‭Total‬‭Internal‬‭Reflection:‬

‭●‬ S ‭ ometimes,‬‭when‬‭light‬‭is‬‭moving‬‭from‬‭a‬‭denser‬‭medium‬‭towards‬‭a‬‭less‬
‭dense‬‭one,‬‭instead‬‭of‬‭being‬‭refracted,‬‭all‬‭of‬‭the‬‭light‬‭is‬‭reflected‬‭.‬
‭-‬ ‭This‬‭phenomenon‬‭is‬‭called‬‭total‬‭internal‬‭reflection.‬
‭●‬ ‭Total‬‭internal‬‭reflection‬‭(TIR)‬‭occurs‬‭when:‬
‭-‬ ‭The‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭is‬‭greater‬‭than‬‭the‬‭critical‬‭angle‬‭and‬
‭the‬‭incident‬‭material‬‭is‬‭denser‬‭than‬‭the‬‭second‬‭material.‬

‭‬ T
● ‭ herefore,‬‭the‬‭two‬‭conditions‬‭for‬‭internal‬‭reflection‬‭are;‬
‭-‬ ‭The‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭>‬‭critical‬‭angle‬
‭-‬ ‭The‬‭incident‬‭material‬‭is‬‭denser‬‭than‬‭the‬‭second‬‭material.‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭total‬‭internal‬‭reflection‬‭is‬‭utilised‬‭in‬
‭-‬ ‭Optical‬‭fibres‬‭(e.g‬‭endoscopes)‬
‭-‬ ‭Prisms‬‭(e.g‬‭periscopes)‬

‭●‬ P
‭ risms:‬
‭-‬‭prisms‬‭are‬‭used‬‭in‬‭a‬‭variety‬‭of‬‭optical‬‭instruments,‬‭including;‬
‭Periscopes‬
‭Binoculars‬
‭Telescopes‬
‭Cameras‬

‭●‬ T
‭ hey‬‭are‬‭also‬‭used‬‭in‬‭safety‬‭reflectors‬‭for‬‭bicycles‬‭and‬‭cars,‬‭as‬‭well‬‭as‬‭posts‬
‭marking‬‭the‬‭side‬‭or‬‭edge‬‭of‬‭roads‬
 ‭●‬ ‭A‬‭periscope‬‭is‬‭a‬‭device‬‭that‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭see‬‭over‬‭tall‬‭objects‬
‭○‬ ‭It‬‭consists‬‭of‬‭two‬‭right-angled‬‭prisms‬

‭Reflection‬‭of‬‭light‬‭through‬‭a‬‭periscope‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭light‬‭totally‬‭internally‬‭reflects‬‭in‬‭both‬‭prisms‬

‭Single‬‭and‬‭double‬‭reflection‬‭through‬‭right-angled‬‭prisms‬

‭Exam‬‭Tip‬
I‭f‬‭asked‬‭to‬‭name‬‭the‬‭phenomena‬‭make‬‭sure‬‭you‬‭give‬‭the‬‭whole‬‭name‬‭–‬‭total‬‭internal‬
‭reflection‬

‭ emember:‬‭total‬‭internal‬‭reflection‬‭occurs‬‭when‬‭light‬‭travels‬‭from‬‭a‬‭denser‬‭material‬
R
‭to‬‭less‬‭dense‬‭material‬‭and‬‭ALL‬‭of‬‭the‬‭light‬‭is‬‭reflected.‬

I‭f‬‭asked‬‭to‬‭give‬‭an‬‭example‬‭of‬‭a‬‭use‬‭of‬‭total‬‭internal‬‭reflection,‬‭first‬‭state‬‭the‬‭name‬‭of‬
‭the‬‭object‬‭that‬‭causes‬‭the‬‭reflection‬‭(e.g.‬‭a‬‭right-angled‬‭prism)‬‭and‬‭then‬‭name‬‭the‬
‭device‬‭in‬‭which‬‭it‬‭is‬‭used‬‭(e.g.‬‭a‬‭periscope)‬

‭Critical‬‭Angle:‬
‭●‬ A ‭ s‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭is‬‭increased,‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭refraction‬‭also‬
‭increases‬‭until‬‭it‬‭gets‬‭closer‬‭to‬‭90‬‭degree.‬
‭●‬ ‭When‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭refraction‬‭is‬‭exactly‬‭90‬‭degree‬‭the‬‭light‬‭is‬‭refracted‬
‭along‬‭the‬‭boundary.‬
‭-‬ ‭At‬‭this‬‭point,‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭is‬‭known‬‭as‬‭the‬‭critical‬‭angle‬
‭c.‬

‭●‬ W
‭ hen‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭is‬‭larger‬‭than‬‭the‬‭critical‬‭angle,‬‭the‬
‭refracted‬‭ray‬‭is‬‭now‬‭reflected.‬
‭-‬ ‭This‬‭is‬‭total‬‭internal‬‭reflection.‬
‭ orked‬‭example‬
W
‭A‬‭glass‬‭cube‬‭is‬‭held‬‭in‬‭contact‬‭with‬‭a‬‭liquid‬‭and‬‭a‬‭light‬‭ray‬‭is‬‭directed‬‭at‬‭a‬
‭vertical‬‭face‬‭of‬‭the‬‭cube.The‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭at‬‭the‬‭vertical‬‭face‬‭is‬‭39°‬‭and‬
‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭refraction‬‭is‬‭25°‬‭as‬‭shown‬‭in‬‭the‬‭diagram.The‬‭light‬‭ray‬‭is‬‭totally‬
‭internally‬‭reflected‬‭for‬‭the‬‭first‬‭time‬‭at‬‭X.‬
‭ omplete‬‭the‬‭diagram‬‭to‬‭show‬‭the‬‭path‬‭of‬‭the‬‭ray‬‭beyond‬‭X‬‭to‬‭the‬‭air‬‭and‬
C
‭calculate‬‭the‬‭critical‬‭angle‬‭for‬‭the‬‭glass-liquid‬‭boundary.‬

‭Step‬‭1:‬‭Draw‬‭the‬‭reflected‬‭angle‬‭at‬‭the‬‭glass-liquid‬‭boundary‬

‭○‬ W ‭ hen‬‭a‬‭light‬‭ray‬‭is‬‭reflected,‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭=‬‭angle‬‭of‬
‭reflection‬
‭○‬ ‭Therefore,‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭(or‬‭reflection)‬‭is‬‭90°‬‭–‬‭25°‬‭=‬‭65°‬

‭Step‬‭2:‬‭Draw‬‭the‬‭refracted‬‭angle‬‭at‬‭the‬‭glass-air‬‭boundary‬

‭○‬ A ‭ t‬‭the‬‭glass-air‬‭boundary,‬‭the‬‭light‬‭ray‬‭refracts‬‭away‬‭from‬‭the‬
‭normal‬
‭○‬ ‭Due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭reflection,‬‭the‬‭light‬‭rays‬‭are‬‭symmetrical‬‭to‬‭the‬‭other‬
‭side‬

‭Step‬‭3:‬‭Calculate‬‭the‬‭critical‬‭angle‬
 ‭○‬ T ‭ he‬‭question‬‭states‬‭the‬‭ray‬‭is‬‭“totally‬‭internally‬‭reflected‬‭for‬‭the‬
‭first‬‭time”‬‭meaning‬‭that‬‭this‬‭is‬‭the‬‭lowest‬‭angle‬‭at‬‭which‬‭TIR‬
‭occurs‬
‭○‬ ‭Therefore,‬‭65°‬‭is‬‭the‬‭critical‬‭angle‬

‭ xam‬‭Tip‬
E
‭If‬‭you‬‭are‬‭asked‬‭to‬‭explain‬‭what‬‭is‬‭meant‬‭by‬‭the‬‭critical‬‭angle‬‭in‬‭an‬‭exam,‬‭you‬
‭can‬‭be‬‭sure‬‭to‬‭gain‬‭full‬‭marks‬‭by‬‭drawing‬‭and‬‭labelling‬‭the‬‭same‬‭diagram‬
‭above‬‭(showing‬‭the‬‭three‬‭semi-circular‬‭blocks)‬
‭Refractive‬‭Index‬‭&‬‭Critical‬‭Angle‬‭Equation‬
‭EXTENDED‬

‭‬ T
● ‭ he‬‭critical‬‭angle,‬‭c,‬‭of‬‭a‬‭material‬‭is‬‭related‬‭to‬‭its‬‭refractive‬‭index,‬‭n‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭relationship‬‭between‬‭the‬‭two‬‭quantities‬‭is‬‭given‬‭by‬‭the‬‭equation:‬

‭●‬ ‭This‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭rearranged‬‭to‬‭calculate‬‭the‬‭refractive‬‭index,‬‭n:‬

‭●‬ ‭This‬‭equation‬‭shows‬‭that:‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬‭larger‬‭the‬‭refractive‬‭index‬‭of‬‭a‬‭material,‬‭the‬‭smaller‬‭the‬‭critical‬
‭angle‬
‭○‬ ‭Light‬‭rays‬‭inside‬‭a‬‭material‬‭with‬‭a‬‭high‬‭refractive‬‭index‬‭are‬‭more‬
‭likely‬‭to‬‭be‬‭totally‬‭internally‬‭reflected‬

‭ orked‬‭example‬
W
‭Opals‬‭and‬‭diamonds‬‭are‬‭transparent‬‭stones‬‭used‬‭in‬‭jewellery.‬‭Jewellers‬‭shape‬
‭the‬‭stones‬‭so‬‭that‬‭light‬‭is‬‭reflected‬‭inside.Compare‬‭the‬‭critical‬‭angles‬‭of‬‭opal‬
‭and‬‭diamond‬‭and‬‭explain‬‭which‬‭stone‬‭would‬‭appear‬‭to‬‭sparkle‬‭more.‬

‭The‬‭refractive‬‭index‬‭of‬‭opal‬‭is‬‭about‬‭1.5‬

‭The‬‭refractive‬‭index‬‭of‬‭diamond‬‭is‬‭about‬‭2.4‬
‭Step‬‭1:‬‭List‬‭the‬‭known‬‭quantities‬

‭‬ R
○ ‭ efractive‬‭index‬‭of‬‭opal,‬‭n‬‭o‬ ‭=‬‭1.5‬
‭○‬ ‭Refractive‬‭index‬‭of‬‭diamond,‬‭n‬‭d‬ ‭=‬‭2.4‬

‭Step‬‭2:‬‭Write‬‭out‬‭the‬‭equation‬‭relating‬‭critical‬‭angle‬‭and‬‭refractive‬‭index‬

‭Step‬‭3:‬‭Calculate‬‭the‬‭critical‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭opal‬‭(c‬‭o‬‭)‬

‭sin(c‬‭o‭)‬ ‬‭=‬‭1‬‭÷‬‭1.5‬‭=‬‭0.6667‬

‭c‭o‬ ‬ ‭=‬‭sin‬‭–1‬ ‭(0.6667)‬‭=‬‭41.8‬‭=‬‭42°‬

‭Step‬‭4:‬‭Calculate‬‭the‬‭critical‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭diamond‬‭(c‬‭d‬‭)‬

‭sin(c‬‭d‭)‬ ‬‭=‬‭1‬‭÷‬‭2.4‬‭=‬‭0.4167‬

‭c‭d‬ ‬ ‭=‬‭sin‬‭–1‬ ‭(0.4167)‬‭=‬‭24.6‬‭=‬‭25°‬

‭Step‬‭5:‬‭Compare‬‭the‬‭two‬‭values‬‭and‬‭write‬‭a‬‭conclusion‬

‭○‬ T ‭ otal‬‭internal‬‭reflection‬‭occurs‬‭when‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭of‬
‭light‬‭is‬‭larger‬‭than‬‭the‬‭critical‬‭angle‬‭(i>c)‬
‭○‬ ‭In‬‭opal,‬‭total‬‭internal‬‭reflection‬‭will‬‭occur‬‭for‬‭angles‬‭of‬‭incidence‬
‭between‬‭42°‬‭and‬‭90°‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬‭critical‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭diamond‬‭is‬‭lower‬‭than‬‭the‬‭critical‬‭angle‬‭of‬
‭opal‬‭(c‬‭o‭>
‬ c‬‭d‭)‬ ‬
‭○‬ ‭This‬‭means‬‭light‬‭rays‬‭will‬‭be‬‭totally‬‭internally‬‭reflected‬‭in‬‭diamond‬
‭over‬‭a‬‭larger‬‭range‬‭of‬‭angles‬‭(25°‬‭to‬‭90°)‬
‭○‬ ‭Therefore,‬‭more‬‭total‬‭internal‬‭reflection‬‭will‬‭occur‬‭in‬‭diamond‬
‭hence‬‭it‬‭will‬‭appear‬‭to‬‭sparkle‬‭more‬‭than‬‭the‬‭opal‬

‭ xam‬‭Tip‬
E
‭When‬‭calculating‬‭the‬‭value‬‭of‬‭the‬‭critical‬‭angle‬‭using‬‭the‬‭above‬‭equation:‬

‭‬ F
● ‭ irst‬‭use‬‭the‬‭refractive‬‭index,‬‭n,‬‭to‬‭find‬‭sin(c)‬
‭●‬ ‭Then‬‭use‬‭the‬‭inverse‬‭sine‬‭function‬‭(sin‬‭–1‬‭)‬‭to‬‭find‬‭the‬‭value‬‭of‬‭c‬
 ‭Optical‬‭Fibres‬
‭EXTENDED‬

‭●‬ T ‭ otal‬‭internal‬‭reflection‬‭is‬‭used‬‭to‬‭reflect‬‭light‬‭along‬‭optical‬‭fibres,‬
‭meaning‬‭they‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭for‬
‭○‬ ‭Communications‬
‭○‬ ‭Endoscopes‬
‭○‬ ‭Decorative‬‭lamps‬
‭●‬ ‭Light‬‭travelling‬‭down‬‭an‬‭optical‬‭fibre‬‭is‬‭totally‬‭internally‬‭reflected‬‭each‬
‭time‬‭it‬‭hits‬‭the‬‭edge‬‭of‬‭the‬‭fibre‬

‭Optical‬‭fibres‬‭utilise‬‭total‬‭internal‬‭reflection‬‭for‬‭communications‬

‭●‬ O
‭ ptical‬‭fibres‬‭are‬‭also‬‭used‬‭in‬‭medicine‬‭in‬‭order‬‭to‬‭see‬‭within‬‭the‬‭human‬
‭body‬
‭Endoscopes‬‭utilise‬‭total‬‭internal‬‭reflection‬‭to‬‭see‬‭inside‬‭a‬‭patient's‬‭body‬

‭Features‬‭of‬‭Lens‬‭Diagrams‬
 ‭●‬ ‭Lens‬‭diagrams‬‭can‬‭be‬‭described‬‭using‬‭the‬‭following‬‭terms:‬

‭ ‬ ‭Principal‬‭axis‬
○
‭○‬ ‭Principal‬‭focus,‬‭or‬‭focal‬‭point‬
‭○‬ ‭Focal‬‭length‬
‭ ‬ ‭The‬‭principal‬‭axis‬‭is‬‭defined‬‭as:‬
●

‭A‬‭line‬‭which‬‭passes‬‭through‬‭the‬‭centre‬‭of‬‭a‬‭lens‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭principal‬‭focus,‬‭or‬‭focal‬‭point,‬‭is‬‭defined‬‭as:‬

‭ he‬‭point‬‭at‬‭which‬‭rays‬‭of‬‭light‬‭travelling‬‭parallel‬‭to‬‭the‬‭principal‬‭axis‬‭intersect‬
T
‭the‬‭principal‬‭axis‬‭and‬‭converge‬‭or‬‭the‬‭point‬‭at‬‭which‬‭diverging‬‭rays‬‭appear‬‭to‬
‭proceed‬

‭●‬ ‭Focal‬‭length‬‭is‬‭defined‬‭as:‬

‭The‬‭distance‬‭between‬‭the‬‭centre‬‭of‬‭the‬‭lens‬‭and‬‭the‬‭principal‬‭focus‬

‭Converging‬‭&‬‭Diverging‬‭Lenses‬
‭‬ A
● ‭ ‬‭lens‬‭is‬‭a‬‭piece‬‭of‬‭equipment‬‭that‬‭forms‬‭an‬‭image‬‭by‬‭refracting‬‭light‬
‭●‬ ‭There‬‭are‬‭two‬‭types‬‭of‬‭lens:‬
‭○‬ ‭Converging‬
‭○‬ ‭Diverging‬

‭Converging‬‭Lenses‬
‭●‬ ‭In‬‭a‬‭converging‬‭lens,‬‭parallel‬‭rays‬‭of‬‭light‬‭are‬‭brought‬‭to‬‭a‬‭focus‬
‭○‬ ‭This‬‭point‬‭is‬‭called‬‭the‬‭principal‬‭focus‬
‭●‬ ‭This‬‭lens‬‭is‬‭sometimes‬‭referred‬‭to‬‭as‬‭a‬‭convex‬‭lens‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭distance‬‭from‬‭the‬‭lens‬‭to‬‭the‬‭principal‬‭focus‬‭is‬‭called‬‭the‬‭focal‬
‭length‬
‭○‬ ‭This‬‭depends‬‭on‬‭how‬‭curved‬‭the‬‭lens‬‭is‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬‭more‬‭curved‬‭the‬‭lens,‬‭the‬‭shorter‬‭the‬‭focal‬‭length‬
 ‭The‬‭focal‬‭length‬‭is‬‭the‬‭distance‬‭from‬‭the‬‭lens‬‭to‬‭the‬‭principal‬‭focus‬

‭Diverging‬‭Lenses‬
‭●‬ I‭n‬‭a‬‭diverging‬‭lens,‬‭parallel‬‭rays‬‭of‬‭light‬‭are‬‭made‬‭to‬‭diverge‬‭(spread‬‭out)‬
‭from‬‭a‬‭point‬
‭○‬ ‭This‬‭lens‬‭is‬‭sometimes‬‭referred‬‭to‬‭as‬‭a‬‭concave‬‭lens‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭principal‬‭focus‬‭is‬‭now‬‭the‬‭point‬‭from‬‭which‬‭the‬‭rays‬‭appear‬‭to‬
‭diverge‬‭from‬

‭Parallel‬‭rays‬‭from‬‭a‬‭diverging‬‭lens‬‭appear‬‭to‬‭come‬‭from‬‭the‬‭principal‬‭focus‬

‭Representing‬‭Lenses‬
‭●‬ I‭n‬‭diagrams,‬‭the‬‭following‬‭symbols‬‭are‬‭often‬‭used‬‭to‬‭represent‬‭each‬
‭type‬‭of‬‭lens:‬
 ‭Concave‬‭and‬‭convex‬‭symbols‬

‭ xam‬‭Tip‬
E
‭Make‬‭sure‬‭you‬‭remember‬‭the‬‭symbol‬‭for‬‭each‬‭type‬‭of‬‭lens,‬‭as‬‭you‬‭will‬‭be‬
‭expected‬‭to‬‭draw‬‭these‬‭for‬‭ray‬‭diagrams‬‭in‬‭your‬‭exam!‬

‭ o‬‭remember‬‭which‬‭lens‬‭is‬‭converging‬‭or‬‭diverging,‬‭think‬‭of‬‭the‬‭following:‬
T
‭Convex‬‭lens‬‭=‬‭Converging‬

‭Real‬‭&‬‭Virtual‬‭Images‬
‭●‬ ‭Images‬‭produced‬‭by‬‭lenses‬‭can‬‭be‬‭one‬‭of‬‭two‬‭types:‬
‭○‬ ‭A‬‭real‬‭image‬
‭○‬ ‭A‬‭virtual‬‭image‬

‭Real‬‭Images‬
‭●‬ ‭A‬‭real‬‭image‬‭is‬‭defined‬‭as:‬

‭ n‬‭image‬‭that‬‭is‬‭formed‬‭when‬‭the‬‭light‬‭rays‬‭from‬‭an‬‭object‬‭converge‬‭and‬‭meet‬
A
‭each‬‭other‬‭and‬‭can‬‭be‬‭projected‬‭onto‬‭a‬‭screen‬

‭●‬ A ‭ ‬‭real‬‭image‬‭is‬‭one‬‭produced‬‭by‬‭the‬‭convergence‬‭of‬‭light‬‭towards‬‭a‬
‭focus‬
‭●‬ ‭Real‬‭images‬‭are‬‭always‬‭inverted‬
‭●‬ ‭Real‬‭images‬‭can‬‭be‬‭projected‬‭onto‬‭pieces‬‭of‬‭paper‬‭or‬‭screens‬
 ‭○‬ A
‭ n‬‭example‬‭of‬‭a‬‭real‬‭image‬‭is‬‭the‬‭image‬‭formed‬‭on‬‭a‬‭cinema‬
‭screen‬

‭A‬‭real‬‭image‬‭can‬‭be‬‭projected‬‭onto‬‭a‬‭screen‬

‭●‬ ‭Real‬‭images‬‭are‬‭where‬‭two‬‭solid‬‭lines‬‭cross‬‭in‬‭ray‬‭diagrams‬

‭Virtual‬‭Images‬
‭●‬ ‭A‬‭virtual‬‭image‬‭is‬‭defined‬‭as:‬

‭ n‬‭image‬‭that‬‭is‬‭formed‬‭when‬‭the‬‭light‬‭rays‬‭from‬‭an‬‭object‬‭do‬‭not‬‭meet‬‭but‬
A
‭appear‬‭to‬‭meet‬‭behind‬‭the‬‭lens‬‭and‬‭cannot‬‭be‬‭projected‬‭onto‬‭a‬‭screen‬

‭‬ A
● ‭ ‬‭virtual‬‭image‬‭is‬‭formed‬‭by‬‭the‬‭divergence‬‭of‬‭light‬‭away‬‭from‬‭a‬‭point‬
‭●‬ ‭Virtual‬‭images‬‭are‬‭always‬‭upright‬
‭●‬ ‭Virtual‬‭images‬‭cannot‬‭be‬‭projected‬‭onto‬‭a‬‭piece‬‭of‬‭paper‬‭or‬‭a‬‭screen‬
‭○‬ ‭An‬‭example‬‭of‬‭a‬‭virtual‬‭image‬‭is‬‭a‬‭person's‬‭reflection‬‭in‬‭a‬‭mirror‬
 ‭A‬‭reflection‬‭in‬‭a‬‭mirror‬‭is‬‭an‬‭example‬‭of‬‭a‬‭virtual‬‭image‬

‭●‬ V
‭ irtual‬‭images‬‭are‬‭where‬‭two‬‭dashed‬‭lines,‬‭or‬‭one‬‭dashed‬‭and‬‭one‬‭solid‬
‭line‬‭crosses‬‭in‬‭ray‬‭diagrams‬

‭Converging‬‭Lens‬‭-‬‭Real‬‭Image‬
‭‬ L
● ‭ enses‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭form‬‭images‬‭of‬‭objects‬‭placed‬‭in‬‭front‬‭of‬‭them‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭location‬‭(and‬‭nature)‬‭of‬‭the‬‭image‬‭can‬‭be‬‭found‬‭by‬‭drawing‬‭a‬‭ray‬
‭diagram:‬

‭Diagram‬‭showing‬‭the‬‭formation‬‭of‬‭a‬‭real‬‭image‬‭by‬‭a‬‭lens‬
‭1.‬ S ‭ tart‬‭by‬‭drawing‬‭a‬‭ray‬‭going‬‭from‬‭the‬‭top‬‭of‬‭the‬‭object‬‭through‬‭the‬
‭centre‬‭of‬‭the‬‭lens.‬‭This‬‭ray‬‭will‬‭continue‬‭to‬‭travel‬‭in‬‭a‬‭straight‬‭line‬
‭2.‬ ‭Next‬‭draw‬‭a‬‭ray‬‭going‬‭from‬‭the‬‭top‬‭of‬‭the‬‭object,‬‭travelling‬‭parallel‬‭to‬‭the‬
‭axis‬‭to‬‭the‬‭lens.‬‭When‬‭this‬‭ray‬‭emerges‬‭from‬‭the‬‭lens‬‭it‬‭will‬‭travel‬
‭directly‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭principal‬‭focus‬
‭3.‬ ‭The‬‭image‬‭is‬‭found‬‭at‬‭the‬‭point‬‭where‬‭the‬‭above‬‭two‬‭rays‬‭meet‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭above‬‭diagram‬‭shows‬‭the‬‭image‬‭that‬‭is‬‭formed‬‭when‬‭the‬‭object‬‭is‬
‭placed‬‭at‬‭a‬‭distance‬‭between‬‭one‬‭focal‬‭length‬‭(f)‬‭and‬‭two‬‭focal‬‭lengths‬
‭(2f)‬‭from‬‭the‬‭lens‬
‭●‬ ‭In‬‭this‬‭case,‬‭the‬‭image‬‭is:‬
‭○‬ ‭Real‬
‭○‬ ‭Enlarged‬
‭○‬ ‭Inverted‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭following‬‭diagram‬‭shows‬‭what‬‭happens‬‭when‬‭the‬‭object‬‭is‬‭more‬
‭distanced‬‭–‬‭further‬‭than‬‭twice‬‭the‬‭focal‬‭length‬‭(2f)‬‭from‬‭the‬‭lens:‬

‭Diagram‬‭showing‬‭the‬‭formation‬‭of‬‭a‬‭real‬‭image‬‭by‬‭a‬‭lens‬‭with‬‭the‬‭object‬‭at‬
‭distance‬

‭●‬ ‭In‬‭this‬‭case‬‭the‬‭image‬‭is:‬
‭○‬ ‭Real‬
‭○‬ ‭Diminished‬‭(smaller)‬
‭○‬ ‭Inverted‬
‭●‬ ‭If‬‭the‬‭object‬‭is‬‭placed‬‭at‬‭exactly‬‭twice‬‭the‬‭focal‬‭length‬‭(2f)‬‭from‬‭the‬‭lens:‬
 ‭Diagram‬‭showing‬‭the‬‭formation‬‭of‬‭a‬‭real‬‭image‬‭with‬‭the‬‭object‬‭at‬‭2f‬

‭●‬ ‭In‬‭this‬‭case‬‭the‬‭image‬‭is:‬
‭○‬ ‭Real‬
‭○‬ ‭Same‬‭size‬‭as‬‭the‬‭object‬
‭○‬ ‭Inverted‬

‭Converging‬‭Lens‬‭-‬‭Virtual‬‭Image‬
‭EXTENDED‬

‭●‬ A ‭ ‬‭converging‬‭lens‬‭will‬‭produce‬‭a‬‭real‬‭image‬‭of‬‭an‬‭object‬‭which‬‭is‬‭placed‬
‭at‬‭a‬‭distance‬‭greater‬‭than‬‭the‬‭focal‬‭length‬‭from‬‭the‬‭lens‬
‭●‬ ‭If‬‭the‬‭object‬‭is‬‭placed‬‭closer‬‭to‬‭the‬‭lens‬‭than‬‭the‬‭focal‬‭length‬‭f‬‭then‬‭a‬
‭virtual‬‭image‬‭will‬‭be‬‭formed‬‭and‬‭the‬‭converging‬‭lens‬‭ray‬‭diagram‬‭will‬‭be‬
‭drawn‬‭in‬‭the‬‭following‬‭way:‬
‭A‬‭virtual‬‭image‬‭formed‬‭when‬‭the‬‭object‬‭is‬‭placed‬‭closer‬‭than‬‭the‬‭focal‬‭length‬

‭1.‬ S ‭ tart‬‭by‬‭drawing‬‭a‬‭ray‬‭going‬‭from‬‭the‬‭top‬‭of‬‭the‬‭object‬‭through‬‭the‬
‭centre‬‭of‬‭the‬‭lens.‬‭This‬‭ray‬‭will‬‭continue‬‭to‬‭travel‬‭in‬‭a‬‭straight‬‭line‬
‭2.‬ ‭Draw‬‭a‬‭dashed‬‭line‬‭continuing‬‭this‬‭ray‬‭upwards‬
‭3.‬ ‭Next‬‭draw‬‭a‬‭ray‬‭going‬‭from‬‭the‬‭top‬‭of‬‭the‬‭object,‬‭travelling‬‭parallel‬‭to‬‭the‬
‭axis‬‭to‬‭the‬‭lens.‬‭When‬‭this‬‭ray‬‭emerges‬‭from‬‭the‬‭lens‬‭it‬‭will‬‭travel‬
‭directly‬‭through‬‭the‬‭principal‬‭focus‬‭f‬
‭4.‬ ‭Also,‬‭draw‬‭a‬‭dashed‬‭line‬‭continuing‬‭this‬‭ray‬‭upwards‬
‭5.‬ ‭The‬‭image‬‭is‬‭the‬‭line‬‭drawn‬‭from‬‭the‬‭axis‬‭to‬‭the‬‭point‬‭where‬‭the‬‭two‬
‭dashed‬‭lines‬‭meet‬
‭●‬ ‭In‬‭this‬‭case,‬‭the‬‭image‬‭is:‬
‭○‬ ‭Virtual:‬‭the‬‭light‬‭rays‬‭appear‬‭to‬‭meet‬‭when‬‭produced‬‭backwards‬
‭○‬ ‭Magnified:‬‭the‬‭image‬‭is‬‭larger‬‭than‬‭the‬‭object‬
‭○‬ ‭Upright:‬‭the‬‭image‬‭is‬‭formed‬‭on‬‭the‬‭same‬‭side‬‭of‬‭the‬‭principal‬
‭axis‬

‭Diverging‬‭Lens‬‭-‬‭Virtual‬‭Image‬
‭●‬ D ‭ iverging‬‭lenses‬‭can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭form‬‭images,‬‭although‬‭the‬‭images‬
‭are‬‭always‬‭virtual‬‭in‬‭this‬‭case‬
‭●‬ ‭If‬‭an‬‭object‬‭is‬‭placed‬‭further‬‭from‬‭the‬‭lens‬‭than‬‭the‬‭focal‬‭length‬‭f‬‭then‬‭a‬
‭diverging‬‭lens‬‭ray‬‭diagram‬‭will‬‭be‬‭drawn‬‭in‬‭the‬‭following‬‭way:‬
 ‭Diverging‬‭lenses‬‭only‬‭produce‬‭virtual‬‭images‬

‭1.‬ S ‭ tart‬‭by‬‭drawing‬‭a‬‭ray‬‭going‬‭from‬‭the‬‭top‬‭of‬‭the‬‭object‬‭through‬‭the‬
‭centre‬‭of‬‭the‬‭lens.‬‭This‬‭ray‬‭will‬‭continue‬‭to‬‭travel‬‭in‬‭a‬‭straight‬‭line‬
‭2.‬ ‭Next‬‭draw‬‭a‬‭ray‬‭going‬‭from‬‭the‬‭top‬‭of‬‭the‬‭object,‬‭travelling‬‭parallel‬‭to‬‭the‬
‭axis‬‭to‬‭the‬‭lens.‬‭When‬‭this‬‭ray‬‭emerges‬‭from‬‭the‬‭lens‬‭it‬‭will‬‭travel‬
‭directly‬‭upwards‬‭away‬‭from‬‭the‬‭axis‬
‭3.‬ ‭Draw‬‭a‬‭dashed‬‭line‬‭continuing‬‭this‬‭ray‬‭downwards‬‭to‬‭the‬‭focal‬‭point,‬‭f‬
‭4.‬ ‭The‬‭image‬‭is‬‭the‬‭line‬‭drawn‬‭from‬‭the‬‭axis‬‭to‬‭the‬‭point‬‭where‬‭the‬‭above‬
‭two‬‭rays‬‭meet‬
‭●‬ ‭In‬‭this‬‭case,‬‭the‬‭image‬‭is:‬
‭○‬ ‭Virtual:‬‭the‬‭light‬‭rays‬‭appear‬‭to‬‭meet‬‭when‬‭produced‬‭backwards‬
‭○‬ ‭Diminished:‬‭the‬‭image‬‭is‬‭smaller‬‭than‬‭the‬‭object‬
‭○‬ ‭Upright:‬‭the‬‭image‬‭is‬‭formed‬‭on‬‭the‬‭same‬‭side‬‭of‬‭the‬‭principal‬
‭axis‬

‭Comparing‬‭Converging‬‭&‬‭Diverging‬‭Lenses‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭image‬‭produced‬‭by‬‭a‬‭converging‬‭lens‬‭can‬‭be‬‭either‬‭real‬‭or‬‭virtual‬
‭○‬ ‭This‬‭means‬‭the‬‭image‬‭can‬‭be‬‭inverted‬‭(real)‬‭or‬‭upright‬‭(virtual)‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭image‬‭produced‬‭by‬‭a‬‭diverging‬‭lens‬‭is‬‭always‬‭virtual‬
‭○‬ ‭This‬‭means‬‭the‬‭image‬‭will‬‭always‬‭be‬‭upright‬

‭ orked‬‭example‬
W
‭An‬‭object‬‭is‬‭placed‬‭outside‬‭the‬‭focal‬‭point‬‭of‬‭a‬‭diverging‬‭lens.‬
‭ omplete‬‭the‬‭ray‬‭diagram‬‭by‬‭drawing‬‭where‬‭the‬‭image‬‭of‬‭this‬‭object‬‭will‬‭be‬
C
‭seen.‬

‭Step‬‭1:‬‭Draw‬‭a‬‭line‬‭from‬‭the‬‭top‬‭of‬‭the‬‭object‬‭through‬‭the‬‭middle‬‭of‬‭the‬‭lens‬

‭○‬ ‭The‬‭top‬‭of‬‭the‬‭image‬‭lies‬‭somewhere‬‭along‬‭this‬‭line‬
‭Step‬‭2:‬‭Draw‬‭a‬‭line‬‭from‬‭the‬‭focal‬‭point‬‭through‬‭the‬‭top‬‭of‬‭the‬‭lens‬

‭‬ T
○ ‭ he‬‭dashed‬‭line‬‭shows‬‭the‬‭continuation‬‭of‬‭the‬‭upwards‬‭arrow‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬‭top‬‭of‬‭the‬‭image‬‭is‬‭where‬‭the‬‭two‬‭lines‬‭cross‬

‭ xam‬‭Tip‬
E
‭The‬‭best‬‭way‬‭to‬‭remember‬‭these‬‭ray‬‭diagrams‬‭is‬‭to‬‭draw‬‭them‬‭and‬‭see‬‭the‬
‭results‬‭for‬‭yourself.‬‭Remember‬‭to‬‭always‬‭use‬‭a‬‭ruler‬‭or‬‭a‬‭straight‬‭edge‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭exam‬‭when‬‭drawing‬‭the‬‭rays‬‭to‬‭gain‬‭full‬‭marks‬‭and‬‭produce‬‭the‬‭most‬‭accurate‬
‭drawings.‬

‭Magnifying‬‭Glasses‬
‭EXTENDED‬

‭●‬ I‭f‬‭the‬‭object‬‭is‬‭placed‬‭closer‬‭to‬‭the‬‭lens‬‭than‬‭the‬‭focal‬‭length,‬‭the‬
‭emerging‬‭rays‬‭diverge‬‭and‬‭a‬‭real‬‭image‬‭is‬‭no‬‭longer‬‭formed‬
‭●‬ ‭When‬‭viewed‬‭from‬‭the‬‭right-hand‬‭side‬‭of‬‭the‬‭lens,‬‭the‬‭emerging‬‭rays‬
‭appear‬‭to‬‭come‬‭from‬‭a‬‭point‬‭on‬‭the‬‭left‬
‭○‬ ‭This‬‭point‬‭can‬‭be‬‭found‬‭by‬‭extending‬‭the‬‭rays‬‭backwards‬
‭(creating‬‭virtual‬‭rays)‬
‭●‬ ‭A‬‭virtual‬‭image‬‭will‬‭be‬‭seen‬‭at‬‭the‬‭point‬‭where‬‭these‬‭virtual‬‭rays‬‭cross‬
 ‭A‬‭virtual‬‭image‬‭is‬‭formed‬‭by‬‭the‬‭divergence‬‭of‬‭rays‬‭from‬‭a‬‭point‬

‭●‬ ‭In‬‭this‬‭case‬‭the‬‭image‬‭is:‬
‭○‬ ‭Virtual‬
‭○‬ ‭Enlarged‬
‭○‬ ‭Upright‬
‭●‬ ‭Using‬‭a‬‭lens‬‭in‬‭this‬‭way‬‭allows‬‭it‬‭to‬‭be‬‭used‬‭as‬‭a‬‭magnifying‬‭glass‬
‭●‬ ‭When‬‭using‬‭a‬‭magnifying‬‭glass,‬‭the‬‭lens‬‭should‬‭always‬‭be‬‭held‬‭close‬‭to‬
‭the‬‭object‬

‭Correcting‬‭Sight‬
‭EXTENDED‬

‭●‬ C
‭ onverging‬‭and‬‭diverging‬‭lenses‬‭are‬‭commonly‬‭used‬‭in‬‭glasses‬‭to‬
‭correct‬‭defects‬‭of‬‭sight‬
‭○‬ ‭Converging‬‭lenses‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭correct‬‭long-sighted‬‭vision‬
‭○‬ ‭Diverging‬‭lenses‬‭can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭correct‬‭short-sighted‬‭vision‬

‭Correcting‬‭Short-Sightedness‬
‭●‬ ‭People‬‭who‬‭are‬‭short-sighted‬‭have‬‭eyes‬‭that‬‭are‬‭'too‬‭large'‬
‭○‬ ‭This‬‭means‬‭they‬‭cannot‬‭see‬‭things‬‭that‬‭are‬‭far‬‭away,‬‭and‬‭only‬‭see‬
‭things‬‭that‬‭are‬‭close‬‭to‬‭them‬
‭●‬ ‭This‬‭is‬‭because‬‭the‬‭eye‬‭refracts‬‭the‬‭light‬‭and‬‭brings‬‭it‬‭to‬‭a‬‭focus‬‭before‬
‭it‬‭reaches‬‭the‬‭retina‬
‭○‬ ‭In‬‭other‬‭words,‬‭the‬‭focus‬‭point‬‭is‬‭in‬‭front‬‭of‬‭the‬‭retina‬‭at‬‭the‬‭back‬
‭of‬‭the‬‭eye‬
‭●‬ ‭This‬‭can‬‭be‬‭corrected‬‭by‬‭using‬‭a‬‭concave‬‭or‬‭a‬‭diverging‬‭lens‬

‭Correcting‬‭Long-Sightedness‬
‭●‬ ‭People‬‭who‬‭are‬‭long-sighted‬‭have‬‭eyes‬‭that‬‭are‬‭'too‬‭small'‬
‭○‬ ‭This‬‭means‬‭they‬‭cannot‬‭clearly‬‭see‬‭things‬‭that‬‭are‬‭close,‬‭and‬‭can‬
‭only‬‭clearly‬‭see‬‭things‬‭that‬‭are‬‭far‬‭away‬
‭●‬ ‭This‬‭is‬‭because‬‭the‬‭eye‬‭refracts‬‭the‬‭light‬‭rays‬‭and‬‭they‬‭are‬‭brought‬‭to‬‭a‬
‭focus‬‭beyond‬‭the‬‭retina‬
‭○‬ ‭In‬‭other‬‭words,‬‭the‬‭focus‬‭point‬‭is‬‭behind‬‭the‬‭retina‬‭at‬‭the‬‭back‬‭of‬
‭the‬‭eye‬
‭●‬ ‭This‬‭can‬‭be‬‭corrected‬‭by‬‭using‬‭a‬‭convex‬‭or‬‭converging‬‭lens‬

‭Dispersion‬‭of‬‭Light‬
‭‬ W
● ‭ hite‬‭light‬‭is‬‭a‬‭mixture‬‭of‬‭all‬‭the‬‭colours‬‭of‬‭the‬‭spectrum‬
‭●‬ ‭Each‬‭colour‬‭has‬‭a‬‭different‬‭wavelength‬‭(and‬‭frequency),‬‭making‬‭up‬‭a‬
‭very‬‭narrow‬‭part‬‭of‬‭the‬‭electromagnetic‬‭spectrum‬
 ‭●‬ W ‭ hite‬‭light‬‭may‬‭be‬‭separated‬‭into‬‭all‬‭its‬‭colours‬‭by‬‭passing‬‭it‬‭through‬‭a‬
‭prism‬
‭○‬ ‭This‬‭is‬‭done‬‭by‬‭refraction‬
‭○‬ ‭Violet‬‭light‬‭is‬‭refracted‬‭the‬‭most,‬‭whilst‬‭red‬‭light‬‭is‬‭refracted‬‭the‬
‭least‬
‭○‬ ‭This‬‭splits‬‭up‬‭the‬‭colours‬‭to‬‭form‬‭a‬‭spectrum‬
‭●‬ ‭This‬‭process‬‭is‬‭similar‬‭to‬‭how‬‭a‬‭rainbow‬‭is‬‭created‬

‭White‬‭light‬‭may‬‭be‬‭separated‬‭into‬‭all‬‭its‬‭colours‬‭by‬‭passing‬‭it‬‭through‬‭a‬‭prism‬

‭The‬‭Visible‬‭Spectrum‬‭of‬‭Light‬
‭●‬ V ‭ isible‬‭light‬‭is‬‭defined‬‭as‬‭the‬‭range‬‭of‬‭wavelengths‬‭which‬‭are‬‭visible‬‭to‬
‭humans‬
‭●‬ ‭Visible‬‭light‬‭is‬‭the‬‭only‬‭part‬‭of‬‭the‬‭spectrum‬‭detectable‬‭by‬‭the‬‭human‬
‭eye‬
‭○‬ ‭However,‬‭it‬‭only‬‭takes‬‭up‬‭0.0035%‬‭of‬‭the‬‭whole‬‭electromagnetic‬
‭spectrum‬
‭●‬ ‭In‬‭the‬‭natural‬‭world,‬‭many‬‭animals,‬‭such‬‭as‬‭birds,‬‭bees‬‭and‬‭certain‬‭fish,‬
‭are‬‭able‬‭to‬‭perceive‬‭beyond‬‭visible‬‭light‬‭and‬‭can‬‭see‬‭infra-red‬‭and‬‭UV‬
‭wavelengths‬‭of‬‭light‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭different‬‭colours‬‭of‬‭waves‬‭correspond‬‭to‬‭different‬‭wavelengths:‬
‭○‬ ‭Red‬‭has‬‭the‬‭longest‬‭wavelength‬‭(and‬‭the‬‭lowest‬‭frequency‬‭and‬
‭energy)‬
‭○‬ ‭Violet‬‭has‬‭the‬‭shortest‬‭wavelength‬‭(and‬‭the‬‭highest‬‭frequency‬‭and‬
‭energy)‬
‭The‬‭colours‬‭of‬‭the‬‭visible‬‭spectrum:‬‭red‬‭has‬‭the‬‭longest‬‭wavelength;‬‭violet‬‭has‬
‭the‬‭shortest‬

‭Exam‬‭Tip‬
‭To‬‭remember‬‭the‬‭colours‬‭of‬‭the‬‭visible‬‭spectrum‬‭you‬‭could‬‭remember‬‭either:‬

‭‬ T
● ‭ he‬‭name‬‭“Roy‬‭G.‬‭Biv”‬
‭●‬ ‭Or‬‭the‬‭saying‬‭“Richard‬‭Of‬‭York‬‭Gave‬‭Battle‬‭In‬‭Vain”‬
‭Monochromatic‬‭Light‬
‭EXTENDED‬

‭‬ L
● ‭ ight‬‭is‬‭a‬‭transverse‬‭wave‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭different‬‭colours‬‭of‬‭light‬‭all‬‭have‬‭different‬‭wavelengths‬‭(and‬
‭frequencies)‬
‭○‬ ‭Red‬‭has‬‭the‬‭longest‬‭wavelength‬
‭○‬ ‭Violet‬‭has‬‭the‬‭shortest‬‭wavelength‬
‭●‬ ‭Light‬‭of‬‭a‬‭single‬‭wavelength‬‭(a‬‭single‬‭colour),‬‭or‬‭single‬‭frequency,‬‭is‬
‭known‬‭as‬‭monochromatic‬
‭The‬‭colours‬‭of‬‭the‬‭visible‬‭spectrum:‬‭red‬‭has‬‭the‬‭longest‬‭wavelength;‬‭violet‬‭has‬
‭the‬‭shortest‬
‭LIGHT‬‭Physics:‬

‭ eflection‬‭of‬‭Light:‬
R
‭Ray‬‭diagrams:‬
‭●‬ ‭Angles‬‭are‬‭measured‬‭between‬‭the‬‭wave‬‭direction‬‭(ray)‬‭and‬‭a‬‭line‬‭90‬
‭degrees‬‭to‬‭the‬‭boundary.‬
‭-‬ ‭The‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭the‬‭wave‬‭approaching‬‭the‬‭boundary‬‭is‬‭called‬‭the‬
‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭(i).‬
‭-‬ ‭The‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭the‬‭wave‬‭leaving‬‭the‬‭boundary‬‭is‬‭called‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬
‭reflection‬‭(r‬‭).‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭line‬‭at‬‭right‬‭angles‬‭(90‬‭degree)‬‭to‬‭the‬‭boundary‬‭is‬‭known‬‭as‬‭the‬
‭normal.‬

‭Reflection‬ ‭The‬‭rebounding‬‭of‬‭light‬‭at‬‭a‬‭surface.‬

‭Reflected‬‭ray‬ ‭ he‬‭light‬‭ray‬‭that‬‭bounces‬‭off‬‭the‬
T
‭reflecting‬‭surface.‬

‭Incident‬‭ray‬ ‭ ight‬‭ray‬‭that‬‭hits‬‭the‬‭reflecting‬
L
‭surface.‬

‭Point‬‭of‬‭incidence‬ ‭ he‬‭point‬‭at‬‭which‬‭the‬‭incident‬‭ray‬
T
‭hits‬‭the‬‭reflecting‬‭surface.‬

‭Angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬ ‭ he‬‭angle‬‭between‬‭the‬‭incident‬‭ray‬
T
‭and‬‭the‬‭normal.‬

‭Normal‬ ‭ he‬‭perpendicular‬‭to‬‭the‬‭reflecting‬
T
‭surface‬‭at‬‭the‬‭point‬‭of‬‭incidence.‬

‭Angle‬‭of‬‭reflection‬ ‭ he‬‭angle‬‭between‬‭the‬‭reflected‬‭ray‬
T
‭and‬‭the‬‭normal.‬

‭●‬ W ‭ hen‬‭drawing‬‭a‬‭ray‬‭diagram‬‭an‬‭arrow‬‭is‬‭used‬‭to‬‭show‬‭the‬‭direction‬‭the‬
‭wave‬‭is‬‭travelling‬
‭-‬ ‭An‬‭incident‬‭ray‬‭has‬‭an‬‭arrow‬‭pointing‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭boundary.‬
‭-‬ ‭A‬‭reflected‬‭ray‬‭has‬‭an‬‭arrow‬‭pointing‬‭away‬‭from‬‭the‬‭boundary.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭and‬‭reflection‬‭are‬‭usually‬‭labelled‬‭i‬‭and‬‭r‬
‭respectively.‬
‭The‬‭Law‬‭of‬‭Reflection:‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭law‬‭of‬‭reflection‬‭states‬‭that‬‭these‬‭angles‬‭are‬‭the‬‭same:‬
‭Angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭(i)‬‭=‬‭Angle‬‭of‬‭reflection‬‭(r)‬

‭Reflection‬‭in‬‭a‬‭Plane‬‭Mirror:‬
‭●‬ ‭When‬‭an‬‭object‬‭is‬‭placed‬‭in‬‭front‬‭of‬‭a‬‭mirror,‬‭an‬‭image‬‭of‬‭that‬
‭object‬‭can‬‭be‬‭seen‬‭in‬‭the‬‭mirror.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭image‬‭will‬‭be:‬
 -‭ ‬ T ‭ he‬‭same‬‭size‬‭as‬‭the‬‭object.‬
‭-‬ ‭The‬‭same‬‭distance‬‭behind‬‭the‬‭mirror‬‭as‬‭the‬‭object‬‭is‬‭in‬‭front‬
‭of‬‭it.‬
‭-‬ ‭Virtual‬
‭ ‬ ‭The‬‭information‬‭of‬‭this‬‭image‬‭can‬‭be‬‭understood‬‭by‬‭drawing‬‭a‬‭ray‬
●
‭diagram.‬

‭\‬

‭‬ L
● ‭ ight‬‭from‬‭the‬‭object‬‭hits‬‭the‬‭mirror,‬‭reflecting‬‭from‬‭it‬‭(i=r).‬
‭●‬ ‭To‬‭an‬‭observer,‬‭the‬‭reflected‬‭ray‬‭appears‬‭to‬‭have‬‭come‬‭from‬‭the‬
‭right‬‭hand‬‭side‬‭of‬‭the‬‭mirror.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭reflected‬‭ray‬‭can‬‭be‬‭traced‬‭back‬‭in‬‭these‬‭directions,‬‭forming‬‭a‬
‭virtual‬‭ray.‬
‭●‬ ‭This‬‭can‬‭be‬‭repeated‬‭for‬‭another‬‭ray‬‭travelling‬‭in‬‭a‬‭slightly‬‭different‬
‭direction.‬
‭●‬ ‭An‬‭image‬‭of‬‭the‬‭object‬‭will‬‭appear‬‭where‬‭these‬‭two‬‭virtual‬‭rays‬
‭cross.‬
‭●‬ ‭This‬‭type‬‭of‬‭image‬‭formed‬‭in‬‭the‬‭mirror‬‭is‬‭called‬‭a‬‭virtual‬‭image.‬
‭●‬ ‭A‬‭virtual‬‭image‬‭is‬‭formed‬‭by‬‭the‬‭divergence‬‭of‬‭rays‬‭from‬‭the‬
‭image,‬‭and‬‭cannot‬‭be‬‭projected‬‭onto‬‭a‬‭piece‬‭of‬‭paper‬‭(because‬
‭the‬‭rays‬‭don’t‬‭actually‬‭go‬‭through‬‭the‬‭image)‬
‭Investigating‬‭Reflection:‬
‭-‬ ‭Aims‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Experiment:‬
‭●‬ ‭To‬‭investigate‬‭reflection‬‭by‬‭a‬‭plane‬‭mirror.‬

‭-‬ ‭Variables:‬
‭●‬ ‭Independent‬‭variable‬‭(the‬‭variable‬‭you‬‭change;‬‭unaffected‬
‭by‬‭other‬‭variables)‬‭=‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence,‬‭i.‬
‭●‬ ‭Dependent‬‭variable‬‭(the‬‭variable‬‭you‬‭measure;‬‭dependent‬
‭on‬‭other‬‭variables)‬‭=‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭reflection,‬‭r.‬
‭●‬ ‭Control‬‭variables:‬
‭>‬‭distance‬‭of‬‭ray‬‭box‬‭from‬‭mirror.‬
‭>‬‭width‬‭of‬‭the‬‭light‬‭beam.‬
‭>‬‭same‬‭frequency/wavelength‬‭of‬‭the‬‭light.‬

‭‬ S
● ‭ et‬‭up‬‭the‬‭apparatus‬‭as‬‭shown‬‭in‬‭the‬‭diagram.‬
‭●‬ ‭In‬‭the‬‭middle‬‭of‬‭the‬‭paper‬‭use‬‭a‬‭ruler‬‭to‬‭mark‬‭a‬‭straight‬‭line‬‭of‬
‭about‬‭10‬‭cm‬‭long.‬
‭●‬ ‭Use‬‭a‬‭protractor‬‭to‬‭draw‬‭a‬‭90‬‭degree‬‭line‬‭that‬‭bisects‬‭(cut‬‭in‬‭half)‬
‭the‬‭10‬‭cm‬‭line.‬
‭●‬ ‭Place‬‭the‬‭mirror‬‭on‬‭the‬‭first‬‭line‬‭as‬‭shown‬‭in‬‭the‬‭diagram‬‭above.‬
 ‭●‬ S ‭ witch‬‭on‬‭the‬‭ray‬‭box‬‭and‬‭aim‬‭a‬‭beam‬‭of‬‭light‬‭at‬‭the‬‭point‬‭where‬
‭the‬‭two‬‭drawn‬‭lines‬‭cross‬‭at‬‭an‬‭angle.‬
‭●‬ ‭Use‬‭the‬‭pencil‬‭to‬‭mark‬‭two‬‭positions‬‭of‬‭the‬‭light‬‭beam:‬
‭-‬ ‭A‬‭point‬‭just‬‭after‬‭leaving‬‭the‬‭ray‬‭box.‬
‭-‬ ‭The‬‭point‬‭on‬‭the‬‭reflected‬‭beam,‬‭about‬‭10‬‭cm‬‭away‬‭from‬‭the‬
‭mirror.‬
‭●‬ ‭Remove‬‭the‬‭ray‬‭box‬‭and‬‭the‬‭mirror.‬
‭●‬ ‭Use‬‭a‬‭ruler‬‭to‬‭join‬‭the‬‭two‬‭marked‬‭positions‬‭to‬‭the‬‭point‬‭where‬‭the‬
‭originally‬‭drawn‬‭lines‬‭crossed.‬
‭●‬ ‭Use‬‭the‬‭protractor‬‭to‬‭measure‬‭the‬‭two‬‭angles‬‭from‬‭the‬‭90‬‭degree‬
‭line.‬‭The‬‭angle‬‭for‬‭the‬‭ray‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭mirror‬‭is‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬
‭incidence,‬‭and‬‭the‬‭other‬‭is‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭reflection.‬
‭●‬ ‭Repeat‬‭the‬‭experiment‬‭three‬‭times‬‭with‬‭the‬‭beam‬‭of‬‭light‬‭aimed‬‭at‬
‭different‬‭angles.‬

‭Analysis‬‭of‬‭Results:‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭law‬‭of‬‭reflection‬‭states:‬
‭i‬‭=‬‭r‬
‭●‬ ‭Where:‬
‭-‬ ‭i‬‭=‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭in‬‭degrees.‬
‭-‬ ‭r‬‭=‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭reflection‬‭in‬‭degrees.‬
 ‭●‬ I‭f‬‭the‬‭experiment‬‭was‬‭carried‬‭out‬‭correctly,‬‭the‬‭angles‬‭should‬‭be‬
‭the‬‭same,‬‭as‬‭shown‬‭below.‬‭]‬

‭Evaluating‬‭Experiment:‬

‭ ystemic‬‭errors:‬‭(‬‭faults‬‭in‬‭the‬‭apparatus‬‭or‬‭experimental‬‭method‬‭which‬
S
‭consistently‬‭affect‬‭every‬‭measurement,‬‭e,g,‬‭a‬‭zero‬‭error,‬‭this‬‭affects‬‭the‬
‭accuracy‬‭.)‬
‭●‬ ‭An‬‭error‬‭could‬‭occur‬‭if‬‭the‬‭90‬‭degree‬‭lines‬‭are‬‭drawn‬‭incorrectly.‬
‭-‬ ‭Use‬‭a‬‭set‬‭square‬‭to‬‭draw‬‭perpendicular‬‭lines.‬

‭●‬ I‭f‬‭the‬‭mirror‬‭is‬‭distorted,‬‭this‬‭could‬‭affect‬‭the‬‭reflection‬‭angle,‬‭so‬
‭make‬‭sure‬‭there‬‭are‬‭little‬‭to‬‭no‬‭blemishes‬‭on‬‭it.‬

‭ andom‬‭errors:‬‭(‬‭unpredictable‬‭changes‬‭in‬‭an‬‭experiment‬‭causing‬‭one‬
R
‭measurement‬‭to‬‭differ‬‭slightly‬‭from‬‭the‬‭next.‬‭Affects‬‭precision‬‭.)‬

‭●‬ T
‭ he‬‭points‬‭for‬‭the‬‭incoming‬‭and‬‭reflected‬‭beam‬‭may‬‭be‬
‭inaccurately‬‭marked.‬
‭-‬ ‭Use‬‭a‬‭sharpened‬‭pencil‬‭and‬‭mark‬‭in‬‭the‬‭middle‬‭of‬‭the‬‭beam.‬

‭●‬ T
‭ he‬‭protractor‬‭resolution‬‭may‬‭make‬‭it‬‭difficult‬‭to‬‭read‬‭the‬‭angles‬
‭accurately.‬
 ‭-‬ ‭Use‬‭a‬‭protractor‬‭with‬‭a‬‭higher‬‭resolution.‬

‭Safety‬‭Considerations:‬
‭-‬ ‭The‬‭ray‬‭box‬‭light‬‭could‬‭cause‬‭burns‬‭if‬‭touched.‬
‭–‬‭run‬‭burns‬‭under‬‭cold‬‭running‬‭water‬‭for‬‭at‬‭least‬‭five‬‭minutes.‬

‭-‬ L
‭ ooking‬‭directly‬‭into‬‭the‬‭light‬‭may‬‭damage‬‭the‬‭eyes.‬
‭—‬‭avoid‬‭looking‬‭directly‬‭at‬‭the‬‭light.‬
‭—‬‭stand‬‭behind‬‭the‬‭ray‬‭box‬‭during‬‭the‬‭experiment.‬

-‭ ‬ K‭ eep‬‭all‬‭liquids‬‭away‬‭from‬‭the‬‭electrical‬‭equipment‬‭and‬‭paper.‬
‭-‬ ‭Take‬‭care‬‭using‬‭the‬‭mirror.‬
‭—‬‭damages‬‭on‬‭the‬‭mirror‬‭can‬‭affect‬‭the‬‭outcome‬‭of‬‭the‬‭reflection‬
‭experiment.‬

‭Refraction‬‭of‬‭Light:‬
‭●‬ W ‭ hen‬‭drawing‬‭refraction‬‭ray‬‭diagrams,‬‭angles‬‭are‬‭measured‬
‭between‬‭the‬‭wave‬‭direction‬‭(ray)‬‭and‬‭a‬‭line‬‭at‬‭90‬‭degrees‬‭to‬‭the‬
‭boundary.‬
‭-‬ ‭The‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭the‬‭wave‬‭approaching‬‭the‬‭boundary‬‭is‬‭called‬
‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence.(i)‬
‭-‬ ‭The‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭the‬‭wave‬‭leaving‬‭the‬‭boundary‬‭is‬‭called‬‭the‬
‭angle‬‭of‬‭refraction.(r)‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭line‬‭at‬‭right‬‭angles‬‭(90‬‭degree)‬‭to‬‭the‬‭boundary‬‭is‬‭known‬‭as‬
‭the‬‭normal.‬

‭●‬ W
‭ hen‬‭drawing‬‭a‬‭ray‬‭diagram‬‭an‬‭arrow‬‭is‬‭used‬‭to‬‭show‬‭the‬
‭direction‬‭the‬‭wave‬‭is‬‭travelling‬
‭-‬ ‭An‬‭incident‬‭ray‬‭has‬‭an‬‭arrow‬‭pointing‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭boundary.‬
‭-‬ ‭A‬‭refracted‬‭ray‬‭has‬‭an‬‭arrow‬‭pointing‬‭away‬‭from‬‭the‬
‭boundary.‬

‭●‬ T
‭ he‬‭angles‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭and‬‭refraction‬‭are‬‭usually‬‭labelled‬‭i‬‭and‬
‭r‬‭respectively.‬
‭Refraction‬‭of‬‭Light:‬
‭●‬ R ‭ efraction‬‭occurs‬‭when‬‭light‬‭passes‬‭a‬‭boundary‬‭between‬‭two‬
‭different‬‭transparent‬‭media.‬
‭●‬ ‭At‬‭the‬‭boundary,‬‭the‬‭rays‬‭of‬‭light‬‭undergo‬‭a‬‭change‬‭in‬‭direction.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭direction‬‭is‬‭taken‬‭as‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭from‬‭a‬‭hypothetical‬‭line‬‭called‬
‭the‬‭normal.‬
‭-‬ ‭This‬‭line‬‭is‬‭perpendicular‬‭to‬‭the‬‭surface‬‭of‬‭the‬‭boundaries‬
‭and‬‭is‬‭usually‬‭represented‬‭by‬‭a‬‭straight‬‭dashed‬‭or‬‭dotted‬
‭line.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭change‬‭in‬‭direction‬‭depends‬‭on‬‭which‬‭media‬‭the‬‭light‬‭rays‬
‭pass‬‭between:‬
‭-‬ ‭From‬‭less‬‭dense‬‭to‬‭more‬‭dense‬‭(e.g‬‭air‬‭to‬‭glass),‬‭light‬‭bends‬
‭towards‬‭the‬‭normal.‬
‭-‬ ‭From‬‭more‬‭dense‬‭to‬‭less‬‭dense‬‭(e.g‬‭glass‬‭to‬‭air),‬‭light‬‭bends‬
‭away‬‭from‬‭the‬‭normal.‬
‭-‬ ‭When‬‭passing‬‭along‬‭the‬‭normal‬‭(perpendicular)‬‭the‬‭light‬
‭does‬‭not‬‭bend‬‭at‬‭all.‬
‭●‬ T ‭ he‬‭change‬‭in‬‭direction‬‭occurs‬‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭change‬‭in‬‭speed‬‭when‬
‭travelling‬‭in‬‭different‬‭substances.‬
‭-‬ ‭When‬‭light‬‭passes‬‭into‬‭a‬‭denser‬‭substance‬‭the‬‭rays‬‭will‬‭slow‬
‭down‬‭,‬‭hence‬‭they‬‭bend‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭normal.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭only‬‭properties‬‭that‬‭change‬‭during‬‭refraction‬‭are‬‭speed‬‭and‬
‭wavelength‬‭–‬‭the‬‭frequency‬‭of‬‭waves‬‭does‬‭not‬‭change.‬
‭-‬ ‭Different‬‭frequencies‬‭account‬‭for‬‭different‬‭colours‬‭of‬‭light‬
‭(red‬‭has‬‭a‬‭low‬‭frequency,‬‭whilst‬‭blue‬‭has‬‭a‬‭high‬‭frequency.)‬
‭-‬ ‭When‬‭light‬‭refracts,‬‭it‬‭does‬‭not‬‭change‬‭colour‬‭(think‬‭of‬‭a‬
‭pencil‬‭in‬‭a‬‭glass‬‭of‬‭water),‬‭therefore,‬‭the‬‭frequency‬‭does‬‭not‬
‭change.‬
 ‭Investigating‬‭Refraction‬
‭Aim‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Experiment‬
‭●‬ T
‭ o‬‭investigate‬‭the‬‭refraction‬‭of‬‭light‬‭using‬‭rectangular‬‭blocks,‬‭semi-circular‬
‭blocks‬‭and‬‭triangular‬‭prisms‬

‭Variables‬

‭ ‬ I‭ndependent‬‭variable‬‭=‬‭shape‬‭of‬‭the‬‭block‬
●
‭●‬ ‭Dependent‬‭variable‬‭=‬‭direction‬‭of‬‭refraction‬
‭●‬ ‭Control‬‭variables:‬
‭○‬ ‭Width‬‭of‬‭the‬‭light‬‭beam‬
‭○‬ ‭Same‬‭frequency‬‭/‬‭wavelength‬‭of‬‭the‬‭light‬

‭Equipment‬‭List‬

‭Equipment‬ ‭Purpose‬

‭Ray‬‭box‬ t‭o‬‭provide‬‭a‬‭narrow‬‭beam‬‭of‬‭light‬‭to‬‭refract‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭perspex‬‭blocks‬

‭Protractor‬ ‭to‬‭measure‬‭the‬‭angles‬‭of‬‭refraction‬

‭Sheet‬‭of‬‭paper‬ ‭to‬‭mark‬‭the‬‭rays‬‭of‬‭light‬‭and‬‭the‬‭outlines‬‭of‬‭the‬‭blocks‬

‭Pencil‬ ‭to‬‭draw‬‭the‬‭rays‬‭of‬‭light‬‭and‬‭the‬‭outlines‬‭of‬‭the‬‭blocks‬

‭Ruler‬ ‭to‬‭draw‬‭straight‬‭lines‬‭on‬‭the‬‭paper‬

‭ erspex‬‭blocks‬
P ‭to‬‭refract‬‭the‬‭rays‬‭of‬‭light‬
‭(rectangular,‬‭semi-circular‬
‭&‬‭prism)‬
‭●‬ ‭Resolution‬‭of‬‭measuring‬‭equipment:‬
‭○‬ ‭Protractor‬‭=‬‭1°‬
‭○‬ ‭Ruler‬‭=‬‭1‬‭mm‬
 ‭Diagram‬‭showing‬‭a‬‭ray‬‭box‬‭alongside‬‭three‬‭different‬‭shaped‬‭glass‬‭blocks‬

‭Method‬

‭Apparatus‬‭to‬‭investigate‬‭refraction‬
 ‭1.‬ P ‭ lace‬‭the‬‭glass‬‭block‬‭on‬‭a‬‭sheet‬‭of‬‭paper,‬‭and‬‭carefully‬‭draw‬‭around‬‭the‬
‭rectangular‬‭perspex‬‭block‬‭using‬‭a‬‭pencil‬
‭2.‬ ‭Switch‬‭on‬‭the‬‭ray‬‭box‬‭and‬‭direct‬‭a‬‭beam‬‭of‬‭light‬‭at‬‭the‬‭side‬‭face‬‭of‬‭the‬‭block‬
‭3.‬ ‭Mark‬‭on‬‭the‬‭paper:‬
‭○‬ ‭A‬‭point‬‭on‬‭the‬‭ray‬‭close‬‭to‬‭the‬‭ray‬‭box‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬‭point‬‭where‬‭the‬‭ray‬‭enters‬‭the‬‭block‬
‭○‬ ‭The‬‭point‬‭where‬‭the‬‭ray‬‭exits‬‭the‬‭block‬
‭○‬ ‭A‬‭point‬‭on‬‭the‬‭exit‬‭light‬‭ray‬‭which‬‭is‬‭a‬‭distance‬‭of‬‭about‬‭5‬‭cm‬‭away‬
‭from‬‭the‬‭block‬
‭4.‬ ‭Draw‬‭a‬‭dashed‬‭line‬‭normal‬‭(at‬‭right‬‭angles)‬‭to‬‭the‬‭outline‬‭of‬‭the‬‭block‬‭where‬
‭the‬‭points‬‭are‬
‭5.‬ ‭Remove‬‭the‬‭block‬‭and‬‭join‬‭the‬‭points‬‭marked‬‭with‬‭three‬‭straight‬‭lines‬
‭6.‬ ‭Replace‬‭the‬‭block‬‭within‬‭its‬‭outline‬‭and‬‭repeat‬‭the‬‭above‬‭process‬‭for‬‭a‬‭ray‬
‭striking‬‭the‬‭block‬‭at‬‭a‬‭different‬‭angle‬
‭7.‬ ‭Repeat‬‭the‬‭procedure‬‭for‬‭each‬‭shape‬‭of‬‭perspex‬‭block‬‭(prism‬‭and‬
‭semi-circular)‬

‭Analysis‬‭of‬‭Results‬
‭●‬ ‭Consider‬‭the‬‭light‬‭paths‬‭through‬‭the‬‭different-shaped‬‭blocks‬

‭Refraction‬‭of‬‭light‬‭through‬‭different‬‭shapes‬‭of‬‭perspex‬‭blocks‬

‭●‬ T
‭ he‬‭final‬‭diagram‬‭for‬‭each‬‭shape‬‭will‬‭include‬‭multiple‬‭light‬‭ray‬‭paths‬‭for‬‭the‬
‭different‬‭angles‬‭of‬‭incidences‬‭(‭i‬‬‭)‬‭at‬‭which‬‭the‬‭light‬‭strikes‬‭the‬‭blocks‬
 ‭●‬ T ‭ his‬‭will‬‭help‬‭demonstrate‬‭how‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭refraction‬‭(‭r‬ ‬‭)‬‭changes‬‭with‬‭the‬
‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬
‭○‬ ‭Label‬‭these‬‭paths‬‭clearly‬‭with‬‭(1)‬‭(2)‬‭(3)‬‭or‬‭A,‬‭B,‬‭C‬‭to‬‭make‬‭these‬
‭clearer‬
‭●‬ ‭Angles‬‭i‬‭and‬‭r‬‭are‬‭always‬‭measured‬‭from‬‭the‬‭normal‬
‭●‬ ‭For‬‭light‬‭rays‬‭entering‬‭the‬‭perspex‬‭block,‬‭the‬‭light‬‭ray‬‭refracts‬‭towards‬‭the‬
‭central‬‭line:‬

‭i‬‭>‬‭r‬

‭●‬ F
‭ or‬‭light‬‭rays‬‭exiting‬‭the‬‭perspex‬‭block,‬‭the‬‭light‬‭ray‬‭refracts‬‭away‬‭from‬‭the‬
‭central‬‭line:‬

‭i‬‭<‬‭r‬

‭●‬ W
‭ hen‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭is‬‭90°‬‭to‬‭the‬‭perspex‬‭block,‬‭the‬‭light‬‭ray‬‭does‬‭not‬
‭refract,‬‭it‬‭passes‬‭straight‬‭through‬‭the‬‭block:‬

‭i‬‭=‬‭r‬

‭Evaluating‬‭the‬‭Experiment‬
‭Systematic‬‭Errors:‬

‭●‬ ‭An‬‭error‬‭could‬‭occur‬‭if‬‭the‬‭90°‬‭lines‬‭are‬‭drawn‬‭incorrectly‬
‭○‬ ‭Use‬‭a‬‭set‬‭square‬‭to‬‭draw‬‭perpendicular‬‭lines‬

‭Random‬‭Errors:‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭points‬‭for‬‭the‬‭incoming‬‭and‬‭reflected‬‭beam‬‭may‬‭be‬‭inaccurately‬‭marked‬
‭○‬ ‭Use‬‭a‬‭sharpened‬‭pencil‬‭and‬‭mark‬‭in‬‭the‬‭middle‬‭of‬‭the‬‭beam‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭protractor‬‭resolution‬‭may‬‭make‬‭it‬‭difficult‬‭to‬‭read‬‭the‬‭angles‬‭accurately‬
‭○‬ ‭Use‬‭a‬‭protractor‬‭with‬‭a‬‭higher‬‭resolution‬

‭Safety‬‭Considerations‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭ray‬‭box‬‭light‬‭could‬‭cause‬‭burns‬‭if‬‭touched‬
‭○‬ ‭Run‬‭burns‬‭under‬‭cold‬‭running‬‭water‬‭for‬‭at‬‭least‬‭five‬‭minute‬
‭●‬ ‭Looking‬‭directly‬‭into‬‭the‬‭light‬‭may‬‭damage‬‭the‬‭eyes‬
‭○‬ ‭Avoid‬‭looking‬‭directly‬‭at‬‭the‬‭light‬
‭○‬ ‭Stand‬‭behind‬‭the‬‭ray‬‭box‬‭during‬‭the‬‭experiment‬
‭●‬ ‭Keep‬‭all‬‭liquids‬‭away‬‭from‬‭the‬‭electrical‬‭equipment‬‭and‬‭paper‬

‭ xam‬‭Tip‬
E
‭In‬‭your‬‭examination,‬‭you‬‭might‬‭be‬‭asked‬‭to‬‭write‬‭a‬‭method‬‭explaining‬‭how‬‭you‬‭might‬
‭investigate‬‭the‬‭refraction‬‭of‬‭light‬‭through‬‭different‬‭shaped‬‭blocks‬
‭As‬‭part‬‭of‬‭this‬‭method‬‭you‬‭should‬‭describe:‬

‭‬ W
● ‭ hat‬‭equipment‬‭you‬‭need‬
‭●‬ ‭How‬‭you‬‭will‬‭use‬‭the‬‭equipment‬
‭●‬ ‭How‬‭you‬‭will‬‭trace‬‭the‬‭rays‬‭of‬‭light‬‭before,‬‭while‬‭and‬‭after‬‭they‬‭pass‬‭through‬
‭the‬‭block‬

‭Snell’s‬‭Law:‬
‭Refractive‬‭Index:‬

‭●‬ T ‭ he‬‭refractive‬‭index‬‭is‬‭a‬‭number‬‭which‬‭is‬‭related‬‭to‬‭the‬‭speed‬‭of‬‭light‬‭in‬
‭the‬‭material‬‭(which‬‭is‬‭always‬‭less‬‭than‬‭the‬‭speed‬‭of‬‭light‬‭in‬‭a‬‭vacuum)‬
‭●‬ ‭Refractive‬‭index‬‭determines‬‭how‬‭much‬‭a‬‭ray‬‭of‬‭light‬‭changes‬‭direction‬
‭when‬‭it‬‭travels‬‭from‬‭one‬‭medium‬‭into‬‭another‬

‭Refractive‬‭Index,n‬‭=‬ ‭Speed‬‭of‬‭Light‬‭in‬‭Vacuum‬
‭Speed‬‭of‬‭Light‬‭in‬‭Material‬

‭●‬ T
‭ he‬‭refractive‬‭index‬‭is‬‭a‬‭number‬‭that‬‭is‬‭always‬‭larger‬‭than‬‭1‬‭and‬‭is‬
‭different‬‭for‬‭different‬‭materials.‬
‭-‬ ‭Objects‬‭which‬‭are‬‭more‬‭optically‬‭dense‬‭have‬‭a‬‭higher‬‭refractive‬
‭index,‬‭e.g,‬‭n‬‭is‬‭about‬‭2.4‬‭for‬‭diamond.‬
‭-‬ ‭Objects‬‭which‬‭are‬‭less‬‭optically‬‭dense‬‭have‬‭a‬‭lower‬‭refractive‬
‭index,‬‭e.g,‬‭n‬‭is‬‭about‬‭1.5‬‭for‬‭glass.‬

‭ ‬‭medium‬‭in‬‭which‬‭light‬‭travels‬‭comparatively‬‭slower‬‭than‬‭the‬‭other‬‭medium‬‭is‬
A
‭called‬‭an‬‭optically‬‭denser‬‭medium’‬

‭●‬ ‭Since‬‭the‬‭refractive‬‭index‬‭is‬‭a‬‭ratio‬‭,‬‭it‬‭has‬‭no‬‭units‬‭.‬

‭Snell’s‬‭Law:‬
‭●‬ ‭When‬‭a‬‭light‬‭enters‬‭a‬‭denser‬‭medium‬‭(such‬‭as‬‭glass)‬‭it‬‭slows‬‭down‬
‭and‬‭bends‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭normal.‬
‭-‬ ‭How‬‭much‬‭the‬‭light‬‭bends‬‭depends‬‭on‬‭the‬‭density‬‭of‬‭the‬
‭material.‬
‭●‬ I‭f‬‭light‬‭travels‬‭from‬‭a‬‭less‬‭dense‬‭to‬‭a‬‭more‬‭dense‬‭medium‬‭(e.g‬‭air‬‭to‬
‭glass),‬‭r‬‭<‬‭i‬‭(bends‬‭towards‬‭the‬‭normal)‬
‭●‬ ‭If‬‭light‬‭travels‬‭from‬‭a‬‭more‬‭dense‬‭to‬‭a‬‭less‬‭dense‬‭medium‬‭(e.g‬‭glass‬‭to‬
‭air),‬‭r‬‭>‬‭i‬‭(bends‬‭away‬‭from‬‭the‬‭normal)‬

‭●‬ T ‭ he‬‭angles‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭and‬‭refraction‬‭are‬‭related‬‭by‬‭an‬‭equation‬
‭known‬‭as‬‭Snell’s‬‭Law:‬
‭n‬‭=‬‭sin‬‭i‬
‭sin‬‭r‬
‭●‬ ‭where:‬
‭-‬ ‭n‬‭=‬ ‭refractive‬‭index‬‭of‬‭the‬‭material.‬
‭-‬ ‭i‬‭=‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭incidence‬‭of‬‭the‬‭light.‬
‭-‬ ‭r‬‭=‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭refraction‬‭of‬‭the‬‭light.‬
‭●‬ ‭‘Sin’‬‭is‬‭the‬‭trigonometric‬‭function‬‭‘Sine’‬‭which‬‭is‬‭on‬‭a‬‭scientific‬
‭calculator.‬
‭●‬ ‭This‬‭equation‬‭can‬‭be‬‭rearranged‬‭with‬‭the‬‭help‬‭of‬‭the‬‭formula‬‭triangle:‬
 ‭Worked‬‭example‬
‭A‬‭ray‬‭of‬‭light‬‭enters‬‭a‬‭glass‬‭block‬‭of‬‭refractive‬‭index‬‭1.53‬‭making‬‭an‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭15°‬
‭with‬‭the‬‭normal‬‭before‬‭entering‬‭the‬‭block.‬

‭ alculate‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭it‬‭makes‬‭with‬‭the‬‭normal‬‭after‬‭it‬‭enters‬‭the‬‭glass‬‭block.‬
C
‭Step‬‭1:‬‭List‬‭the‬‭known‬‭quantities‬

‭‬ R
○ ‭ efractive‬‭index‬‭of‬‭glass,‬‭n‬‭=‬‭1.53‬
‭○‬ ‭Angle‬‭of‬‭incidence,‬‭i‬‭=‬‭15°‬

‭Step‬‭2:‬‭Write‬‭the‬‭equation‬‭for‬‭Snell's‬‭Law‬

‭Step‬‭3:‬‭Rearrange‬‭the‬‭equation‬‭and‬‭calculate‬‭sin‬‭(r)‬

‭Step‬‭4:‬‭Find‬‭the‬‭angle‬‭of‬‭refraction‬‭(r)‬‭by‬‭using‬‭the‬‭inverse‬‭sine‬‭function‬

‭r‬‭=‬‭sin‬‭–1‬ ‭(0.1692)‬‭=‬‭9.7‬‭=‬‭10°‬

‭Exam‬‭Tip‬
‭Important:‬‭(sin‬‭i‬‭/‬‭sin‬‭r‬‭)‬‭is‬‭not‬‭the‬‭same‬‭as‬‭(‬‭i‬‭/‬‭r‬‭).‬‭Incorrectly‬‭cancelling‬‭the‬‭sin‬‭terms‬‭is‬
‭a‬‭very‬‭common‬‭mistake!‬

‭When‬‭calculating‬‭the‬‭value‬‭of‬‭i‬‭or‬‭r‬‭start‬‭by‬‭calculating‬‭the‬‭value‬‭of‬‭sin‬‭i‬‭or‬‭sin‬‭r.‬

‭You‬‭can‬‭then‬‭use‬‭the‬‭inverse‬‭sine‬‭function‬‭(sin‬‭–1‬ ‭on‬‭most‬‭calculators‬‭by‬‭pressing‬
‭'shift'‬‭then‬‭'sine')‬‭to‬‭find‬‭the‬‭angle.‬

‭One‬‭way‬‭to‬‭remember‬‭which‬‭way‬‭around‬‭i‬‭and‬‭r‬‭are‬‭in‬‭the‬‭fraction‬‭is‬‭remembering‬
‭that‬‭'i'‬‭comes‬‭before‬‭'r'‬‭in‬‭the‬‭alphabet,‬‭and‬‭therefore‬‭is‬‭on‬‭the‬‭top‬‭of‬‭the‬‭fraction‬
‭(whilst‬‭r‬‭is‬‭on‬‭the‬‭bottom).‬