ARELLANO UNIVERSITY
Documents which may identify a person through
Area: Questioned Documents
Topic: Concepts and Principles of Questioned Documents
Examination, Handwriting Identification, Examination of
Signatures, Miscellaneous Aspects of Questioned
Documents.
PART 1: CONTENT UPDATES: BASIC CONCEPTS
I. Concepts and Principles of Questioned Documents
Examination
A. Introduction
1. Documents- is any material which contains marks
symbols or signs either visible, partially visible or invisible,
that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning or
message to someone.
2. Questioned Document- any document about which
some issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny.
3. Types of document
a. Public Document
Refers to any instrument notarized by a notary public or
competent public official with solemnities required by law.
b. Private Document
Every deed on instrument executed by a private person
without the intervention of a notary public or of any other
person legally authorized, by which document, some
disposition on agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth
c. Official Document
Any instrument issued by the government or its offices
having the authority to do so and the offices, which in
accordance with their creation they are authorized to
issue. The offices must issue the document in the
performance of their duties
d. Commercial Document
Any instrument executed in accordance with the Code of
Commerce or any Mercantile Law containing disposition of
Commercial rights or obligations
4. ocument Examiner - Studies scientifically the details
and elements of document in order to identify their source
or discover other facts concerning them. (an expert
witness who by virtue of his knowledge, qualifications,
trainings and skills were allowed by the court to provide
opinion on matters covering his specialization)
5. rapho analyst/graphologist - Examines handwriting and
interpret the character and personality of the writer by the
traits left behind in the written line
B. Various Aspects of Questioned Documents Examination
1. Examination of handwriting
2. Examination of typewriting and type prints
3. Detection of alterations
4. Decipherment of erased writing
5. Restoration of obliterated writing
6. Determination of age of documents
7. Identification of stamps, seal and other authentication
devices
8. Currency bills and coins and the like
9. Verification of signatures
C. Classes of Questioned Documents
1. Documents with questioned signatures
2. Documents containing alleged fraudulent alterations
3. Holograph documents- documents which is completely
written and signed by one person
4. Documents questioned as to their age or date
5. Documents questioned on the materials used on their
production
6. Documents involving typewriting, and are investigated
or examined for purposes of determining:
6.1 their source
6.2 their date
6.3 whether or not it contains fraudulent alterations or
substituted pages
7.
handwriting
8. Genuine documents erroneously of fraudulently attack
or dispute
II. Examination of Signatures
Signature – it refers to a person’s name written by him on
a document as a sign of acknowledgement
Classes of Signature
1. Formal or Complete – class of signature used in
acknowledging important document such as will, checks,
contracts and business papers.
2. Informal or Cursory – a class of signature for routinary
document or made for personal correspondence.
3. Careless Scribble – used for mail carrier, delivery of
goods, purchase of equipment or an autograph collector.
Two Styles of Signature
1. Conventional or Ordinary Copy-Book Form – wherein
the letters are legible.
2. Highly Individualized – which are characterized by a
series of intertwining strokes, ornamentations and
flourishes.
D. Classes of Disputed Signatures
1. Forged signatures where no attempt has been made to
make a copy or facsimile of the genuine signature of the
person to sign the document (simple forgery)
2. Forged signature of a fictitious persons
3. Forged signatures which closely resemble the genuine
signatures since they have been produced by a tracing
process (traced forgery)
Different Process of Tracing
1. Carbon Process or “Carbon Outline Method”
A carbon paper is placed between the genuine signatures
(top sheet) and the fraudulent document (below). Outline
of model signature is traced with dry pen or pointed
instrument to make a carbon offset to the lower sheet.
Outline is finally re-written or retraced with suitable ink
stroke.
2. Indentation Process
An indented or canal-like outline of genuine signature is
produced on the fraudulent document, with suitable
pressure or force, the outline of the genuine signature
with a pointed instrument. The outline is then directly
inked, in some instances, the outline is first retraced
lightly with pencil before its finally retraced with suitable
ink.
3. Projection Process or Transmitted Light Process
Spurious document is placed immediately over the
genuine signature, with strong light directed through the
two sheets of paper from below or behind outline which is
seen through upper sheets then traced
4. Forged signatures which resembles the genuine
signature, written free-hand (simulated or copied forgery)
5. Genuine signatures which the writer are honestly
unwilling to accept as genuine
6. Genuine signatures deliberately written illegibly or in an
unusual manner, to afford signatories some plausible
grounds for disclaiming them should they deem it
expedient.
E. Care, Preservation and Handling of Documents
1. Do’s and Don’ts in the Care, Handling and Preservation
of Documents
Do’s
1. Keep documents unfolded in protective envelopes
2. Take disputed papers to document examiner’s
laboratory at the first opportunity
3. If storage is necessary, keep in dry place away from
excessive heat and strong light
Do`n’ts
1. Do not handle disputed excessively or carry them in a
pocket for a long time
2. Do not mark the document either by conscious writing
a printing at them with any writing instrument
3. Do not mutilate on damage by repeated refolding,
creasing, cutting, tearing or punching for filling purposes
4. Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist to make
chemical or other test; do not treat or dust for latent
fingerprints before consulting a document examiner
F. Instrument and Apparatus needed in Questioned
Document Examination
1. Magnifying Lens- lenses 5X magnifying power with
built-in lighting are found to be
more useful
2. Stereographic Binocular Microscope- a microscope
where three (3) dimensional enlargement is possible
3. Measuring Test Plates/ Transparent Glass Plates- used
for signatures and typewritings
4. Table lamps- with adjustable shades like the available
``goose-neck`` lamp
5. Ultra-violet Lamp- used for developing or restoring
erased writings
6. Infra-red Viewer- used in determining physical
difference of the type papers and ink
7. Iodine Fuming Apparatus- used for developing latent
fingerprints and restoration of invisible writing
8. Silver Nitrate Solution Atomizer- used to spray silver
nitrate paper. Also for latent fingerprints
9. Transmitted Light Gadget- the light comes from the
beneath or behind the glass on which the paper is placed
10. Paper Thickness Gauge- use for measuring the
thickness of the paper
11. Copy Camera- like a camera with macro lens.
III. Handwriting Identification
A. Introduction
Writing- it is a result of a very complicated series of acts,
being as a whole, a combination of certain forms which
are the very visible result of mental and muscular habits
acquired by long, continued painstaking effort.
B. Kinds of Handwriting
1. Cursive- writing in which the letter are for the most
part joined together
2. Hand Lettering- any disconnected block capitals
sometimes referred to as manuscripts writing or letter
printing
3. Disguise Writing- it is the writing of a person who
deliberately try to alter his usual writing habits in the
hope of hiding his identity
4. Natural Writing- any specimen of writing executed
without any attempt to control or alter its identifying
habits and its usual quality of execution
C. Physiological Basis of Handwriting
The impulse to form a letter begins in the brain’s writing
center in the CORTEX.
This center near the motor area of the cortex is
responsible for the finer movement involved in
handwriting. The importance of this center is that when it
becomes disease as in AGRAPHIA, one loses the ability to
write although he could still grasped writing instrument.
The hand contains two kinds of muscles which function in
the act of writing. A group of EXTENSOR muscles push up
the pen to form the UPWARD STROKES, and ease the
tension produced as a result of flexion by a group of
muscles called the FLEXOR muscles which push the pen to
form DOWNWARD STROKE. These flexor and extensor
muscles combine with the lumbrical muscle to form
LATERAL STROKES.
The delicate way in which the various muscles
used in writing work together to produce written forms is
known as MOTOR COORDINATION.
D. Development of Handwriting
First Step
When a person first begins to learn the art of
handwriting, penmanship copybook forms, blackboard
illustration of the different letters are placed before him.
His first step is one of imitation only by a process of
drawing, painstaking, laborious slow copying of the letter
forms. The form of each letter at first occupies the focus
of his attention.
Second Step
As the person progresses, the mater of form
recedes, and the focus of attention is centered on the
execution of various letters, that is they are actually
written instead of drawn.
Third Step
The manual operation in the execution of letters,
after more progress, is likewise soon relegated to the
subjective mind and the process of writing becomes more
or less automatic. As the person reach maturity in writing
by many repetitions, writing becomes an unconscious
coordinated movement that produces a record. Attention
is no longer occupies given to the process of writing itself
because the subject matter to be written now occupies the
focus of attention.
E. Modification of handwriting
Factors that Modified Mature Writing
1. Education
2. Training
3. Personal Taste
4. Artistic Ability
5. Masculature and nerve tone; and the like
Manner of Modifying Mature Writing form Copy Book
Forms
1. Simplication - discarding of unessential details and go
as far as to strip the letter to the skeleton making it either
clear-cut and precise, or bare and careless.
2. Elaboration – decorative strokes are added to the plain
letter forms, giving writing rick and ample, or to ornate
character.
3. Linear Pattern – writing shows no concern for form so
that lines and angles predominate, and loops and angles
are not pronounced.
F. Examination of Handwriting
Processes in Scientific Method of Examination
1. Recognition (Analysis) of Characteristics – properties or
characteristics are observed, measured and determined.
2. Complete Comparison of All Characteristics – properties
or characteristics of the unknown are determined thru
analysis are now compared with the familiar or recorded
properties of known items.
3. Correct Interpretations (Evaluation) of Characteristics -
similarities or dissimilarities in properties or characteristics
will each have a certain value for identification,
determined by its likelihood or occurrence. The weight or
significance of each must therefore be considered.
G. Writing Characteristics
Writing Characteristics Commonly Involved in the
Examination of Handwriting
1. Form – refers to the shape or design of the individual
letters.
a. Arc or Arch – rounded inner part of an upper curve
b. Beard – an introductory up and down curve (double
hitch)
c. Buckle knot – horizontal loop to complete a letter
c. Central part or body – small circle that lie on the base
line
d.Dactus broken/junction broken – disconnected, non
continuous stroke
e. Eyeloop/eyelet – Small oblong strokes
f. Foot of the letter or oval – the bottom part of the letter
that lies on the base-line
g. Diacritic – element added to complete a letter
h. Hitch – a backward introductory or ending stroke
i. Hook/through – a minute and involuntary talon – like
formation often found at the commencement of an initial
stroke
j. Hump – the rounded outside top of the bend in small
letters
k. Spur – lone running initial or terminal strokes
l. Knob – rounded appearance at the beginning and
ending of stroke
m. Main stroke/shank stem – long downward stroke
(backbone of the letter)
n. Whirl – long upward stroke
o. Space filler/terminal spur – long downward and upward
terminal stoke
2. System – refers to the particular style or system of
writing practiced or learned in childhood.
3.1. Old English Round Hand of 1849
3.2. Modified Round Hand of 1960
3.3. Spencerian System of 1865-1890
3.4. Modern Vertical System 1890-1900
3.5. Angular System
3. Muscular Habits or Coordination – muscles should
coordinate or contribute in order to have a continuous
process, downward and upward coordination in making
letters or words.
4. Retracing – any strokes which goes back over another
writing stroke is retracing.
5. Connections, Connecting Stroke or Links – it refers to
the strokes or links which connect a letter with one
following.
6. Size – as a writing characteristic is somewhat divergent
under varying conditions and may have but little
significance when applied to only one example, or to a
small quantity of writing like signatures, unless the
divergence is clearly pronounced.
7. Slant – this refers to the slope of writing in relation to
the base line.
8. Spacing –between letters in words depend upon the
length of the connecting strokes or links.
9. Proportion – of a part or to the other part of a letter, or
the relative height of one letter to another letter can be
found in different writings.
10. Movement – is an important element of handwriting.
It embraces all of the factors which are related to the
motion of the writing instrument, skill, speed, freedom,
hesitation, rhythm, emphasis, tremor, and the like.
Different Writing Movements Employed by
Different Writers
1. Finger Movement – thumb, index and middle finger are
used exclusively in the writing of letters.
2. Hand Movement – it involve actions of the hand as a
whole, with fingers playing but a minor role, their action
being limited mainly to the formation of the smaller parts
of the letter.
3. Forearm or Muscular Movement – writing is produced
by movement of both hand and arm and also fingers in
some cases. The elbow is the pivot of the lateral
movement.
4. Whole-arm Movement – this movement involves action
of the entire arm without rest and is employed in very
large ornamental writings, in ornamental penmanship, in
blackboard writing, and by few writers in making all the
capital letters.
11. Line Quality – refers to the visible record in the
written stroke of the basic movement and manner of
holding the writing instrument.
12. Tremor – a writing weakness portrayed by irregular
shaky strokes.
*Deviations from uniform strokes or the lack of
smoothness perfectly apparent even without
magnification.
*Lack of muscular skill with the pen.
Kinds of Tremor
1. Genuine Tremor such as Tremor of Age, Illiteracy and
Weakness.
2. Tremor of Fraud
13. Skills – the proficiency in the art of writing usually
perceived to manual dexterity and legibility in writing.
14. Rhythm – the elements of the writing movement
which is marked by regular or periodic recurrences. It
may be classified as smooth, intermittent, or jerky in its
quality.
15. Speed – slow, moderate and rapid.
16. Shading – the widening of the ink stroke due to added
pressure on a flexible pen point or to the use of stub pen.
17. Pen – emphasis - it refers to the more obvious
increase in the width of the stroke.
18. Pen Position – the relationship between the pen point
and the paper is known as pen position and the line of
writing and between the pen point and the paper surface,
are the elements of pen position. Both conditions may be
reflected in the writing.
19. Pen Pressure – the average force with which the pen
contacts the paper, it may be estimated from an
examination of the writing. Pen pressure as opposed to
pen emphasis deals with the usual or average force
involved in the writing rather than the periodic increase.
20. Pen Lifts – an interruption in a stroke caused by
removing the writing instrument from the paper.
*Hiatus – Interruption in strokes produced without lifting
the writing instrument
21. Terminal and Initial Strokes – terminal strokes refer to
the last element of a letter; initial strokes refer to the first
element of a letter of first letter of a loop.
22. Alignment – is the relation of successive characters or
letters of a word, signature or line of writing to an actual
or imaginary baseline.
23. Arrangement
24. Rubric or Embellishment – this refers to additional,
unnecessary strokes, not necessary to legibility of letter
forms or writings but incorporated in writing for decorative
or ornamental purpose.
H. Classification of Writing Characteristics
Writing Characteristics – any property or mark which
distinguishes, and referred to as identifying marks in
document examination.
Group of Handwriting Characteristics
1. Class Characteristics – those which conform to the
general style acquired when learning to write and which is
fashionable at the particular time and place
2. Individual Characteristics – those introduced into the
handwriting consciously or unconsciously by the writer.
They are highly personal or peculiar and are unlikely to
occur in other instances.
Kinds of Individual Characteristics
1. Conspicuous Characteristics – those that can be seen
by our naked eye.
2. Inconspicuous Characteristics – those that cannot be
seen by our naked eye at the first glance, therefore, it
needs special instruments to locate them prior to
identification.
J. Comparison of Writing Characteristics
Standard – in questioned documents
examination, it refers to those things whose origins are
known and can be proven and which can be legally used
as samples to compare with other matters in question.
Types of Standards
1. Procured or Collected Standards – those which can be
obtained from files of documents executed in the course
of a person’s day-to-day business, official, social or
personal activities. They often serve as the best or most
appropriate standards in the determination of genuineness
of a questioned signature or writing.
2. Request Standards – those which are given or made at
the request of an investigator for purposes of making a
comparative examination with the questioned writing.
They served in addition to collected standards which could
possibly obtain as appropriate standards in determining
identity or the authorship of an anonymous letter.
IV. Alteration
Methods of Alterations
1. Erasures – the removal of writing, typewriting or
printing from document
2. Addition – any matter made a part of the document
after its original preparations.
3. Substitution
4. Interlineations or Intercalation (Insertion between
Lines)
5. Obliterations or “Smeared-Over” writing – blacking out
portions or writings by some opaque materials.