the factory. It should be noted that based on the pricing strategy
in each country, there will be only one of the three approaches of
NZEC in that country.
3.3 Economic assessment
In order to compare the economics of different approaches, an
economic evaluation was performed based on an index (β) in all
three pricing strategies of BASA (Figure 7A), NEM (Figure 7B)
and NB (Figure 7C). As shown in Figure 7A, the highest index of
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Figure 5. Self-consumption values and factory load matching index in net-zero site energy (NZSIE) approaches, net-zero site energy (NZSOE), net-zero energy cost
(NZEC), net-zero energy pollution (NZEE) and net-zero exergy (NZEX) in total production and total purchase pricing strategies (BASA), net energy measurement
(NEM) and net billing (NB).

Figure 6. Self-consumption index and power self-sufficiency index from the photovoltaic system in a factory and the approaches of net-zero energy site (NZSIE),
net-zero primary energy (NZSOE), net-zero energy cost (NZEC), net-zero energy emissions (NZEE) and net-zero exergy (NZEX) in total production and Buy all sell
all (BASA), net energy measurement (NEM) and net billing. (NB).

β (which is the ratio of NPV to initial investment) and the best
economic profitability was achieved under the BASA pricing strat-
egy, as in this case the total photovoltaic electricity generated in
the factory is calculated with an incentive price for the investor. In
this strategy, the β index showed a similar trend for all definitions
of NZE, and all NZE approaches entered the profitability phase
(NPV = 0) after 10.1 years.
Also, under the BASA pricing strategy, the β index reached
1.97 in different approaches at the end of the system life. The
characteristic of β index is eliminating the effect of initial invest-
ment and showing the trend of profitability. If the NPV value
was considered instead of this index, due to the different sizes of
the photovoltaic system in different approaches, NPV diagrams
would have changed and it would be difficult to compare the
economic trend of investment in different approaches.
Contrary to the BASA pricing strategy, the β index in the NEM
pricing strategy for different NZE approaches varied (Figure 7B).
In the NEM pricing strategy, there is a direct relationship between
the amount of electricity generation in the photovoltaic system
and profitability (β). Accordingly, the β index in NZEX and
NZSOE approaches with the highest energy production reached
1.80 at the end of the system life, and the two approaches entered
the profitability phase after 10.7 years of activity, and the β index
at the end of life of NZEE and NZSOE approaches was 1.53,
respectively. A total of 1.47 were obtained and they entered the
profitability phase after 11.9 and 12.1 years. The worst β index
at the end of the system life was NZEC (NEM) (−0.02) and
this index approached zero in the last year of the system’s life.
Therefore, NZEC’s approach to the NEM pricing strategy has no
economic justification.

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Figure 7. β index in a photovoltaic system, for net-zero site energy (NZSIE) approaches, net-zero primary energy (NZSOE), net-zero energy cost (NZEC), net-zero
energy emissions (NZEE) and net-zero exergy (NZEX) in pricing strategies (A) total production sales and Buy all sell all (BASA), (B) net energy measurement (NEM)
and (C) net billing (NB).

The values of β index at the end of life of photovoltaic system
under NB pricing strategy for NZEX, NZSIE, NZEE and NZSOE
approaches were 1.80, 1.80 and 1.80, respectively. A total of 1.54
and 1.49 were obtained, and entry into the profitability phase was
created in 10.7, 10.7, 8.11 and 12.1, respectively. The β index
in the NB pricing strategy at the end of the system life for the
NZEC approach reached only 0.14, which is the lowest figure
among different approaches. This number indicates that NZEC’s
approach to NB pricing strategy will be cost-effective in the final
years of the system life (26.2 years) and a very small amount.
Therefore, among the technically approved NZEC approaches
is the NZEC’s only approach to BASA’s pricing strategy, which
is economically the highest justification and profitability. Since
the current pricing strategy in the country is based on the BASA
strategy, therefore, to achieve the NZE target among the studied
approaches, NZEC’s approach in both technical and economic
evaluation has the best conditions in the Sepahan Bioethanol
Production factory. In this situation, the investor can use both the
advantages of the incentive sales rate of the photovoltaic system
and the low price of energy supply in the network by allocating

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Alaiwi et al.
Table 6. Energy data related to the Net-Zero Energy Cost (NZEC)
approach in total production and purchase of total production and pur-
chase pricing strategy (BASA).
Parameter Amount
Nominal power 1.2
The amount of energy production 2.3
The required area 7787
Number of modules 54 406
Number of inverters 1 —
Self-consumption (SC) 1.95
Energy export 0.35
load compliance index 6.2
The electricity self-sufficiency index 38.7
The self-consumption index 2.84
Initial investment $800 400
Economic index (β) at the end of the system’s life 1/97
a relatively suitable investment, and by generating the generated
income until the end of the system’s life, the cost of paying for
its energy consumption is needless. Comprehensive information
on the photovoltaic system for the NZEC approach in the BASA
pricing strategy is summarized in Table 6.
3.4 Optimizing and increasing energy efficiency
In the past sections, achieving the NZE target was investigated
using different NZE approaches based on the current conditions
of the complex and assuming no changes in its various installa-
tions. However, in the case of utilization processes and energy
management, integrated energy needs can be reduced and these
approaches can be determined with data and lower energy values
in the NZE balance. In this regard, applying energy optimization
methods in the distillation unit as one of the most important
points of energy consumption can have a significant impact on
increasing its thermal efficiency and consequently reducing the
amount of energy delivered to the complex. In addition, [41],
since the mixed temperature in the fermentation system is kept in
the range of 30–34 degrees Celsius by passing through an external
plate heat exchanger, these thermal losses can be used to preheat
the hot water needed to wash processing units and transmission
lines.
Another possible way to reduce the amount of energy deliv-
ered to the complex is energy production from Vinas. Vinas, as
a byproduct of the bioethanol production complex, has a high
potential for biogas production. Therefore, by feeding it in anaer-
obic annexes and biogas production, a part of the energy needs of
the complex can be provided [42]. In this case, according to the
integrated technical and economic policies, the application of the
mentioned optimization methods can facilitate the possibility of
achieving the NZE goal.
4 CONCLUSION
In this study, a technical and economic feasibility study of achiev-
ing zero net energy targets in bioethanol production factories
202 International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2023, 18, 191–203
based on NZSIE, NZSOE, NZEC, NZEE and NZEX approaches
was studied.
Economic studies were also conducted on three different pric-
Unit ing strategies including BASA, NEM and NB. Accordingly, it
was observed that the required energy in the studied approaches
MW
was at three different levels. The highest required energy levels
GWh/y
m2 were related to NZEX and NZSIE approach, the middle level was
— related to NZEE and NZSOE approaches and the lowest level was
related to NZEC triple approaches. Due to the high exergy content
GWh/y in energy carriers delivered to the factory, the required energy in
GWh/y
the NZEX approach had the highest value and this goal lacked
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%
% technical justification.
% Furthermore, the NZSIE approach lacked proper justification
$ for being chosen as the NZE approach due to the impossibility
— of exporting recycled energy and being forced to compensate
for energy through electricity generation. In all the studied
approaches, the load matching index showed very small amounts
due to the type of fuels consumed in the factory. Likewise,
the lowest self-consumption index was observed in NZEX,
NZSIE, NZSOE and NZEE approaches, respectively, while NZEC
approaches had the best values in this index. Therefore, based
on the technical analysis performed in this factory, the three
approaches of NZEC were the best technical and executive
possibilities. But based on economic analysis, investing in NZEC’s
approach to NEM pricing strategy was not economically justified.
Also, the β index in the NZEC approach and the NB pricing
strategy only became very small positive, and entering the
profitability phase occurred in the final years of the system’s life.
Therefore, according to the analysis from both technical and
economic perspectives, the use of a photovoltaic system in the
NZEC approach and in the BASA pricing strategy to achieve
the NZE goal in this factory was suggested. This system has a
nominal power of 1.2 MW, a self-consumption index of 84.2%
and β and NPV indices of $1.97 and $512 579.1, respectively. This
investment, which is in accordance with the country’s pricing
strategy and economic prices, enters the profitability phase after
10.1 years from the start of its activity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Al-
Mustarqbal University college for the support of project.
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