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Etymology
"Fabric" redirects here. For other uses, see Fabric (disambiguation) and Textile (disambiguation).
History
Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads,
Types different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics.[1]: 3 [2]: 5 [3] However, weaving
Significance is not the only manufacturing method, and many other methods were later developed to form textile structures
based on their intended use. Knitting and non-woven are other popular types of fabric manufacturing.[4] In the
Use and applications
contemporary world, textiles satisfy the material needs for versatile applications, from simple daily clothing to
Fiber bulletproof jackets, spacesuits, and doctor's gowns.[3][5][4]
Uses of different fibers
Textiles are divided into two groups: consumer textiles for domestic purposes and technical textiles. In consumer
Production methods Handmade floral patterns on
textiles, aesthetics and comfort are the most important factors, while in technical textiles, functional properties
textiles, The production of textiles
Finishing are the priority.[4][6] which were initially artisanal work, has
grown into a vast field today that
Environmental and health impacts Geotextiles, industrial textiles, medical textiles, and many other areas are examples of technical textiles, includes the production of fibers, yarns,
Laws and regulations whereas clothing and furnishings are examples of consumer textiles. Each component of a textile product, fabrics, and various fibrous products
including fiber, yarn, fabric, processing, and finishing, affects the final product. Components may vary among for different domestic and industrial
Testing of textiles usages.
various textile products as they are selected based on their fitness for purpose.[4][7][6]
Picture gallery
Fiber is the smallest component of a fabric; fibers are typically spun into yarn, and yarns are used to
See also
manufacture fabrics.[8][7] Fiber has a hair-like appearance and a higher length-to-width ratio. The sources of
References fibers may be natural, synthetic, or both. The techniques of felting and bonding directly transform fibers into
Further reading fabric. In other cases, yarns are manipulated with different fabric manufacturing systems to produce various
fabric constructions. The fibers are twisted or laid out to make a long, continuous strand of yarn.[2] Yarns are then
External links
used to make different kinds of fabric by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, tatting, or braiding.[9][10][5] After
manufacturing, textile materials are processed and finished to add value, such as aesthetics, physical
characteristics, and increased usefulness.[11] The manufacturing of textiles is the oldest industrial art.[12] Dyeing, In textile production, longitudinal
printing, and embroidery are all different decorative arts applied to textile materials.[13] yarns are referred to as warp and are
interlaced with weft or filing yarns to
create a woven fabric.
Etymology [ edit ]

Textile [ edit ]

The word 'textile' comes from the Latin adjective textilis, meaning 'woven', which itself stems from textus, the
past participle of the verb texere, 'to weave'.[14] Originally applied to woven fabrics, the term "textiles" is now
used to encompass a diverse range of materials, including fibers, yarns, and fabrics, as well as other related
items.[2][1][3]

Fabric [ edit ]

A "fabric" is defined as any thin, flexible material made from yarn, directly from fibers, polymeric film, foam, or
any combination of these techniques. Fabric has a broader application than cloth.[15]: 207 [16] Fabric is
synonymous with cloth, material, goods, or piece goods.[4][5] The word 'fabric' also derives from Latin, with roots
in the Proto-Indo-European language. Stemming most recently from the Middle French fabrique, or "building,"
and earlier from the Latin fabrica ('workshop; an art, trade; a skillful production, structure, fabric'), the noun
fabrica stems from the Latin faber" artisan who works in hard materials', which itself is derived from the Proto-
Weaving
Indo-European dhabh-, meaning 'to fit together'.[17]

Cloth [ edit ]

Cloth is a flexible substance typically created through the processes of weaving, felting, or knitting using natural
or synthetic materials.[18] The word 'cloth' derives from the Old English clað, meaning "a cloth, woven, or felted
material to wrap around one's body', from the Proto-Germanic kalithaz, similar to the Old Frisian klath, the Middle
Dutch cleet, the Middle High German kleit and the German kleid, all meaning 'garment'.[19]
Weaving demonstration on an 1830
Although cloth is a type of fabric, not all fabrics can be classified as cloth due to differences in their
handloom in the weaving museum in
manufacturing processes, physical properties, and intended uses. Materials that are woven, knitted, tufted, or Leiden
knotted from yarns are referred to as cloth, while wallpaper, plastic upholstery products, carpets, and nonwoven
materials are examples of fabrics.[20]: 207

History [ edit ]

Main article: History of clothing and textiles

Textiles themselves are too fragile to survive across millennia; the tools used for spinning and weaving make up
most of the prehistoric evidence for textile work. The earliest tool for spinning was the spindle, to which a whorl
was eventually added. The weight of the whorl improved the thickness and twist of the spun thread. Later, the
spinning wheel was invented. Historians are unsure where; some say China, others India.[21] Cloth merchant's shop

The precursors of today's textiles include leaves, barks, fur pelts, and felted cloths.[22]

The Banton Burial Cloth, the oldest existing example of warp ikat in Southeast Asia, is displayed at the National
Museum of the Philippines. The cloth was most likely made by the native Asian people of northwest Romblon.
The first clothes, worn at least 70,000 years ago and perhaps much earlier, were probably made of animal skins
and helped protect early humans from the elements. At some point, people learned to weave plant fibers into
textiles. The discovery of dyed flax fibers in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests that
textile-like materials were made as early as the Paleolithic era.[23][24]

The speed and scale of textile production have been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and A replica draper's shop at the
the introduction of modern manufacturing techniques.[25] Museum of Lincolnshire Life, Lincoln,
England

Textile industry [ edit ]

Main article: textile industry

The textile industry grew out of art and craft and was kept going by guilds. In the 18th and 19th centuries, during the industrial revolution, it became
increasingly mechanized. In 1765, when a machine for spinning wool or cotton called the spinning jenny was invented in the United Kingdom, textile
production became the first economic activity to be industrialised. In the 20th century, science and technology were driving forces.[26][27] The textile
industry exhibits inherent dynamism, influenced by a multitude of transformative changes and innovations within the domain. Textile operations can
experience ramifications arising from shifts in international trade policies, evolving fashion trends, evolving customer preferences, variations in production
costs and methodologies, adherence to safety and environmental regulations, as well as advancements in research and development.[2]: 4

The textile and garment industries exert a significant impact on the economic systems of numerous countries engaged in textile production.[28]

Naming [ edit ]

Most textiles were called by their base fibre generic names, their place of origin, or were put into groups based
loosely on manufacturing techniques, characteristics, and designs.[29][30][31][32] Nylon, olefin, and acrylic are
generic names for some of the more commonly used synthetic fibres.[4]: 219

Sample of calico printed with a six-

colour machine by Walter Crum & Co.,
from Frederick Crace Calvert, Dyeing
and Calico Printing (1878)

Name Product Textiles named by Description

Wool fiber obtained

Cashmere is synonymous with the Kashmir shawl, with the term
Cashmere from cashmere Origin Kashmir
"cashmere" derived from an anglicisation of Kashmir.[33]
goats

Plain weave textile

Calico Origin Calicut The fabric originated in the southwestern Indian city of Calicut.
material
Lightweight cotton
Jaconet is anglicisation of Jagannath where it was originally
Jaconet fabric in plain Origin Jagannath Puri
produced.[34]
weave

A type of Knitted Jersey, Channel

Jersey Origin Jersey fabric was produced first at Jersey, Channel Islands.[33]
fabric Islands

A coarse woolen
Kersey Origin Kersey, Suffolk The fabric is named after the town in the east of England.[33]
cloth

Paisley,
Paisley (design) A type of motif Design A town situated in the west central Lowlands of Scotland.[33]
Renfrewshire

In and around the 19th century Punjab and Gujarat were famous for
production of various handspun cloths. Dosuti was distinguished by
A handspun cotton A coarse and the number of yarns (Do+Suti translates to 'two yarns') used to
Dosuti Characteristics
cloth thick cotton cloth produce it. Eksuti was another variety using a single thread.
[35][36]

Dacca, in the eastern Indian subcontinent, produced a wide range

Mulmul types such as
Fine muslin fabric of handwoven and spun muslins. Baft Hawa, which means "woven
āb-i-ravān running Delicate muslin
variations from Characteristics air", Shabnam, which means "evening dew", and ab-i-ravan, which
water, Baft Hawa types
Dacca in Bengal means "flowing water" are some poetic names for soft
woven air[37]
muslins.[37][38]

A plain weave
Pleasing to the
Nainsook fabric with soft Characteristics Nain + Sook translates to "eye-pleasing".[34]
eyes
hand

Appears and
A woven flannel
Swanskin Characteristics feels like swan A18th century fabric developed at Shaftesbury.[39]
cloth
skin

Another type of Tan + Sukh translates to "body pleasing". Tansukh was a fine, soft,
Pleasing to the
Tansukh Muslin with soft Characteristics and delicate textured cloth. The cloth type is mentioned in the 16th
body
and delicate texture century Mughal time records, Ain-i-Akbari.[40]

Related terms [ edit ]

The related words "fabric"[10] and "cloth"[18] and "material" are often used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms
for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Material is an extremely broad term basically meaning consisting of
matter, and requires context to be useful. A textile is any material made of interlacing fibers, including carpeting and geotextiles, which may not
necessarily be used in the production of further goods, such as clothing and upholstery. A fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading,
felting, stitching, crocheting or bonding that may be used in the production of further products, such as clothing and upholstery, thus requiring a further
step of the production. Cloth may also be used synonymously with fabric, but often specifically refers to a piece of fabric that has been processed or cut.
[citation needed]

Greige goods: Textiles that are raw and unfinished are referred to as greige goods. After manufacturing, the materials are processed and
finished.[41][11]
Piece goods: Piece goods were textile materials sold in cut pieces as specified by the buyer. Piece goods were either cut from a fabric roll or made to
a specific length, also known as yard goods.[42][43]

Types [ edit ]

Textiles are various materials made from fibers and yarns. The term "textile" was originally only used to refer to woven
fabrics, but today it covers a broad range of subjects.[1] Textiles are classified at various levels, such as according to
fiber origin (natural or synthetic), structure (woven, knitted, nonwoven), finish, etc.[29][30][31][32] However, there are
primarily two types of textiles:

Consumer textiles [ edit ]

Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for containers such as bags and
baskets. In the household, textiles are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings
for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art. Textiles are used in many traditional hand crafts such as sewing,
A baby wearing many items of
quilting, and embroidery.[4]
soft winter clothing: headband,
cap, fur-lined coat, scarf and
Technical textiles [ edit ] sweater

Textiles produced for industrial purposes, and designed and chosen for technical characteristics beyond their
appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for
automotive applications, medical textiles (such as implants), geotextile (reinforcement of embankments),
agrotextiles (textiles for crop protection), protective clothing (such as clothing resistant to heat and radiation for
fire fighter clothing, against molten metals for welders, stab protection, and bullet proof vests).

In the workplace, textiles can be used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Miscellaneous uses
include flags, backpacks, tents, nets, cleaning rags, transportation devices such as balloons, kites, sails, and
parachutes; textiles are also used to provide strengthening in composite materials such as fibreglass and
industrial geotextiles.[4][6] Technical textile is a branch of
textile that focuses on the protection,
Due to the often highly technical and legal requirements of these products, these textiles are typically tested in safety and other functional
order to ensure they meet stringent performance requirements. Other forms of technical textiles may be performance attributes of textiles,
unlike domestic textiles, where the
produced to experiment with their scientific qualities and to explore the possible benefits they may have in the
primary focus is aesthetics and
future. Threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, when woven into fabric, have been shown capable of "self- comfort., an EOD technician wearing a
powering nanosystems", using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements to generate bomb suit Explosive Ordnance
energy.[44][45] Disposal (EOD) suit.

Significance [ edit ]

Textiles are all around us. The textile is a component of basic needs like food and shelter. Textiles are
everywhere in our lives, from bath towels to space suits. Textiles help humans by comforting, protecting, and
extending their lives. Textiles meet our clothing needs, keeping us warm in the winter and cool in the summer.
There are several applications for textiles, such as medical textiles, intelligent textiles, and automotive textiles. All
of them contribute to the well-being of humans.[2]

Nonwoven geotextile bags are

Serviceability in textiles [ edit ] much more robust than woven bags of
the same thickness.
The term "serviceability" refers to a textile product's ability to meet the needs of consumers. The emphasis is on
knowing the target market and matching the needs of the target market to the product's serviceability.
Serviceability or performance in textiles is the ability of textile materials to withstand various conditions, environments, and hazards. Aesthetics, durability,
comfort and safety, appearance retention, care, environmental impact, and cost are the serviceability concepts employed in structuring the material.
[clarification needed][2]: 1 to 12

Components [ edit ]

Fibers, yarns, fabric construction, finishes and design are components of a textile product. The selection of specific components varies with the intended
use, therefore the fibers, yarns, and fabric manufacturing systems are selected with consideration of the required performance.[2]: 1 to 12

Use and applications [ edit ]

Commercial Technical
textiles/ textiles/
End uses End uses
Domestic Industrial
textiles purpose textiles

Clothing items for men, women and Agro-textiles are used in agriculture, horticulture, aquaculture,
children. nightwear, sportswear, lingerie, landscape gardening and forestry. Mainly for crop protection, in
Clothing undergarments, swimsuit. Accessories Agro-textiles crop development for instance shade nets, thermal insulation and
such as caps, umbrella, socks, gloves, and sunscreen materials, windshield, antibird nets, covering livestock
handbags.[4][46] protection, suppressing weed and insect control, etc.[47]
Technical textiles which are used in civil engineering, roads,
Upholstery, curtains, draperies, carpets, airfields, railroads, embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs,
Furnishing Geotextile
towels.[4][46] canals, dams, bank protection, coastal engineering and
construction site silt fences, and protection of melting glaciers.[48]
Automotive Airbags, seat belts, headliners, upholstery, car carpets, and door
Bedding Bed sheets, khes, blankets, pillows.[4][46]
textile card.[49]
implants, sutures, dressings, bandages, medical gowns, face
Others Shower curtains.[4] Medical textile
masks.[4]
This particular sector includes conveyor belts, drive belts, ropes
and cordages, filtration products, glass battery separators,
Indutech decatising and bolting cloth, AGM (absorption glass mat) plasma
screens, coated abrasives, composite materials, printed circuit
boards, printer ribbon, seals, gaskets, paper making fabrics.[6]

Other uses [ edit ]

Textiles, textile production, and clothing were necessities of life in prehistory, intertwined with the social, economic, and religious systems. Other than
clothing, textile crafts produced utilitarian, symbolic, and opulent items. Archaeological artifacts from the Stone Age and the Iron Age in Central Europe
are used to examine prehistoric clothing and its role in forming individual and group identities.[50]

Source of knowledge [ edit ]

Artifacts unearthed in various archaeological excavations informs us about the remains of past human life and their activities.[51] Dyed flax fibers
discovered in the Republic of Georgia indicate that textile-like materials were developed during the Paleolithic period. Radiocarbon dates the microscopic
fibers to 36,000 years ago, when modern humans migrated from Africa.[24]

Several textile remnants, such as the Inca Empire's textile arts remnants, which embody the Incas' aesthetics and social ideals, serve as a means for
disseminating information about numerous civilizations, customs, and cultures.[52][53]

There are textile museums that display history related to many aspects of textiles. A textile museum raises public awareness and appreciation of the
artistic merits and cultural significance of the world's textiles on a local, national, and international scale. The George Washington University Museum and
Textile Museum in Washington, D.C., was established in 1925.[54]

Narrative art [ edit ]

The Bayeux Tapestry is a rare example of secular Romanesque art. The art work depicts the Norman Conquest of England in 1066.[55][56]

Decorative art [ edit ]

Main article: Textile arts

Textiles are also used for decorative art. Appliqué work of pipili is decorative art of Odisha, a state in eastern India, used for umbrellas, wall hangings,
lamp shades, and bags. To make a range of decorative products, colored cloth in the shapes of animals, birds, flowers, are sewn onto a base cloth.[57]

This section needs expansion

with: summarize article Textile arts
to give indication of the range of
textile arts.. You can help by
adding to it. (September 2023)

Architextiles [ edit ]

Architextiles, a combination of the words architecture and textile, are textile-based assemblages. Awnings are a basic type of architectural textile.[58]
Mughal Shahi Lal Dera Tent, which was a movable palace, is an example of the architextiles of the Mughal period.[59]

Currency [ edit ]

Textiles had been used as currency as well. In Africa, textiles were used as currency in addition to being used for clothing, headwear, swaddling, tents,
sails, bags, sacks, carpets, rugs, curtains, etc.[60] Along the east–west axis in sub-Saharan Africa, cloth strip, which was typically produced in the
savannah, was used as a form of currency.[61]

Votive offering [ edit ]

Textiles were among the objects offered to the gods [votive offering] in ancient Greece for religious purposes.[62]

Fiber [ edit ]

Main article: Fiber

The smallest component of a fabric is fiber; fibers are typically spun into yarn, and yarns are used to make fabrics. Fibers are very thin and hair-like
structures. The sources of fibers may be natural, synthetic, or both.[2][15]: 64, 69

Global consumption [ edit ]

Global fiber production per person has increased from 8.4 kilograms in 1975 to 14.3 kilograms in 2021. [clarification needed] After a modest drop due to
COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, global fiber output rebounded to 113 million tons in 2021. Global fiber output roughly doubled from 58 million tons in 2000
to 113 million tons in 2021 and is anticipated to reach 149 million tons in 2030.[63]

The demand for synthetic fibers is increasing rapidly. This has numerous causes. Reasons include its low price, the demand-supply imbalance of cotton,
and its [Synthetic fibers'] versatility in design and application. Synthetic fibers accounts for 70% of global fiber use, mainly polyester.[64] By 2030, the
synthetic fiber market will reach 98.21 billion US dollars. From 2022 to 2030, the market is anticipated to increase by 5.1% per year.[65]

Fiber Sources [ edit ]

Natural fibers are obtained from plants, animals and minerals.[2]: 18 Since prehistoric times, textiles have been made from natural fibers. Natural fibers
are further categorized as cellulosic, protein, and mineral.[15]: 70
Synthetic or manmade fibers are manufactured with chemical synthesis.[2]: 18
Semi-synthetic: A subset of synthetic or manmade fibers is semi-synthetic fiber. Rayon is a classified as a semi-synthetic fiber, made with natural
polymers.

Monomers are the building blocks of polymers. Polymers in fibers are of two types: additive or condensation. Natural fibers, such as cotton and wool,
have a condensation polymer type, whereas synthetic fibers can have either an additive or a condensation polymer type. For example, acrylic fiber and
olefin fibers have additive polymers, and nylon and polyester are condensation polymers.[15]

Types [ edit ]

Types of fibers[15]: 68
Natural Synthetic Semi-synthetic

Cellulosic fibers (Vegetable or plant fibers) Protein fibers (Animal fibers) Mineral fibers Petroleum based Cellulose based

Cotton Wool Asbestos Nylon Rayon

Linen Silk Glass fiber Polyester Acetate

Jute Acrylic fiber Triacetate

Hemp Olefin fiber

Spandex

Aramid

Fiber properties [ edit ]

Fiber properties influence textile characteristics such as aesthetics, durability, comfort, and cost.[15]: 69 Fineness is one of the important characteristics of
the fibers. They have a greater length-to-width ratio [100 times the diameter]. Fibers need to be strong, cohesive, and flexible. The usefulness of fibers
are characterized on the basis of certain parameters such as strength, flexibility, and length to diameter ratio, and spinnability. Natural fibers are relatively
short [staple] in length. Synthetic fibers are produced in longer lengths called filaments. Silk is the only natural fiber that is a filament. The classification of
fibers is based on their origin, derivation, and generic types.[2][15]: 64, 69

Certain properties of synthetic fibers, such as their diameter, cross section, and color, can be altered during production.[15]: 66

Cotton: Cotton has a long history of use in the clothing due to its favorable properties. This fiber is soft, moisture-absorbent, breathable, and is renowned
for its long durability.

Blends (blended textiles) [ edit ]

Fabric or yarn produced with a combination of two or more types of different fibers, or yarns to obtain desired traits. Blending is possible at various
stages of textile manufacturing. Final composition is liable for the properties of the resultant product. Natural and synthetic fibers are blended to
overcome disadvantage of single fiber properties and to achieve better performance characteristics and aesthetic effects such as devoré, heather effect,
cross dyeing and stripes pattern etc. Clothing woven from a blend of cotton and polyester can be more durable and easier to maintain than material
woven solely from cotton. Other than sharing functional properties, blending makes the products more economical.[66][67]

Union or Union fabrics is the 19th century term for blended fabrics. While it is no longer in use.[68] Mixture or mixed cloth is another term used for blended
cloths when different types of yarns are used in warp and weft sides.[69][70]

Blended textiles are not new.

Mashru was a 16th-century fabric, is one of the earliest forms of "mixed cloth", a material composed of silk and cotton.[71]
Siamoise was a 17th-century cotton and linen material.[72]

Composition [ edit ]

Fiber composition[73] the fiber blend composition of mixtures of the fibers,[74] is an important criterion to analyze the behavior, properties such as
functional aspects, and commercial classification of the merchandise.[75][76][77]

The most common blend is cotton and polyester. Regular blended fabric is 65% polyester and 35% cotton. It is called a reverse blend if the ratio of cotton
predominates—the percentage of the fibers changes with the price and required properties.

Blending adds value to the textiles; it helps in reducing the cost (artificial fibers are less expensive than natural fibers) and adding advantage in properties
of the final product.[78][79] For instance, a small amount of spandex adds stretch to the fabrics.[80] Wool can add warmth.[81]

Uses of different fibers [ edit ]

Natural fibers [ edit ]

Plant [ edit ]
Grass, rush, hemp, and sisal are all used in making rope.[82] In the first two, the entire plant is used for this
purpose, while in the last two, only fibers from the plant are used. Coir (coconut fiber) is used in making
twine, and also in floormats, doormats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles, and sacking.
Straw and bamboo are both used to make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as is
kapok.
Fibers from pulpwood trees, cotton, rice, hemp, and nettle are used in making paper.
Cotton, flax, jute, hemp, modal, banana, bamboo, lotus, eucalyptus, mulberry, and sugarcane are all used in
clothing.[83][84][85] Piña (pineapple fiber) and ramie are also fibers used in clothing, generally with a blend of
other fibers such as cotton. Nettles have also been used to make a fiber and fabric very similar to hemp or
flax. The use of milkweed stalk fiber has also been reported, but it tends to be somewhat weaker than other
fibers like hemp or flax.
The inner bark of the lacebark tree is a fine netting that has been used to make clothing and accessories as
well as utilitarian articles such as rope.
Acetate is used to increase the shininess of certain fabrics such as silks, velvets, and taffetas.
Seaweed is used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fiber known as alginate is produced and is Bridal gown made from nettle
used as a holding fiber; when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved, leaving an open area. fibers, probably worn by Eleonora
Rayon is a manufactured fiber derived from plant pulp.[86] Different types of rayon can imitate feel and texture Sophie Rantzau (1779-) at her
wedding to Preben Bille-Brahe,
of silk, cotton, wool, or linen.
Hvedholm Castle. National Museum of
Fibers from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as 'bast' fibers. Hemp fiber is Denmark.

yellowish-brown fiber made from the hemp plant. The fiber characteristics are coarser, harsher, [clarification needed]
strong and lightweight. Hemp fiber is used primary to make twine, rope and cordage.[87]

Animal [ edit ]
Animal textiles are commonly made from hair, fur, skin or silk (in the case of silkworms). [clarification needed]

Wool refers to the hair of the domestic sheep or goat, which is distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the individual strands are coated
with scales and tightly crimped, and the wool as a whole is coated with a wax mixture known as lanolin (sometimes called wool grease), which is
waterproof and dirtproof.[88] The lanolin and other contaminants are removed from the raw wool before further processing.[89] Woolen refers to a yarn
produced from carded, non-parallel fibre, while worsted refers to a finer yarn spun from longer fibers which have been combed to be parallel.
Other animal textiles which are made from hair or fur are alpaca wool, vicuña wool, llama wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production
of coats, jackets, ponchos, blankets, and other warm coverings.
Cashmere, the hair of the Indian cashmere goat, and mohair, the hair of the North African angora goat, are types of wool known for their softness.
Used in the production of sweaters and scarfs.
Angora refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the angora rabbit. Qiviut is the fine inner wool of the muskox.
Silk is an animal textile made from the fibres of the cocoon of the Chinese silkworm which is spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness. There
are two main types of the silk: 'mulberry silk' produced by the Bombyx mori, and 'wild silk' such as Tussah silk (wild silk). Silkworm larvae produce the
first type if cultivated in habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for consumption, while Tussah silk is produced by silkworms feeding purely on oak leaves.
Around four-fifths of the world's silk production consists of cultivated silk.[90] Silk products include pillow covers, dresses, tops, skirts, bed sheets,
curtains.

Microbes [ edit ]

Bacterial cellulose can be made from industrial organic and agricultural waste, and used as material for textiles and clothing.[91]

Mineral [ edit ]
Asbestos and basalt fibre are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting and adhesives, "transite" panels and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire
blankets.
Glass fibre is used in the production of ironing board and mattress covers, ropes and cables, reinforcement fibre for composite materials, insect
netting, flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and insulating fibres. Glass fibres are woven and coated with Teflon to produce
beta cloth, a virtually fireproof fabric which replaced nylon in the outer layer of United States space suits since 1968.[92]
Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production of cloth-of-gold and jewellery. Hardware cloth (US term only) is
a coarse woven mesh of steel wire, used in construction. It is much like standard window screening, but heavier and with a more open weave.

Minerals and natural and synthetic fabrics may be combined, as in emery cloth, a layer of emery abrasive glued to a cloth backing. Also, "sand cloth" is a
U.S. term for fine wire mesh with abrasive glued to it, employed like emery cloth or coarse sandpaper.

Synthetic [ edit ]

In the 20th century, they were supplemented by artificial fibers made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability,
from the finest microfibre made of strands thinner than one denier to the sturdiest canvas.

Synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing, as well as the manufacture of geotextiles. Synthetic fibers are those that are chemically
constructed, therefore are unsustainable.

Polyester fibre is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton.
Aramid fibre (e.g. Twaron) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armour.
Acrylic is a fibre used to imitate wools,[93] including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of them.
Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production of pantyhose. Thicker nylon fibres are used in rope and outdoor clothing.
Spandex (trade name Lycra) is a polyurethane product that can be made tight-fitting without impeding movement. It is used to make activewear, bras,
and swimsuits.
Olefin fibre is a fibre used in activewear, linings, and warm clothing. Olefins are hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered felt of olefin
fibres is sold under the trade name Tyvek.
Ingeo is a polylactide fibre blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing. It is more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it
to wick away perspiration.
Lurex is a metallic fibre used in clothing embellishment.
Milk proteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk or casein fibre cloth was developed during World War I in Germany, and further
developed in Italy and America during the 1930s.[94] Milk fibre fabric is not very durable and wrinkles easily, but has a pH similar to human skin and
possesses anti-bacterial properties. It is marketed as a biodegradable, renewable synthetic fibre.[95]
Carbon fibre is mostly used in composite materials, together with resin, such as carbon fibre reinforced plastic. The fibres are made from polymer
fibres through carbonization.

Production methods [ edit ]

Main articles: Textile manufacturing and Textile industry

Textile manufacturing has progressed from prehistoric crafts to a fully automated industry.[15] Over the years, there have been continuous improvements
in fabric structure and design.[96]

Production methods
Production Inventors, inventions and milestones in
Description
method progression
Barkcloth Barkcloth is made by pounding Bark is an older known fabric; ancient people around
bark until it is soft and flat.[97][2]: 245 the world wore bark cloth daily until woven fabrics
replaced it. In Indonesia, the bark cloth is associated
with the Torajan people, who made it from the
fermentation of inner bark of certain local trees,
mulberry and pandanus. The Torajans used stones
and wooden beaters to produce bark cloth.[98]

Barkcloth dress of Lore Bada

people in Lore Valley, Poso Regency,
Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. This
collection of Central Sulawesi Museum
was exhibited in Textile Museum
Jakarta in November 2016.

Felt and other Felting is a method of Felting is another old method of fabric manufacturing.
nonwoven manufacturing fabric directly from While civilizations in the western Mediterranean
fabrics fibers by entangling, interlocking improved their weaving skills, nomads in Central Asia
the fibers by mechanical action learned how to make felt, a non-woven material, from
(like rubbing and pressing) and wool.[15]: 5 [2]: 245 Felting involves applying pressure
often aided by heat and and friction to a mat of fibers, working and rubbing
moisture.[2]: 245 them together until the fibers become interlocked and
tangled, forming a nonwoven textile. A liquid, such as
soapy water, is usually added to lubricate the fibers, Kazakh felt yurt

and to open up the microscopic scales on strands of

wool.[2]: 245 More recently, additional methods have
been developed to bond fibers into nonwoven fabrics,
including needle punching, adhesives, and chemical
binding.[15]: 5 [2]: 245 [99]

Spunbond nonwoven fabric

Weaving Weaving is a textile production
method which involves interlacing
a set of longer threads (called the
warp) with a set of crossing
threads (called the weft). This is
done on a frame or machine known vertical looms and pedal looms, transforming the craft
as a loom, of which there are a
number of types. Some weaving is
still done by hand, but the vast
majority is mechanized.[96]: 1–14
Handlooms: Early Looms date to 5000 BC. From
antiquity until the mediaeval times, the loom improved
in both Asia and Europe, despite the fact that the
loom's fundamental operation remained
unchanged.[100] In 200 BC, the Chinese invented
into an industry. By decreasing the worker's workload,
innovative solutions improved productivity.
There were harnesses and heddles to govern the
movement of the warp yarn, a shuttle to transport the
weft yarns, a reed to compact the cloth, and a take up
roller to roll down the cloth. By the 1st century AD, all Warp and weft
necessary components for a loom were
assembled.[15]: 6

Power looms: John Kay invented the flying shuttle in

1734 in Bury, Lancashire. It was one of the first
innovations in the cotton woven fabric industry.[101]
Samuel Crompton invented a spinning machine in
1779 that produced yarn faster than ever before. Then
Edmund Cartwright invented the first power loom in
1785.[15]: 10

Jacquard loom: The Jacquard machine was a

modified version of programmable loom developed in
1804. It was developed by Joseph Marie Jacquard
based on earlier inventions by Basile Bouchon (1725),
Jean Baptiste Falcon (1728), and Jacques Vaucanson
(1740).

The industrial revolution in the 18th century led to

mass production of yarn and cloth, which led to the
growth of the woven fabric part of the textile
industry.[102]

Knitting Knitting involves interlacing loops
of yarn, which are formed either on
a knitting needle, needle, or on a
crochet hook, together in a line.
The processes are different in that
knitting has several active loops at
one time, on the knitting needle
waiting to interlock with another
loop.[103]
Hand knitting: Though knitting was developed by
Danes around 900 BC it did not reach to other
civilizations until 900 AD.[15]: 5 Europe learned to knit
by hand around 1400. Three to four stockings could
be knit in a week by 1450. William Lee invented a
stocking frame in 1589 that could knit one stocking
per day. Acceptance of Lee's invention and
subsequent modifications resulted in a wide range of
Loop formation. Structure of
fabrics in Europe.[15]: 8 The machine knitting is
stockinette stitch in a weft knitted
separated into two main groups of production fabric.
processes: warp knitting and weft knitting.

Nålebinding involves the use of a

needle to form loops of yarn, by
Nålebinding passing the full length of yarn Nålebinding is a precursor of crocheting and knitting.
through each loop (unlike knitting
and crocheting).

Mittens produced by nålebinding

Crocheting Crocheting never involves more Crocheting was originally practised by Scottish
than one active stitch on the peasants with a small, hooked needle known as a
needle. Knitting can be performed shepherd's hook.[104]
by machine, but crochet can only
be performed by hand.[103]

Most crochet uses one hook and

works upon one stitch at a time.
Crochet may be worked in circular
rounds without any specialized tools,
as shown here.

Spread tow Spread tow is a production method

where the tow fibers are spread
into thin tapes, and then the tapes
are woven as warp and weft. This
method is mostly used for
composite materials; spread tow
fabrics can be made in carbon,
aramid and other fibers.
Braiding or Braiding or plaiting involves
plaiting intertwining threads together into
cloth.

Braiding

Knotting involves tying threads

Knotting together and is used in making
tatting and macrame.[105][96]: 279

Lace Lace is made by interlocking

threads together to create a fine
fabric with open holes in the work.
Lace can be made by either hand
(e.g. needle lace or bobbin lace) or
machine.[106]

Bobbin lace in progress

All technologies - weft knitting, warp knitting, weaving

Complex interlacement of yarns
and braiding allow production of complex products
where the final product has not
3D Textiles with 3D form if suitable machine configuration and
plain form as flat fabrics, but 3D
pattern are used. This technologies are used for
form.
woven heart valves, composite profiles and other.

Additive Fabric manufacturing by 3D printer

manufactured employs additive manufacturing,
textile like also known as additive layer
structures manufacturing (ALM), a CAD-aided
manufacturing technique that
builds the object layer by layer. The
method is used in manufacturing of
Auxetic textiles and in composite 3D-printed outfit
materials.[107]

Important parameters in fabric selection:

The primary consideration in fabric selection is the end use. The fabric needs vary greatly depending on the application. Similar types of fabric may not
be suitable for all applications.[15]: 18

Fabric weight is an important criteria while producing different fabrics. A carpet requires a fabric with 1300 GSM, but a robe may be made with 160 GSM.
Certainly, fabrics for clothes and carpets have distinct weights.[15]: 18

Range of fabric weights typically used in various textile products[108]

GSM (grams per square meter) range Categorization Termed as Suitable for the textile products

0-50 Sheer fabric Sheer curtains, Lingerie items, Wedding dresses,

50-150 Light weight Top weight Blouse, Lining, Shirt, T-shirt, Dress
150-300 Medium weight Bottom weight Skirt, Trousers, Kind of denims, and Suits

300-600 Medium to heavy weight Bull denim Drapery, Overcoat, Towel, Slipcover, Workwear
More than 600 Heavy Carpet, Mat, Upholstery, Type of Winter coats

Stretchable fabrics have greater movability and are thus more comfortable than fabrics with no stretch or less stretch.[15]: 23

Textile exports [ edit ]

According to the United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database, the global textiles and apparel export Top five exporters of textiles—2013
market reached $772 billion in 2013.[110] ($ billion)

China 274
Changing dynamics of the market [ edit ]
India 40
China is the largest exporter of textile goods. The majority of China's exports consist of apparel, apparel
accessories, textile yarns, and textile products. The competitive advantages of the China are low prices and Italy 36
abundant labor, lowered commercial obstacles, and a ready supply of raw materials. China, along with the Germany 35
United States and India, is a major producer of cotton.[111][112]
Bangladesh 28

China's apparel market share has declined in recent years due to various reasons and a shift toward high-end, Source:[109]
sophisticated products. Additionally, the investors from China made stakes in Myanmar, Vietnam, and
Cambodia. Last year, its market share was 36.7%, or $161 billion, a decline of 8% year-over-year. In other words, China lost $14 billion in garment work
orders to other countries in a single year. In 2016, Bangladesh's apparel market share was valued at $28 billion, increasing 7.69 percent from the
previous year.

In 2016 the leading exporters of apparel were; China ($161 billion), Bangladesh ($28 billion), Vietnam ($25 billion), India ($18 billion), Hong Kong ($16
billion), Turkey ($15 billion), and Indonesia ($7 billion).[113]

Garment Exports in Bangladesh Reached Record High in 2021-2022 Fiscal Year; China ($220.302 billion), Bangladesh ($38.70 billion), India ($8.127
billion), Pakistan ($19.33 billion).[114]

Finishing [ edit ]

The fabric, when it leaves a loom or knitting machine, is not readily usable. It may be rough, uneven, or have
flaws like skewing. Hence, it is necessary to finish the fabric. Finishing techniques enhance the value of the
treated fabrics.[15]: 6 After manufacturing, textiles undergo a range of finishing procedures, including bleaching,
dyeing, printing, as well as mechanical and chemical finishing.[11]

Coloration [ edit ]

Textiles are often dyed, with fabrics available in almost every colour. The dyeing process often requires several
dozen gallons of water for each pound of clothing.[115] Coloured designs in textiles can be created by weaving
together fibres of different colours (tartan or Uzbek Ikat), adding coloured stitches to finished fabric (embroidery),
creating patterns by resist dyeing methods, tying off areas of cloth and dyeing the rest (tie-dyeing), drawing wax
designs on cloth and dyeing in between them (batik), or using various printing processes on finished fabric.
Woodblock printing, still used in India and elsewhere today, is the oldest of these dating back to at least 220 CE
in China. Textiles are also sometimes bleached, making the textile pale or white.

Color matching [ edit ]

Early method of bleaching cotton
In textiles, color matching extends beyond selecting the appropriate dyestuffs or pigments and combining them and linen goods on lawns
in precise proportions to achieve the desired end product color.[116] Meeting criteria for fastness, cost, and quality
is also essential. This process plays a critical role in materializing a designer's concept into an actual
product.[116]

Finishes [ edit ]

Textile finishing is the process of converting the loomstate or raw goods into a useful product, which can be done mechanically or chemically. Finishing is
a broad term that refers to a variety of physical and chemical techniques and treatments that finish one stage of textile production while also preparing for
the next. Textile finishing can include aspects like improving surface feel, aesthetical enhancement, and adding advanced chemical finishes.[11] A finish is
any process that transforms unfinished products into finished products.[117] This includes mechanical finishing and chemical applications which alter the
composition of treated textiles (fiber, yarn or fabric.)

Since the 1990s, with advances in technologies such as permanent press process, finishing agents have been used to strengthen fabrics and make them
wrinkle free.[118] More recently, nanomaterials research has led to additional advancements, with companies such as Nano-Tex and NanoHorizons
developing permanent treatments based on metallic nanoparticles for making textiles more resistant to things such as water, stains, wrinkles, and
pathogens such as bacteria and fungi.[119]

Textiles receive a range of treatments before they reach the end-user. From formaldehyde finishes (to improve crease-resistance) to biocidic finishes and
from flame retardants to dyeing of many types of fabric, the possibilities are almost endless. However, many of these finishes may also have detrimental
effects on the end user. A number of disperse, acid and reactive dyes, for example, have been shown to be allergenic to sensitive individuals.[120] Further
to this, specific dyes within this group have also been shown to induce purpuric contact dermatitis.[121]

Eisengarn, meaning "iron yarn" in English, is a light-reflecting, strong material invented in Germany in the 19th century. It is made by soaking cotton
threads in a starch and paraffin wax solution. The threads are then stretched and polished by steel rollers and brushes. The result of the process is a
lustrous, tear-resistant yarn which is extremely hardwearing.[122][123]

Finishing techniques
Finishing Fabrics
Carpets, rugs, velvet, velour, and velveteen, referred to as pile fabrics, are made by interlacing a secondary yarn through woven cloth,
Brushing
creating a tufted layer known as a nap or pile.[4]: 196
"Shearing machine" is a machine equipped with shearing cylinder, ledger blade, fluff exhaust, and joint seam sensors. The machine
Shearing
operates similarly to a lawn mower.[124][4]: 197 Moleskin and velvet are sheared materials in which pile is cut to a certain level.[125]

Environmental and health impacts [ edit ]

After the oil industry, the fashion industry is the second biggest polluter of agricultural land, which has several harmful impacts on the environment. As the
industry grows, the effect on the environment is worsening.[126] Textile manufacturing is one of the oldest and most technologically complicated
industries. This industry's fundamental strength stems from its solid manufacturing base of a diverse range of fibers/yarns ranging from natural fibers
such as jute, silk, wool, and cotton, to synthetic or manufactured fibers that include polyester, viscose, nylon, and acrylic.

Textile mills and their wastewater have grown in proportion to the increase in demand for textile products, generating a severe pollution concern around
the world. Numerous textile industry chemicals pose environmental and health risks. Among the compounds in textile effluent, dyes are considered
significant contaminants. Water pollution generated by the discharge of untreated wastewater and the use of toxic chemicals, particularly during
processing, account for the majority of the global environmental concerns linked with the textile industry.[127]

Environmental impacts [ edit ]

Clothing is necessary to meet the fundamental needs of humans. Increased population and living standards have increased the need for clothing,
enhancing the demand for textile manufacturing; wet processing needs more water consumption.[128] Conventional machinery and treatment procedures
use enormous quantities of water, especially for natural fibers, which require up to 150 kg of water per kg of material.[129] The textile sector is
accountable for a substantial number of environmental impacts. However, the discharge of untreated effluents into water bodies is responsible for the
majority of environmental harm produced by the textile sector.[130]

The textile sector is believed to utilise 79 trillion litres of water per year and to discharge around 20% of all industrial effluent into the environment.[131]
Reportedly, aromatic and heterocyclic compounds with color-display and polar groups make up most of the dyes used in textile coloration processes. The
structure is more complex and stable, making it more difficult to degrade printing and dyeing wastewater.[132]

In addition, textiles constitute a significant percentage of landfill waste. In 2023, North Carolina State University researchers used enzymes to separate
cotton from polyester in an early step towards reducing textile waste, allowing each material to be recycled.[133]

Health impacts [ edit ]

Many kinds of respiratory diseases, skin problems, and allergies may be caused by dyes and pigments discharged into the water.

Although formaldehyde levels in clothing are unlikely to be at levels high enough to cause an allergic reaction,[134] due to the presence of such a
chemical, quality control and testing are of utmost importance. Flame retardants (mainly in the brominated form) are also of concern where the
environment, and their potential toxicity, are concerned.[135]

Chemicals use, advantage and health impacts [ edit ]

Certain chemical finishes contain potential hazards to health and the environment. Perfluorinated acids are considered to be hazardous to human health
by the US Environmental Protection Agency.[136]

Advantage in textile
Name of the substance Associated health risks and environmental impacts References
products

Perfluorooctanoic acid ( PFOA), [137][138]

Hydrophobic effect Endocrine disruptor
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon)

Fluorocarbon (PFC) Hydrophobic effect May cause respiratory illness [139]

Brominated flame Persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic substances may cause [140]
Bromine
retardant neurobehavioral disorders and endocrine disruption
Antimicrobial Environmental impact of silver nanoparticles and toxic effects on [141][142]
Silver, silver nanoparticle
resistance human health

Testing [ edit ]
Testing for these additives is possible at a number of commercial laboratories. It is also possible to have textiles tested according to the Oeko-tex
certification standard, which contains limits levels for the use of certain chemicals in textiles products.

Laws and regulations [ edit ]

Different countries have certain laws and regulations to protect consumers' interests. The Textile Fiber Products Identification Act is a law that protects
consumers in the United States. The act protects producer and consumer interests by implementing labelling (required content disclosure) and
advertising requirements on textile products. The Textile Fiber Products Identification Act applies to all textile fiber products besides wool, which is
governed by the Wool Product Label Number. The law prohibits misinformation about the fiber content, misbranding, and any unfair advertising practice,
as well as requires businesses to operate in a particular manner.[143][4]

Testing of textiles [ edit ]

Testing occurs at various stages of the textile manufacturing process, from raw material to finished product. The purpose of testing is to evaluate and
analyze the regulatory compliance, the product's quality and performance, as well as to measure its specifications. Textile testing encompasses a wide
range of methodologies, procedures, equipment, and sophisticated laboratories. Local governments and authorized organization's such as ASTM
International, International Organization for Standardization, and American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists establish standards for testing of
textiles.[144][145]

Some examples of tests at different stages:

For fiber: Fiber identification is a necessary test for determining fiber content and classifying products. The labelling of items with their fiber content
percentage is a regulatory requirement. Using microscopy, solubility, and burn tests, fibers are distinguished from one another.[146] More fiber relating
tests include fiber length, diameter, Micronaire.[147]

For yarn: Yarn count, Denier, Strength, evenness.

For fabric: Dimensional stability, color fastness, thread count, G.S.M, pilling, flammability.[144][145][148]

Picture gallery [ edit ]

Textile market on the Magnified view of a plain Fabric shop in canal Late antique textile, Mrs. Condé Nast
sidewalks of Karachi, or tabby weave textile town Mukalla, Yemen Egyptian, now in the wearing a silk Fortuny
Pakistan Dumbarton Oaks tea gown
collection

Traditional tablecloth, Textiles made from The Banton Burial Cloth, A double ikat weaving Advertisement for Zepel,
Maramureș, Romania Alpaca wool at the the oldest existing made by the Tausug the trade name used to
Otavalo Artisan Market example of warp ikat in people from Sulu, made market Teflon as a fabric
in the Andes Mountains, Southeast Asia, of banana leaf stalk fiber treatment
Ecuador displayed at the National (Abacá)
Museum of the
Philippines. The cloth
was most likely made by
the native Asia people of
northwest Romblon.

A weaving shed of the Textile machinery at the Cotton fiber Nylon A variety of
Finlayson & Co factory in Cambrian Factory, contemporary fabrics.
Tampere, Finland, in Llanwrtyd, Wales, in the From the left:
1932[149] 1940s evenweave cotton,
velvet, printed cotton,
calico, felt, satin, silk,
hessian, polycotton.

A textile factory in Israel, Woven tartan of Clan Embroidered skirts by A modern umbrella fabric Appliqué cross. The
1969 Campbell, Scotland the Alfaro-Nùñez family has specific edges are covered and
of Cochas, Peru, using requirements for colour stitches are hidden. It is
traditional Peruvian fastness to light, water overlaid with decorative
embroidery methods[150] and wet rubbing, and gold thread.
permeability.

Clothing made of Close-up view of a A fabric tunnel in A modern Manila hemp Textile doll (11th
textiles, Thailand Barong Tagalog made Moulvibazar District, made on industrial century), Chancay
with piña fiber in the Bangladesh weaving machines culture, found near Lima,
Philippines Walters Art Museum. Of
their small size, dolls are
frequently found in
ancient Peruvian
tombs.[151]

See also [ edit ]

Clothing in the ancient world – What people wore in antiquity as Textile manufacturing – The industry which produces textiles
inferred from archaeological and historical evidence Glossary of textile manufacturing – Alphabetical list of terms relating
International Down and Feather Testing Laboratory to the manufacture of textiles
List of textile fibres Textile printing – Method for applying patterns to cloth using printing
Technical textile – Textile product valued for its functional techniques
characteristics Timeline of clothing and textiles technology – Timeline of events
Textile arts – Form of arts and crafts using fibers relating to clothing and textile manufacturing technology

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Further reading [ edit ]

Boucher, François. 20,000 Years of Fashion: The history of costume and personal adornment. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987 ISBN 0-8109-1693-
2.
Conrad, James L. "'Drive That Branch': Samuel Slater, the Power Loom, and the Writing of America's Textile History". Technology and culture 36.1
(1995): 1–28. online .
Jenkins, David, ed.: The Cambridge History of Western Textiles, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-521-34107-8.
Payne, Blanche; Winakor, Geitel; Farrell-Beck Jane (1992) The History of Costume, from the Ancient Mesopotamia to the Twentieth Century, 2nd
Edn, HarperCollins ISBN 0-06-047141-7.
Piponnier, Françoise, and Perrine Mane; Dress in the Middle Ages; Yale UP; 1997; ISBN 0-300-06906-5.
Postrel, Virginia (10 Nov 2020). The Fabric of Civilization: How Textiles Made the World (Hardcover ed.). New York, NY: Basic Books. ISBN 978-1-
5416-1760-5.
Fisher, Nora (1994). Rio Grande Textiles (Paperbound ed.). Museum of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-89013-266-6. Introduction by Teresa Archuleta-
Sagel. 196 pages with 125 black and white as well as colour plates. Fisher is Curator Emirta, Textiles & Costumes of the Museum of International
Folk Art.
Good, Irene (2006). "Textiles as a Medium of Exchange in Third Millennium B.C.E. Western Asia". In Mair, Victor H. (ed.). Contact and Exchange in
the Ancient World. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 191–214. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4.
Arai, Masanao (Textile Industry Research Institute of Gunma). "From Kitsch to Art Moderne: Popular Textiles for Women in the First Half of Twentieth-
Century Japan " (Archive ). Textile Society of America Symposium Proceedings. Textile Society of America, January 1, 1998.

External links [ edit ]

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