1.1 DEFINING A SET 1.2 ELEMENTS.

NUMBER OF
ELEMENTS IN A SET
.- . r 1:-.,\ collection \:f II 'tnS usually of the same kind it
..m be den ted D\ a apital lcttcr A set may be defined The different items 111 a set are called Its members or
D\ Ii. ting (lit' mC~l1hcr, or de" cribing III em . A set I. said
elements.
1~ be 'K' Il-dtjincd wh en all Its members 'an b listed.

~ ) a n~, . of sheep } Xon-well-defined sets

(.b) a pack of .ards EXAMPLE 2
t·) the vowels In the EndLh"alphabct } Well-defined IfB = {2, 4, 6, 8}.
(.d) ev en numb ers les than b sets Then 2, 4,6, and 8 are elements of set B.
{e) prime number. between 5 and 17. We write 2 EB,4 EB, 6 EB and 8 EB.
Or 2, 4, 6, 8 E B.
EXAMPLE 1
The symbol E means 'is an element of'·
(a) A = the set of owels in the English alphabet
= {vowels In the English alphabet} The number of elements in set B is 4.
= {a.e,i,o,u}. This can be written as nCB) = 4.
Where nCB) means 'the number of elements in set B'.
(b) B = the set of even numbers between 1 and 9
=
{even numbers between 1 and 9} Since 5 is not an element of set B, we write 5 (l B.
= {2, 4 6, 8}. Where the symbol (l means 'is not an element of'.

The curly brackets or braces {} means 'the set of'.

Exercise 1b

Exercise 1a Write the following statements in sets notation:

1. Turtle is a member of the set of living things.
LISt the members of the following sets: 2. Brazil is not an Asian country.
1. A = {even numbers less than l3}. 3. Orange is a member of the set of fruits.
2. B = {prime numbers between 15 and 30}. 4. Electricity is not a member of the set of living things.
3. C = {multiples of 5 between 12 and 47}. 5. Mathematics is a member ofthe set of school subjects.
4. X = {whole numbers greater than 10 but less than 6. Curry is not a member of the set of cars.
20}. 7. A carite is a fish.
5. y = {letters used in the word 'mathematics' }. 8. Three members that belong to {calypso singers).
6. Z = {prime numbers less than 21 }. 9. Grape is not a member of the set of animals.
7. D = { odd numbers less than 21 }. 10. Zero is not a natural number.
8. E = {even number from 4 to 16 inclusive}.
9. F = {odd numbers from 3 to 15 exclusive}. Write down the meaning of:
10. H = {vowels in the English alphabet}.
11. Physics E {science subj~cts}.
12. French ~ {science subjects}.
Describe in words, the following sets:
11. P =
{2,3,5,7,ll,13,17}. 13. Cricket E {team games}.
12. Q = {25, 30, 35, 40, 45}._ 14. Albert ~ {girls' names}.
13. R =
{a, e, i, 0, u}. 15. 1,3,5 E {odd numbers}.
14. S =
{1,4,9,16,25,36,49}. 16. 2, 4, 6 ~ {odd numbers}.
15. T =
{15,17,19,21,23,25}.

2
 'si.lt . IfI,' number \·1 l'IcfllI:llh HI III' f ,II" \ It· .1 I lilt! ) If C ::: [Soviet cosmonuuts who walked on
Ih. r l .lIhlll 1.( II _ )
Mar~J.
I"". = I ,'I)
to' IllHlItwh k"" th,m 15) Thl!1I C IS an empty set.
IS. B - t ~'\ en nurnber, b.:. than 1b IIl'111~IVC) That is C = ( J.
Ill. = (t'\ en nurnbc r.. k)',~ than 14 ex Ilhl\ e ]
2U. P == [odd nurnber-, l~~~ thill) 14}
Exercise 1c
:n. =
{l)UJ numbers less than 15 mclusivc].
~2.. R {\ d J numbers less than 13 exclusive} State whether the following sets arc finue, infinite or null:
,~ X = { prime numbers ks~ than 12}.
-.. 1. X = {even numbers less than 100 J
..,. Y {
...... =
pnrne numbers less than 13 inclusive] 2. Y = {even numbers}
25. Z =
{pnme numbers less than 17 exclusive} 3. Z = {people wrth SJX legs}.
4. P = {2, 3, 5, 7, J 1 13, 17,
5. Q = {x.x~5,xE R}.
1.3 FINITE AND INFINITE SETS 6.
7. L =
°
R = {x: < x~ 4, x E W}
{people who have swam the Caribbean Sea}
8. The set of odd numbers which can be exactly
In «finite set I{ IS possible to count and name all the
divided by 2.
e lement III the et. In an infinite set It is not possible to
count or name all the elements III the set. 9. L = {y:y~-1.5andy~7.5,yE R}.
10. M = {r: r>Oandr<8,rE N}.
EXAMPLE 3

(a) Let X =
{months of the year}.
Then X = {January, February, March, April, 1.5 THE UNIVERSAL SET
May, June, July, August, September,
October. November, December}. For any particular problem, the universal set is the set
So n(X) 12. = from which all the elements are taken. The universal set
is denoted by the symbol U.
\\ e say that set X is finite, since all its elements can
be counted and named.
EXAMPLE 5

(b) Let )-
= {x:x~O,xE WI. (a) If p = {x: x ~ 0 , x E Z }, then the universal
Then ) = {O, 1,2,3, ... }. set, U = W, the set of whole numbers.
So n(Y = unknown.
(b) If R = {x: x> 0, x E Z }, then the universal
We say that set Y is infinite, since the series is set, U = N, the set of natural numbers.
continuous indefinitely.
Exercise 1d
Suggest a suitable universal set for each of the
The notation {x: ... j means 'the set of all x such
following:
that'. It is a part of the set builder notation.
1. A = {12, 16, ;20, 21, 23}.
2. B = {protractors, rulers, set squares, compasses,
dividers} .
1.4 THE NULL OR EMPTY SET 3. X = {-3, -2, -I, 0, 1,2,3, 4},
4. Y = {2,3,5,7,ll,13,19,23}.
The null or empty set contain no elements and it is 5. P = {O, I, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
6. Give examples of a few empty sets.
denoted by the symbols ( j or fJ.

EXAMPLE 4

(a) If Z = {people on earth who are older than

300 years}.
Then Z IS an empty set.
That is Z = { }.
Or Z =(1S.

3
 Exercise 1e
1.6 SUBSETS 1. If A::: (3,6,9,12, J5, 18,21}, B;;: {3, 6, 91,
C = {9, 12} and 0::: (3, 12,21}, then complete
If A and 13 an' any two sets, and 4111 the clements of A arc
the following:
c<>ntuillt'(/Ill B. then WI.! say that A is a subset or D. (a) B c A :: f / } C { .,- }.
W(: write A L JJ. (b) C c A ::: { } c { }.
(c) 0 c A :: { } c { }.
EXAMPLE 6 (d) C ct. B ::: { } ct. { }.

If A:: {9. II, 13}. 13 = 17,9. 11.13. IS} and (c) C ct. 0 ::: f } ct. ( }.
(f) B ct. 0 ::: f ) ct. ( }.
C = { I. 2. 3).
Thl!l1 A IS a subset of 13,A c B
Since {9,11.13}c{7.9,11.13,15}. 2. =
If A {2, 4}, B ::: {2, 4,6,8} and
C ::: {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}. State whetherthe
Where the symbol c means 'is contained ill' or statement A c Bee is true or false?
'is a subset of'
3. If A ::: {3, 5}, B ::: {3, 7, 9} and
Also C not a subset of A, C CZA.
IS C::: {3, 7,11,13, 15}. State whether the
And CIS not a subset of B, C CZ B. statement A c Bee is true or false?
Since {I 2, 3} ct. {9, 11, 13}.
And {I. 2, 3} ct. {7. 9, 11, 13, IS}.
4. If A = {p, q, r, s}, write down all the subsets of A
Indicate the proper subsets of A.

Where the symbol CZ means 'is not contained ill' or

5. From the set {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, ] 0, 11, ]9, 22, 35, 39,
'is not a subset of'.
41, 54}, write down the sets of numbers wluch are'
(a) pnme (d) multiples of 2
(b) odd (e) multiples of 3
(c) even (f) factors of 39.
1.7 THE NUMBER OF
SUBSETS 6. (a) List the perfect squares in the set
{2,4,8, 10, 16,20, 25}.
If R = {a, b, c}. (b) List the cubes in the set
Then the subsets of Rare: {8,9,27,54,64,96}.
{a}. {b}, {c},
{a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, 7. =
Given that the set P {2, 4, 6, }, calculate the
{ }, {a, b, c}. number of possible subsets of P.

This indicatesthat the empty set is a subset of all sets. 8. =

Given that the set T {5, 7, 8, W, 15}, calculate
And every set is a subset of itself. That is, for any set A, the number of possible subsets of T.
P GA and A cA.
9. IfP::: {2, 3, 5, 7,11,13,17,19, 23}. how many
The first six subsets of R are called proper subsets. subsets can be formed from P?
The last two subsets of R are called improper subsets
State whether the following statements are
From above nCR) 3. = true of false:
And the number of subsets, S = 8.
10. {squares} c {rectangles}.
11. {rhombuses} c {parallelograms}.
Now S :::2n is aformula that can be used to find the
12. {squares} c {rhombuses}.
number of subsets of a particular set.
13. {rectangles} c {parallelograms}.
Where S =
the number of subsets.
14. {kites} c {rhombuses}.
And n = the number of elements.
15. {kites} c {parallelograms}.
16. {tr.apeziums} c {parallelograms}.
From above, the number of subsets, S = 2n
17. {kites} c {trapeziums}.
::: 23
18. {trapeziums} c {kites}.
=2x2x2
19. {kites} c {squares}.
=8
20. {trapeziums} c {rectangles I.
A
1

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e 113 THE UNION OFTWO SErs
11 \ 15 .. l~. n l~'.\')}i\Ud p;:: i 16, 171
t 11'lhl- cvm,pl 1f.4IU \\1 P, I";;. (15. Hi, Jt»). The union of two sets A and R is the ~el of all
clements that arc in either A or B. That IS,
A u B = (x: x E A or x E n nr 'loth).
P' The Vetl" diagram can be seen below
15
18 u A 8
19 (A V 8)'

Venn diagram Fig. 1 2

Au8
(A or 8) -E]) (neither
A nor B)

Venn diagram
1.12 THE INTERSECTION OF Fig. 1.5

TWO SETS The shaded region represents A union B, A U B.

If A and B are two sets, then the intersection of A and B

EXAMPLE 11
is the set of all elements that are common to both A and
B. That is, If U = {11, 12, 13,14,15,16,17, 18},
A (\ B = {x: x E A and x E B) A=(l2, 15, 18} andB= {13, 15, 17}.
ThenAll1lionB,A uB= {12, 13, 15, 17, IS}.
The Venn diagram can be seen below. And the complement of A union B,
(A uB)' = {11, ]4, 16}.
u A B
Also A' =
{II, 13, 14, ] 6, 17}.
And B'= {II, 12, 14,16, IS).
A'nB' Therefore A' nB'= {ll, 14, 16}.
--+-
(neither
A nor B) Hence (AuB)'=A'nB'.
AnB
(A and B)
Now A intersection B, A n B {IS}. =
Venn diagram Fig. 1.3 And the complement of A intersection B,
(A nB)' = {II, 12,13,14,16,17, 18}.
The shaded region represents A intersection B, A n B. Also A' uB' =
{ll, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18}.

EXAMPLE 10 Hence (A nB)'=A' uB'.

u, U =
{II, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18},
A =
{12, 15, 18} and B = {13, 15, 17}. The rules (AuB)'=A'nB'and
Then A intersection B,A nB = {IS}. (AnB)'=A'uB'
A intersection B complement, A n B' {12, 18}. = are called De Morgan's Laws.
And B intersection A complement, B n A' {I3, 17}. =
The Velln diagram can be seen below.
The Venn diagram can be seen below.

U A B u A B
11 11
14 14
16 16

Fig. 1.4
Fig. 1.6
Venn diagram Venn diagram
1.14 SUBSETS u (A u 8)'
.._+- (neither
IfA and 8 ar two sets, and A I a subset of B, then we A nor 8)
w nte A c B.
l-unher A c B = [x " X E A ~ X E B)

.4 nB ~(),.4 nB =A and A uB = B.
AuB
(.4 uB)' = B' (A or B)

Venn diagram Fig. 1.9

The Velln diagrams can be seen below.

EXAMPLE 13

If U = {20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34},

A = {20, 24, 28} and B {22, 26}. =
Then A n B = {}. So the sets A and B are disjoint.
AnB=A AuB=B And A uB =
{20, 22, 24, 26, 28}.
Also (A uB)' =
{30, 32, 34}.
Venn diagrams Fig. 1.7
The Venn diagram can be seen below.
EXAMPLE 12
U A B
If U= {2, 3, 5, 7,11,13,17, 19},

CJD 0
A = {5, 11, 17} andB = {2, 5, 7,11,17, 19}. 30
Then A nB = {5, 11,17} =A. 32
4
And A uB = {2, =
5, 7, 11,17, 19} B. 8
34

Also B' =
{3, 13}.
Venn diagram Fig. 1.10
And (A uB)'={3,13}=B'.

Hence A is a subset of B, A cB. Exercise 19

1. If X = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9} and
The Venn diagrams can be seen below.
Y = {2, 4, 6, 8,10,12,14,16, 18}.
(a) Then Xu Y = { }?
u (b) And X n Y = { }?
Draw a suitable Venn diagram to show the
union of the two sets.

2. If A= {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18,21} and

AnB=A AuB=B = {3, 5, 7, 9,11,13,15,17,19,21}.
B
Then A n B = { }?
Venn diagrams Fig. 1.8 Draw a suitable Venn diagram to show the
intersection of the two sets.

1.15 DISJOINT SETS 3. Describe using sets notation, the shaded area
in the following Venn diagrams:
Two sets, A and B are said to be disjoint if A n B = { }.
=
So A n B {x:x E A ~ x e B). U
r=».
A\":s!yB
The Venn diagram can be seen in Fig. 1.9

(a)

7
 u u
B

(d)
1, 6, 11, 13, 15, 16

\~_Of)j (0
Venn diagram

The Venn diagram above shows two sets

Fig. 1.12

A and B, which are subsets of the universal

u Determine the following: set, U.

9. U = { }.
10. A = { }.
(h) }.
11. B = {
Venn diagrams Fig. 1.11 12. AnB = { }.
13. AuB = { }.
4. If X = [prime numbers less than 20} and 14. (A u B), = { }.
Y = {odd numbers less than 16}. 15. AnB' = { }.
(a) Draw a suitable Venn diagram to represent the
information given above. 16. Consider the following three statements:
Find: (1) Some students play cricket.
(b) X n Y (c) Xu Y (d) X n Y' (e) Y n X'. (2) Short students are less than 2 metres in height.
(3) All cricket players are short students.
5. Find the union and intersection of the two given
sets In each of the following: (a) Represent the statements in a suitable Venn
(a) A = {3, 6, 9,12, IS} and diagram, showing and stating an appropriate
B= {6, 8,10,12, 14}. universal set.
(b) X = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13} and Y = {l, 5, II}. (b) Show on your Venn diagram that:
Draw suitable Venn diagrams to show the (i) Viv is 2.1 m tall.
Information given above. (ii) Frank, who is 1.5 m tall, does not play cricket.

17. Consider the following three statements:

6. IfP = {3, 6, 9,12, IS} and Q = {2, 4, 6,8, IO}.
(1) Some students play basketball.
State the elements in P r, Q. Draw a suitable Venn
(2) Tall students are more than 2 metres in height.
diagram to represent the information. Shade the
region P n Q. (3) All basketball players are tall students.

(a) Represent the statements in a suitable Venn

7. Find the union of the two given sets in each of the
diagram, showing and stating an appropriate
following:
uni versal set.
(a) X = {3, 6,9.12, IS} and Y = {6, 12, 18, 24}.
(b) Show on your Venn diagram that:
(b) P= {2, 3, 5,7, II} andQ= {2, 5, nj.
(i) Samuel is 1.7 m tall.
Draw SUitable Venn diagrams to show the union
(ii) Albert, who is 2.2 m tall, does not play
of the sets above.
basketball.

8. Find the intersection of the two given sets in each
of the following:
(a) R = {odd numbers less than IS} and
S = {prime numbers less than 12}.
(b) L = {even numbers between 6 and 16
Inclusive} and M = {1O, 12, 14}.
Draw SUitable Venn diagrams to show the
Intersection of the sets above.
State whether the following statements are empty
or not:
18. {rhombuses} n {rectangles}.
19. {parallelograms} n {squares}.
20. {squares} n {rectangles}.
21. {rhombuses} n {parallelograms}.
22. {kites} n {trapeziums}.
23. {trapeziums} n {parallelograms}.
24. If P ::: [whol b
and e num ers that divide exactly into 15} u
F
Q :::{p' hole numbers that divide exactly into 18}
t hn nQ:::f }. '
Draw a Venn dia
gram to show the intersection
a f th e two sets.

25. If A::: {factors of 12} and Venn diagram Fig. 1.13

B ::: {factors of 16}.
(a) The number of students who played cricket only,
Then A u B::: { }.
=
nrC n F') nrC) - nrC n F)
Draw a Venn diagram to show the union = (20 - 7) students
of the two sets. = 13 students
26. If X ::: {whole numbers less than 18} and Hence 13 students played cricket only.
Y ::: {prime numbers less than 18}.
State the elements in Xu Y. Draw a suitable (b) The number of students who played/ootball only,
Venn diagram to represent the information. Shade =
n(F n C') n(F) - nrC n F)
the region Xu Y. = (17 - 7) students
= 10 students
27. If P = {multiples of 3 less than 19} and
=
Q {multiples of 2 less than 13}. Hence 10 students played/ootball only.
State the elements in P n Q. Draw a suitable
Venn diagram to represent the information. Shade
EXAMPLE 15
the region P n Q.
In a class of 30 students, 21 like Mathematics, i2 like
Physics and 6 like neither Mathematics nor Physics.
Estimate the number of students who like:
1.16 THE NUMBER OF (a) both Mathematics and Physics
(b) only Mathematics
ELEMENTS IN TWO SETS (c) only Physics.

Venn diagrams can be very useful in finding the number Let M = {students who like Mathematics}.
0/ elements in certain subsets of two intersecting sets. =
And P {students who like Physics}.
Then n(U) = 30 students.

EXAMPLE 14
So n(M) =
21 students.
And n(P) = 12 students.
In a class of 30 students, 20 played cricket, 17 played Also n(M uP)' = 6 students.
football and 7 played both cricket and football. Find the
Let the number of students who like both Mathematics
number of students who played:
=
and Physics, n(M n P) x students.
(a) cricket only
(b) football only. Then the number of students who like Mathematics only,
n(M n P') = (21 - x) students.
Let C = {students who played cricket}.
And F = {students who played football}. And the number of students who like Physics only,
Then n(U) = nrC u F) = 30 students. n(P nM') =(12 -x) students.
So nrC)= 20 students. Then we have the following Venn diagram:
Also n(F) = 17 students.
And nrC n F) :::7 students. u
Then we have the following Venn diagram: M

Venn diagram. fiQ.1.14

9
,. \ \' , n( V) ::: \~ 1 - \" ·t.· + 12 - x t 6) students 4. Of 26 students, 13 play the violin and 2J
:::~21 + 12 + 6 - \ + X - .r) students
gunar. If 8 students play both the violin aPlay the
find how many students play: nd gUitar
::: (39 - r) students
: n\ 1'1( (1 ::: 30 student:
(a) the violin only (b) the gUita '
r(Jnly.
Thus 30 :::39 -
\. . X ::: 39 - 30 :::9
5. Of 45 students, 30 play badminton and 26
tennis. If 11 students play both badmint Play
. . h ~and
H n 9 student: lik both Mathematic. and Physics. tennis, estimate ow many students pla .
. 1 y.
(a) ba d rrunton on y (b) tennis onl y.
):\) The numb r of. tudents who like Mathematics ollly,
n(M n P') ::: (21 - .v) student 6. U
::: (21 - 9) student.
::: 12 students

Hen 1_ tudents like Mathematics only.

() The number of tudents who like Physics only, Venn diagram

Fig. 1.17
n(P n M')::: (12 - x) students
::: (12 - 9) students
::: 3 students In the Venn diagram above n(U)::: 45, n(A)::: 20
=
n(B)::: 18, n(A u B)' 15 and n(A n B)::: x. Fi~d'
Hence 3 students like Physics only. (a) x (b) n(A n B') (c) nCB n ~).

7. U
Exercise 1h
1. U n(A) = 17 n(8) = 18

Venn diagram Fig. 1.18

Venn diagram Fig. 1.15 In the Venn diagram above, n(U) :::50, n(P) = 27,
n(Q)::: 31, n(P u Q)' = 4 and n(P n Q)::: x.
In the Venn diagram above, n(A) ::: 17, n(B) ::: 18 Estimate:
and n(A n B)::: 5. Find (a) x (b) n(P n Q') (c) n(Q r. P').
(a) n(A n B') (b) nCB n A').
8. In a group of 60 people, 31 speak French, 23 speak
2. Spanish and 14 speak neither French nor Spanish.
U n(P) = 30 n(Q) = 24 Find the number of students who speak:
(a) both French and Spanish
(b) French only (c) Spanish only.

9. Of 60 martial arts experts, 26 are Karatekas, 23 are

Judokas and 16 are neither Karatekas nor Judokas.
Venn diagram Fig. 1.16 Estimate the number of martial arts experts who are:
(a) both Karatekas and Judokas
In the Venn diagram above, n(P) ::: 30, n(Q)::: 24 (b) only Karatekas (c) only Judokas.
and n(P n Q)::: 9. Estimate
(a) n(P n Q) (b) n(Q n P').
10. Of 100 athletes, 31 like to run, 65 like to walk, and
22 neither like to walk nor run. Find the number of
3. In a class of 35 students, 29 play draughts, 16 play athletes who like:
chess and 10 play both draughts and chess. Find (a) both to run and walk
the number of students who play: (b) to run only (c) to walk only.
(a) draughts only (b) chess only.

10