MARIANA UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

CIVIL ENGINEERING PROGRAM

HYDRAULICS LABORATORY PRACTICE GUIDES

 Mariana University Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Program
Hydraulics Laboratory

CONTENTS

PRACTICE N. º 1 – PHYSICAL AND HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF CHANNELS.................... 3

PRACTICE N. º 2 – FLOW CLASSIFICATION ............................................................................ 5
PRACTICE N. º 3 – STATE AND REGIMES OF FLOW .............................................................. 8
PRACTICE N. ° 4 – UNIFORM AND STEADY FLOW ............................................................... 10

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 Mariana University Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Program
Hydraulics Laboratory

PRACTICE N. º 1 – PHYSICAL AND HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF CHANNELS

Theoretical Framework

Open-Channel

A building open to atmosphere intended for fluid transport (contrary to fluid transport in pressurized
pipes). A channel is a hydraulic structure used for water transportation and has the following
applications:

 Transport of water to treatment plants.

 Urban and highway ditches.
 Rainwater transport.
 Irrigation channels.

Physical and Hydraulic Properties of a Channel

Water Area (A): Cross-sectional area of the flow (m2).

Wetted perimeter (P): Length of the interface between the water and the channel boundary
(m).

Flow depth (y): Vertical distance from the channel bottom to the free surface (m).

Depth of flow section (d): Flow depth measured perpendicular to the channel bottom (m). The
relationship between 𝑑 and 𝑦 is 𝑑 = 𝑦 cos 𝜃. For most manmade and
natural channels cos 𝜃 ≈ 1.0, and therefore 𝑦 ≈ 𝑑. The two terms are
used interchangeably.

Top width (T): Width of the channel section at free surface (m).
Hydraulic depth (D): Water area divided by top width, 𝐷 = 𝐴⁄𝑇 (m).

Hydraulic radius (R): Water area divided by wetted perimeter, 𝑅 = 𝐴⁄𝑃 (m).

Bottom slope (So): Longitudinal slope of the channel bottom, 𝑆𝑜 = tan 𝜃 ≈ sin 𝜃.

Section factor for uniform Product of the water area and the two-thirds power of the hydraulic
flow (AR2/3): radius 𝐴𝑅 2⁄3.

Section factor for critical Product of the water area and the square root of the hydraulic depth,
flow (Z): 𝑍 = 𝐴√𝐷 = 𝐴√𝐴⁄𝑇.

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 Mariana University Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Program
Hydraulics Laboratory

Figure 1. A channel cross section

Channel
bottom
Datum

Figure 2. A channel longitudinal section.

Practical Exercise

Equipment

 Measuring tape
 Ruler

Procedure

 Measure for each case: base, height, longitudinal slope.

 Determine the characteristics of the channel material.
 Measure the following in the gauging tank:
o Width
o Length
 Draw the profile and plan view of each case study
 Draw cross-sections of each case study
 Determine the physical and hydraulic characteristics of each cross-section measured in
the channel

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 Mariana University Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Program
Hydraulics Laboratory

PRACTICE N. º 2 – FLOW CLASSIFICATION

Objective
 To experiment through recreation with diverse types of flow that can occur in a channel.

Theoretical Framework

In the classification of the diverse types of flows, the following conditions must be satisfied.
 Compliance with the continuity equation.
 One-dimensional flow.
 Consider the flow as incompressible.

Classification is based on the variation of depth with respect to space or time.

Uniform flow: taking space as a criterion, in uniform flow (Figure 3) hydraulic characteristics do
not change between two sections separated by a distance 𝑥, i.e., 𝑑𝑣 ⁄𝑑𝑥 = 0.

Figure 3. Profile view of a hydraulic channel showing uniform flow.

Varied flow: in this flow hydraulic characteristics change between two sections, i.e., 𝑑𝑣 ⁄𝑑𝑥 ≠ 0.

Figure 4. Profile view of a hydraulic channel showing varied flow.

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 Mariana University Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Program
Hydraulics Laboratory

Steady flow: taking time as a criterion, in steady flow hydraulic characteristics remain constant
(Figure 5), i.e., 𝑑𝑣 ⁄𝑑𝑡 = 0.

Moment 1 Moment 2
Figure 5. Steady flow.

Unsteady flow. Flow in which hydraulic characteristics change in time (Figure 6), i.e., 𝑑𝑣 ⁄𝑑𝑡 ≠ 0.

Moment 1 Moment 2

Figure 6. Unsteady flow.

Rapidly varied flow: hydraulic characteristics change rapidly, in a short space (Figure 7).

Figure 7.

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 Mariana University Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Program
Hydraulics Laboratory

Gradually varied flow: hydraulic characteristics change gradually with length (Figure 8).

Datum line

Figure 8.

Practical Exercise

Equipment
 Measuring tape or ruler.
 Chronometer.

Procedure
1. Volumetric gauging using 𝑄 = 𝑉⁄𝑡, where Q is discharge, V is filling volume at a preset
height and t is average filling time.
2. Measure flow depths along the length of the channel.
3. Calculate velocities for each of the measured flow depths.
4. Take sections between the different measured points and classify each of the flows that
occur.
5. Draw a profile view of the channel specifying the different flows.

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 Mariana University Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Program
Hydraulics Laboratory

PRACTICE N. º 3 – STATE AND REGIMES OF FLOW

Objective
 To identify the different states and regimes of flow.

Theoretical Framework

State of flow: The Reynolds number (Re) is defined depending on the magnitude of the ratio of
the inertia forces to the viscous forces. Thus, the flow state for free-surface channels is classified
as follows:
 Laminar: 𝑅𝑒 < 500
 Transitional: 500 < 𝑅𝑒 < 12500
 Turbulent: 𝑅𝑒 > 12500

Being
𝑉𝐿 4𝑉𝑅
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜈 𝜈

Where
𝑉 = velocity of flow.
𝐿 = characteristic length. This is equal to four times
hydraulic radius in free-surface channels.
𝑅 = hydraulic radius.
𝜈 = kinematic viscosity.

If viscous forces predominate over inertial forces, the flow state is considered laminar, while when
inertial forces predominate over viscous forces, the flow state is considered turbulent.

Regimes of flow: If the inertial forces are related to the gravitational forces, a dimensionless
parameter known as Froude number ( 𝐹𝑟 ) is obtained, which allows classifying the flow as
subcritical, critical, and supercritical. The Froude number is obtained as follows:
𝑉
𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔 ⋅ 𝐷

Where
𝑉 = velocity of flow.
𝑔 = acceleration of gravity.
𝐷 = hydraulic depth.

Depending on the magnitude of the ratio of gravity and inertia forces, the regime of flow is
classified as:

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 Mariana University Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Program
Hydraulics Laboratory

 Subcritical: 𝐹𝑟 < 1
 Critical : 𝐹𝑟 = 1
 Supercritical: 𝐹𝑟 > 1

Practical Exercise

Equipment
 Measuring tape or ruler.
 Chronometer.
 Thermometer.

Procedure

1. Volumetric gauging.
2. Measure flow depth at different cross-sections.
3. Calculate water area.
4. Measure temperature.
5. Measure top width.
6. Calculate wetted perimeter.
7. Calculate velocity of flow using 𝑉 = 𝑄 ⁄𝐴
8. Calculate Froude number.
9. Classify the regime of flow according to Froude number.
10. Calculate critical depth of flow.
11. Calculate kinematic viscosity using measured temperature with Table 1.
12. Calculate hydraulic radius.
13. Calculate Reynolds number.
14. Classify state of flow according to Reynolds number.

Table 1. Kinematic viscosity according to water temperature in °C**

Kinematic Kinematic
Temperature Temperature
viscosity viscosity
°C 2 °C
m /s m2/s
5 1.520 × 10-6 30 0.804 × 10-6
-6
10 1.308 × 10 35 0.727 × 10-6
15 1.142 × 10-6 40 0.661 × 10-6
20 1.007 × 10-6 50 0.556 × 10-6
25 0.897 × 10-6 65 0.442 × 10-6
**Values taken from Table 2 of the book Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics, Schaum series.

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 Mariana University Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Program
Hydraulics Laboratory

PRACTICE N. º 4 – UNIFORM AND STEADY FLOW

Objective
 To identify uniform flow in a channel and analyze the effect that cross-sectional wall
roughness has on flow velocity.

Theoretical Framework

When flow occurs in an open channel, water encounters resistance as it flows downstream. This
resistance is usually counterbalanced by the components of gravitational forces acting on the
water body in the direction of movement, this zone is known as the transitional zone (Figure 9).
Uniform flow will develop if resistance is balanced by gravitational forces.
Uniform flow occurs when all sections of the channel have the same hydraulic characteristics. For
this type of flow to occur, the cross section must be constant, straight, and long enough to
overcome the transitional zone. In this type of flow, the energy gradient, the free surface of the
water and the slope of the bottom of the channel are presented as parallel lines.
In steady flow, the depth of flow section, velocity, and water area in each cross section of the
channel must remain constant in time and space.
The Chezy and Manning formulas are used to calculate uniform and steady flow.
The contact between the water and the channel banks causes a resistance (friction) that depends
on the smoothness or roughness of the channel. In natural streams the amount of vegetation
influences the roughness as well as any other irregularity that generates turbulence.

Antoine Chezy formula

𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑅 ⋅ 𝑆0
Where
C = Chezy’s resistance factor.
R = hydraulic radius.
S0 = bottom slope.

Estimation of Chezy’s resistance factor

Some equations have been obtained experimentally that allow estimating the value of Chezy's C,
among the most common are:
a) The Bazin formula: Proposed by the French H. Bazin in 1897, which is relatively simple and
where the value of C is a function of the hydraulic radius (𝑅) and a roughness coefficient 𝑚,
whose values are found in Table 2. The Basin equation is not dimensionless, because it has
units of acceleration (length/time2). Expressed in metric units this equation is written as follows:
87
𝐶= 𝑚
1+
√𝑅

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 Mariana University Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Program
Hydraulics Laboratory

Table 2. Proposed values of Bazin’s m.

Channel material Bazin’s m

New cast iron 0.06
Used cast iron 0.12
Polished concrete tunnels 0.22
Well finished brick masonry 0.16
Poorly finished brick or stone block masonry 0.83
Polished cement 0.10 a 0.16
Polished concrete 0.11 a 0.22
Rough concrete 0.45
Earth channel in perfect condition 1.54
Earth channel in normal conditions 2.36
Earth channel in rough conditions 3.17

Figure 9. Establishment of uniform flow in a long channel.

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 Mariana University Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Program
Hydraulics Laboratory

b) The Manning formula: Is one of the most used for its simplicity. The coefficient 𝑛 can be found
in the literature. It was originally obtained from tests done by Basin and later verified by
observations.
1 1
𝐶 = 𝑅 ⁄6
𝑛

Manning's equation for uniform flow:

This equation is purely empirical and was first presented by Irish engineer Robert Manning in
1889. It is a function of the hydraulic radius (R), the slope of energy line (S) and the coefficient of
roughness 𝑛, known as Manning's n coefficient. The equation in the metric system of units is
written:
1 2⁄3 1⁄2
𝑉= ⋅𝑅 ⋅𝑆
𝑛
Of all the uniform flow formulas, Manning's formula is the most widely used for the calculation of
flows in open channels due to its simplicity and the satisfactory results obtained with it.

Practical Exercise

Equipment
 Measuring tape or ruler.

Procedure
1. Generate a uniform and permanent hydraulic profile in the channel.
2. Volumetric gauging.
3. Measure flow depths along the model to locate uniform flow.
4. Calculate:
 Water area.
 Wetted perimeter.
 Hydraulic radius.
5. Obtain the bottom slope of the channel (S0).
6. From the uniform flow formulas (Chezy and Manning) solve the roughness coefficients "n"
and "C", respectively.
7. Compare the coefficients calculated in step 6 of the procedure with those recommended
in different hydraulics books for the same model lining conditions.

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