MACRO

The Minnie Table Top Book of

PHOTO
MACRO
PHOTO
The Minnie Table Top Book of Macro Photography
TABLE
OF X.

1.
Introduction

Salt Grain

10. Black Pepper Seed

20. Tomato Ketchup

25. Yellow Mustard

30. Pickled Relish

36. Chile Pepper Flakes

44. Sugar

51. Cinnamon

58. Coffee Grounds

INTRO
DUCTION Macro photography (or and sometimes
macrophotography), is extreme close-up pho-
tography, usually of very small subjects and
living organisms like insects, in which the size
of the subject in the photograph is greater
than life size (though macrophotography
technically refers to the art of making very
large photographs). By the original definition,
a macro photograph is one in which the size
of the subject on the negative or image sen-
sor is life size or greater. However, in some
uses it refers to a finished photograph of a
subject at greater than life size.
The ratio of the subject size on the film plane
(or sensor plane) to the actual subject size is
known as the reproduction ratio. Likewise,
a macro lens is classically a lens capable of
reproduction ratios of at least 1:1, although it
often refers to any lens with a large repro-
duction ratio, despite rarely exceeding 1:1.
Apart from technical photography and film
based processes, where the size of the image
on the negative or image sensor is the subject
of discussion, the finished print or on-screen
image more commonly lends a photograph
its macro status. For example, when produc-
ing a 6×4 inch (15×10 cm) print using 35
format (36×24 mm) film or sensor, a life-size
result is possible with a lens having only a 1:4
reproduction ratio.
Reproduction ratios much greater than 10:1
are considered to be photomicrography, often
achieved with digital microscope (photomi-
crography should not be confused with mi-
crophotography, the art of making very small
photographs, such as for microforms).
Due to advances in sensor technology, to-
day’s small-sensor digital cameras can rival
the macro capabilities of a DSLR with a “true”
macro lens, despite having a lower reproduc-
tion ratio, making macro photography more
widely accessible at a lower cost.
SALT CHAPTER 1
A Brief History of Salt on a Global Scale
As far back as 6050 BC, salt has been an
important and integral part of the world’s
history, as it has been interwoven into
countless civilizations. Used as a part of
Egyptian religious offerings and valuable
trade between the Phoenicians and their
Mediterranean empire, salt and history have
been inextricably intertwined for millennia,
with great importance placed on salt by many
different cultures. Even today, the history of
salt touches our daily lives. The word “salary”
was derived from the word “salt.” Salt was
highly valued and its production was legally
restricted in ancient times, so it was histori-
cally used as a method of trade and currency.
The word “salad” also originated from “salt,”
and began with the early Romans salting
their leafy greens and vegetables. Undeni-
ably, the history of salt is both broad and
unique, leaving its indelible mark in cultures
across the globe.
2 3
Most people probably think of salt as simply
that white granular seasoning found in salt
shakers on virtually every dining table.
It is that, surely, but it is far more. It is an
essential element in the diet of not only
humans but of animals, and even of many
plants. It is one of the most effective and
most widely used of all food preservatives.
Its industrial and other uses are almost with
out number. Salt has great current interest
as the subject of humorous cartoons, poetry
and filmmaking.
The fact is that throughout history, salt,called
sodium chloride by chemists, has been such
an important element of life that it has been
the subject of many stories, fables, folktales
and fairy tales. It served as money at various
times and places, and it has been the cause
of bitter warfare.
While records show the importance of salt in
commerce in medieval times and earlier, in
some places like the Sahara and in Nepal,
salt trading today gives a glimpse of what
life may have been like centuries ago.
Salt was in general use long before the
beginning of recorded history, and dating
back to around 2700 B.C. the earliest known
treatise on pharmacology was published in
China. A portion of this writing is devoted to
a discussion of more than 40 kinds of salt,
including descriptions of two methods of salt
extraction that are similar to processes used
today. Salt production has been important
in China for two millennia or more, and the
Chinese, like many other governments,
realized that taxing salt would could be a
major revenue source. Nomads spreading
westward were known to carry salt, and
Egyptian art from as long ago as 1450 B.C.
records salt making.
Salt was of crucial importance economically.
The expression “not worth his salt” stems
from the practice of trading slaves for salt in
ancient Greece. Special salt rations given to
early Roman soldiers were known as “salari-
um argentum,” the forerunner of the English
word “salary.” References to salt can be found
in languages around the globe, particularly
regarding salt used for food. From the Latin
“sal,” for example, come such other derived
words as “sauce” and “sausage.” Salt was an
important commodity carried by explorers.
Salt has played a vital part in religious ritual
in many cultures, symbolizing purity. There
are more than 30 references to salt in the Bi-
ble, including the well-known expression “salt
of the earth.” Additionally, there are many
other literary and religious references to salt,
including use of salt on altars representing
purity, and use of “holy salt” by the Church.
Salt making encompasses much of the
history of the United Kingdom, particularly
in the Cheshire area. Medieval European
records document salt making concessions. In
continental Europe, Venice rose to economic
greatness through its salt monopoly. Salt
making was important in the Adriatic/Balkans
region as well (the present border between
Slovenia and Croatia); in Bosnia-Herzegov-
ina, Tuzla is actually named for “tuz,” the
Turkish word for salt. The same is true for
Salzburg, Austria, which has made its four
salt mines major tourist attractions. Similarly
in Bolivia, the main salt producing region is
a tourist attraction and includes one hotel
constructed entirely of salt. The grand designs
of Philip II of Spain came undone through the
Dutch Revolt at the end of the 16th Century;
one of the keys, according to Montesquieu,
was the successful Dutch blockade of Iberian
salt works, which led directly to Spanish
bankruptcy. Salt making was (and still is)
important in Holland, as well. France has
always been a major producer of salt and any
discussion of salt making and distribution in
France includes discussion of the gabelle, the
salt tax that was a significant contributor to
the French Revolution. The salt remains just
as important today. The magnitude of the ga-
belle is astounding; from 1630 to 1710, the
tax increased from 14 times the cost of pro-
duction to 140 times the cost of production,
according to Pierre Laszlo in his book Salt: Grain
of Life (Columbia Univ. Press). You may be famil-
iar with the phrase: “Siberian salt mines,” although
salt making takes place in many places across
Russia. In the Middle East, the Jordanian town of
As-Salt, located on the road between Amman and
Jerusalem, was known as Saltus in Byzantine times
and was the seat of a bishopric. Later destroyed by
the Mongols, it was rebuilt by the Mamluke.
4 5

Let’s Take A Closer Look
“Salt”, and of the via Salaria (the road of salt)
in Italy. Until very recently, a tax was imposed
on salt in numerous countries, but it has
largely lost its importance today. Until 1975
in Italy this tax was collected through fiscal
monopolies and the imposition of import
customs. The State had a monopoly on the
manufacture and sale of salt, and fixed the
final market price, which included the tax
rate of about 70% of the selling price.
Discount prices were fixed on salt for
agricultural and industrial uses, while its
production was tax-free in Sicily, Sardinia
and in the towns of Olivigno and Campione.
Most ancient civilizations were accompanied
by myths, religious and magic rites involving
salt: one need only consider the history of
the Jewish people or the content of some
books of the Old Testament. For the ancient
6 7
Hebrews salt became a symbol of the joy of
joining around a table, so that eating with
eachother meant living in brotherly love.
In the New Testament salt found its place as
well, present in a great number of metaphors
or in parables as symbol of wisdom, incor-
ruptibility, eternity and alliance between God
and man. In Rome, on the eight day follow-
ing his birth, a piece of salt was rubbed on
the baby to keep away the demons and evil
spirits. In the Gospel, Jesus recommends his
disciples to be “the salt of the earth,” that is
to be a force capable of keeping men from
the corruption of sin. The ancient Greeks
and the Hebrews used salt during sacrifices,
just as within the Roman temples the vestals
prepared the sacrificial millstone by rubbing
it with brine. If salt fell from the head of the
sacrifice’s chosen victim, it was considered a
sign of bad luck. This has led to the supersti-
tion that has come down to our present time
and is so widely understood that in Leonardo
da Vinci’s The Last Supper, we recognize
Judas—who shortly thereafter would betray
Jesus—by the saltcellar he has carelessly
dropped in front of him.
And, to conclude, salt can even be found in
our bag of superstitions: many believe in its
power to drive away and exorcise evil spirits
by sprinkling it on spilled oil. On the other
hand there are those who fear bad luck will
befall them if they should chance to drop salt
on the floor, while it brings bad luck to the
others if it is thrown.
A popular custom still in use in a number of
European countries requires that a handful of
salt be thrown in the coffin of a dead person
before the burial. The salt—as symbol of
incorruptibility and immortality—would thus
keep away the devil. For the same reason in
ancient Scotland salt was added in the brew-
ing of beer, which would otherwise have been
ruined by witches and evil spirits. In point of
fact, the added salt prevented excessive fer-
mentation in the brew and therefore avoids
its potential “corruption.”
In short, the white granular substance we
know today as “salt” has been essential to
all life, especially with respect to its long and
varied history. We are fortunate, indeed,
that in the United States it has never been
subjected to discriminatory taxes, and that in
North America it is plentiful, obtainable and
the least expensive of our necessities.
“Who knew one little
grain of flavor could
shape the way we do
business, our house-
holds, and even our
beliefs... wow”
n the New Testament salt found its place as North America it is plentiful, obtainable and there are those who fear bad luck will befall
well, present in a great number of metaphors the least expensive of our necessities. them if they should chance to drop salt on the
or in parables as symbol of wisdom, incor- the New Testament salt found its place as floor, while it brings bad luck to the others
ruptibility, eternity and alliance between God well, present in a great number of metaphors if it is thrown. Roman temples the vestals
and man. In Rome, on the eight day follow- or in parables as symbol of wisdom, incor- prepared the sacrificial millstone by rubbing
ing his birth, a piece of salt was rubbed on ruptibility, eternity and alliance between God it with brine. If salt fell from the head of the
the baby to keep away the demons and evil and man. In Rome, on the eight day follow- sacrifice’s chosen victim, it was considered a
spirits. In the Gospel, Jesus recommends his ing his birth, a piece of salt was rubbed on sign of bad luck. This has led to the supersti-
disciples to be “the salt of the earth,” that is the baby to keep away the demons and evil tion that has come down to our present time
to be a force capable of keeping men from spirits. In the Gospel, Jesus recommends his and is so widely understood that in Leonardo
the corruption of sin.The ancient Greeks disciples to be “the salt of the earth,” that is da Vinci’s The Last Supper, we recognize Ju-
and the Hebrews used salt during sacrifices, to be a force capable of keeping men from das—who shortly thereafter would betray Je-
just as within the Roman temples the vestals the corruption of sin. sus—by the saltcellar he has carele. If salt fell
prepared the sacrificial millstone by rubbing from the head of the sacrifice’s chosen victim,
it with brine. If salt fell from the head of the The ancient Greeks and the Hebrews used it was considered a sign of bad luck. This has
sacrifice’s chosen victim, it was considered a salt during sacrifices, just as within the Roman led to the superstition that has come down to
sign of bad luck. This has led to the supersti- temples the vestals prepared the sacrificial our present time and is so widely understood
tion that has come down to our present time millstone by rubbing it with brine. If salt fell that in Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper,
and is so widely understood that in Leonardo from the head of the sacrifice’s chosen victim, we recognize Judas—who shortly thereafter
da Vinci’s The Last Supper, we recognize it was considered a sign of bad luck. This has would betray Jesus—by the saltcellar he has
Judas—who shortly thereafter would betray led to the superstition that has come down to carelessly dropped in front of him.And, to
Jesus—by the saltcellar he has carelessly our present time and is so widely understood
dropped in front of him.And, to conclude, salt that in Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper,
can even be found in our bag of supersti- we recognize Judas—who shortly thereafter “People tend to take
tions: many believe in its power to drive away
and exorcise evil spirits by sprinkling it on
would betray Jesus—by the saltcellar he has
carelessly dropped in front of him. And, to
for granted how much
spilled oil. On the other hand there are those
who fear bad luck will befall them if they
should chance to drop salt on the floor, while
conclude, salt can even be found in our bag
of superstitions: many believe in its power
to drive away and exorcise evil spirits by
salt has shaped our
modern society”
it brings bad luck to the others if it is thrown. sprinkling it on spilled oil. On the other hand
popular custom still in use in a number of
European countries requires that a handful of
salt be thrown in the coffin of a dead person
before the burial. The salt—as symbol of
incorruptibility and immortality—would thus
keep away the devil. For the same reason in
ancient Scotland salt was added in the brew-
ing of beer, which would otherwise have been
ruined by witches and evil spirits. In point of
fact, the added salt prevented excessive fer-
mentation in the brew and therefore avoids
its potential “corruption.”
In short, the white granular substance we
know today as “salt” has been essential to
all life, especially with respect to its long and
varied history. We are fortunate, indeed,
that in the United States it has never been
subjected to discriminatory taxes, and that in
8 9
BLACK
PEPPER
CHAPTER 2
Black Pepper, King of the Spice World
The world’s most commonly used spice, Piper
nigrum, starts life as berries in a clump on a
flowering vine (like grapes). Native to India,
today pepper is grown throughout the tropics.
Archaeological evidence of people using pep-
per goes back to at least 2000 BC in India.
It is known that pepper was exported, but to
what extent remains a mystery. Nonetheless,
signs of an ancient pepper trade from India
to Egypt have been found, including the
peppercorns that had been stuffed into the
nostrils of Ramses the Great (1303-1213 BC)
when he was mummified.
Certainly by 40 AD, the Romans had a thriv-
ing trade in spices, including pepper. Leaving
the southwestern coast of India in July with
the monsoon winds, Roman sea traders
brought cinnamon, incense oils and pepper
to their great commercial hub in Alexandria.
When the strong monsoon winds switched
12
in the fall, the traders rode them back. The
Romans gobbled pepper up, and in Apicius’
Cooking and Dining in Imperial Rome, 80%
of the recipes contain the spice. Nonetheless,
not everybody was a big fan, including Pliny
the Elder: Whereas pepper has nothing in it
that can plead as a recommendation to either
fruit or berry, its only desirable quality being
a certain pungency; and yet it is for this that
we import it all the way from India!
When Rome was attacked in 410 AD, to lift
the siege of the Visogoths and prevent the
city from being sacked, along with gold,
silver, silk, and hides, the Romans paid “three
thousand pounds of pepper.” Negotiations
soon broke down again, however, and the
siege was resumed. Eventually the Eternal
City was sacked. With the fall of Rome’s im-
perial power, other groups began to take over
the spice trade. Under the early caliphate this
Islamic network matured to encompass most
of the Indian Ocean world from East Africa
to the southern coast of China. It carried . . .
the beliefs of Islam . . . the Arabic language,
shari’a courts . . . and shared commercial
practices. To maintain their monopoly, keep
their source a secret and raise the cachet
(and price) of this highly prized spice, Arab
traders created the fantastic myth[i] that
pepper was cultivated in: Groves of trees in
India [and the Caucus mountains] “guarded”
by poisonous serpents. In order to harvest the
pepper, the trees have to be burned, driving
the snakes away and in the process turning
the fruit black.
Arab traders were not alone on the sea, and
by the Middle Ages, many other seafaring
groups had joined the spice trade. By the
14th century Genoa had become a prominent
commercial center with pepper as its primary
commodity. Between 1367 and 1371, over
40% of the value of all that entered Genoa
from Alexandria came from pepper.
Spice merchants from Alexandria brought
pepper to Venice, as well, and by the end of
the 15th century, over 400 tons of it every
year. Sharp traders, “the Venetians marked
up the price of spices an average of 40
percent during the fifteenth century.” Not
alone in gouging the consumer, the Catalans
of Barcelona extolled a 25% profit on the
pepper they imported. Other major sources
of pepper came from Constantinople, Cyprus,
Syria and other ports of the Levant.
In 1497, the Portuguese king Manuel sent
Vasco da Gama to find the sea route to India
with the purpose of finding “Christians and
spices.” By the end of the 15th century AD,
the Portuguese took over the spice trade,
but not without a high price. The journey
was fraught with dangers and during their
glorious century of domination, nearly 30% of
Portuguese trading vessels were lost. None-
theless, from 1500-1600, “Portugal imported
from Malabar [India] the equivalent of about
two million kilograms annually.”
“Portugal imported
from India the about
two million kilograms
annually.”
The inhabitants of “Java Major” (Borneo,
perhaps) collect spices from other islands,
which are brought by merchants from Ceylon.
In Ceylon they are sold to traders from “the
Golden Khersonese” (the Malay Peninsula)
and then in turn to merchants of “Taprobana”
(Sumatra?). This implausible eastern mean-
dering shifts suddenly and more realistically
westward in the fifth and sixth stages when
the “heathen Mohammedans” (“heyden
machmet”) from Aden buy the spices, which
then pass through Cairo. the remaining steps
involve the spread of spices in Europe.
The Portuguese failed to exert political and
military authority in the areas where pepper
was produced, and over the course of the
16th century, slowly lost control of its trade.
During the 17th century, the Dutch became
the dominant player in the spice trade with
colonies in Bantam, Ceylon, Java, Lampong
and Malabar (centuries earlier Hindu traders
are believed to have spread the plant across
the Indian Ocean including to Java, where it
was found by Marco Polo in the 13th century.)
As the British Empire rose in prominence in
the tropics, it eventually took control.
13
14 15
 Pepper gets its spicy heat mostly from the piperine

compound, which is found both in the outer fruit

and in the seed. Black pepper contains between

4.6% and 9.7% piperine by mass, and white pep-

per slightly more than that.[40] Refined piperine,

by weight, is about one percent as hot as the

capsaicin in chili peppers.[citation needed] The

outer fruit layer, left on black pepper, also contains

important odour-contributing terpenes including

pinene, sabinene, limonene, caryophyllene, and

linalool, which give citrusy, woody, and floral notes.

These scents are mostly missing in white pepper,

which is stripped of the fruit layer. White pepper

can gain some different odours (including musty

notes) from its longer fermentation stage.

Pepper loses flavour and aroma through evapo-

ration, so airtight storage helps preserve pepper’s

original spiciness longer. Pepper can also lose

flavour when exposed to light, which can transform

piperine into nearly tasteless isochavicine.[41]

is located in Kochi, India. Participation on the IPE Black Pepper (or perhaps long pepper) was
Once ground, pepper’s aromatics can evapo-
however is domestic with regulatory restrictions believed to cure illness such as constipation,
rate quickly; most culinary sources recommend
on international membership on local exchanges; diarrhea, earache, gangrene, heart disease, hernia,
grinding whole peppercorns immediately before
something common to almost all Asian commodity hoarseness, indigestion, insect bites, insomnia,
use for this reason. Handheld pepper mills (or
exchanges. joint pain, liver problems, lung disease, oral ab-
“pepper grinders”), which mechanically grind
scesses, sunburn, tooth decay, and toothaches.[29]
or crush whole peppercorns, are used for this,
As of 2008, Vietnam is the world’s largest producer Various sources from the 5th century onward also
sometimes instead of pepper shakers, dispensers
and exporter of pepper, producing 34% of the recommend pepper to treat eye problems, often
of pre-ground pepper. Spice mills such as pepper
world’s Piper nigrum. Other major producers by applying salves or poultices made with pepper
mills were found in European kitchens as early as
include India (19%), Brazil (13%), Indonesia (9%), directly to the eye. There is no current medical
the 14th century, but the mortar and pestle used
Malaysia (8%), Sri Lanka (6%), China (6%), and evidence that any of these treatments has any
earlier for crushing pepper remained a popular
Thailand (4%). Global pepper production peaked benefit; pepper applied directly to the eye would
method for centuries after as well
in 2003 with over 355,000 t (391,000 short tons), be quite uncomfortable and possibly damaging.

but has fallen to just over 271,000 t (299,000 short [30] Nevertheless, Black pepper either powdered
Peppercorns (dried black pepper) are, by
tons) by 2008 due to a series of issues including or its decoction is widely used in traditional Indian
monetary value, the most widely traded spice in
poor crop management, disease and weather. Viet- medicine and as a home remedy for relief from
the world, accounting for 20 percent of all spice
nam dominates the export market, using almost sore throat, throat congestion, cough etc.
imports in 2002. The price of pepper can be
none of its production domestically; however its
volatile, and this figure fluctuates a great deal year

to year; for example, pepper made up 39 percent

2007 crop fell by nearly 10% from the previous “Pepper is small in
of all spice imports in 1998.[43] By weight, slightly
year to about 90,000 t (99,000 short tons). Similar
quantity and great
crop yields occurred in 2007 across the other
more chilli peppers are traded worldwide than
pepper producing nations as well. in virtue”
peppercorns. The International Pepper Exchange
16 17
18 19