Constitution I & II Complete Notes

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Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution
B.A. LL.B. (HONS.) II SEMESTER

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW-I
UNIT-I : INTRODUCTION
1. Preamble
2. Nature of Indian Constitution
3. Characteristics of federalism
4. Unitary form of Government
INTRODUCTION
A Constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which
a State or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity
is. When these principles are written down into a single document or set of legal documents, those
documents may be said to embody a written constitution; if they are written down in a single
comprehensive document, it is said to embody a codified constitution. Constitution was written by a
committee headed by Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar. It took 2 yrs, 11 months, 18 days for compilation. It
was adopted on 26th November, 1949 (celebrated as Law Day), and enforced fully on 26th
January, 1950 (celebrated as Republic Day).
The Constitution of India is the longest written Constitution of any sovereign country in the world,
containing 444 Articles in 22 Parts, 12 Schedules while the United States Constitution is the shortest
written Constitution, at 7 Articles. At the time of commencement, the Constitution had 395 Articles in
22 parts and 8 schedules.
 Constitution is said to be the supreme law of the land.
 The drafting of the document called the Constitution was pursued by an assembly of elected
representatives called the Drafting Committee, which was chaired by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
 The above-said Committee prepared the draft of the Constitution. Then, several rounds of
discussions took place. More than two thousand amendments were considered.
 Every document presented and every word spoken in the Constituent Assembly has been
recorded and preserved under the name of Constituent Assembly Debates.
SOURCES OF CONSTITUTION
SOURCE PROVISION
Parliamentary government, Rule of Law, legislative procedure, single

BRITISH CONSTITUTION citizenship, cabinet system, citizenship, prerogative writs,
parliamentary privileges and bicameralism.
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UNITED STATES Fundamental rights, independence of judiciary, judicial review,

CONSTITUTION impeachment of the President, removal of Supreme Court and High
Court judges and post of Vice-President.
IRISH Directive Principles of States Policy, nomination of members to Rajya
CONSTITUTION Sabha and method of election of President.
CANADIAN Federation with strong centre, vesting of residuary power in the

CONSTITUTION centre, appointment of state Governors by the Centre, and advisory
jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
AUSTRALIAN Concurrent List, freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse, and
CONSTITUTION joint sitting of the two Houses of Parliament.
WEIMAR CONSTITUTION Suspension of Fundamental Rights during Emergency. Soviet

OF GERMANY Constitution (USSR, now Russia) Fundamental duties and the ideal of
justice (social, economic and political) in the Preamble.
FRENCH CONSTITUTION Republic and the ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity in the
Preamble.
Constitution Procedure for amendment of the Constitution and

SOUTH AFRICAN election of members of Rajya Sabha.
JAPANESE CONSTITUTION
Procedure established by Law.
While drafting the Constitutional Draft, several provisions were borrowed from various written
and unwritten Constitutions all over the world.
Similarly the Constitution as a whole stands to its effect after having incorporated several unique
features and provisions from several other Constitutions.
PREAMBLE
“WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
and to secure to all its citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the
Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949,
do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.”
2
Preamble means a preliminary or introductory statement, especially attached to a statute or

constitution setting forth its purpose. Preamble is an expressionary statement in a document that
explains the document's purpose and underlying philosophy. When applied to the opening paragraphs
of a statute, it may recite historical facts pertinent to the subject of the statute. The preamble to the
Constitution of India is a brief introductory statement that sets out the guiding purpose and
principles of the document.
In re BeruBari’s case1, it was held that the preamble is not an integral part of the Indian
Constitution & therefore it can neither be regarded as a source of limitations or substantive powers
nor it is enforceable in a court of law. However, Supreme Court of India has, in
the Keshavananda Bharti Case2, overruled earlier decisions and recognised that the preamble may be
used to interpret ambiguous areas of the constitution where differing interpretations present
themselves.
Forty-second Amendment, 1976: As originally enacted the preamble described the state as a
"sovereign democratic republic". In 1976 the Forty-second Amendment changed this to read
"sovereign socialist secular democratic republic." Also through this amendment, the phrase "unity of
the Nation" was changed to "unity and integrity of the Nation".
PURPOSE OF PREAMBLE
Preamble basically is a declaration of-
1. The source of the Constitution,
2. The statement of its objectives,
3. The date of its adoption and enactment.
 Preamble begins with a short statement of its basic values and it contains the philosophy on
which our Constitution is built. It is just like an introduction or preface of a book. Preamble
actually embodies the spirit of the Constitution.
 It is a key to the minds of the draftsmen.
 It is also the soul of the Constitution.
PREAMBLE AND ITS INTERPRETATION

“We, The People of India…”
 This phrase simply indicates that it’s we people, the people of India who are the source of
authority behind the Constitution.
 This also has an implication that the Constitution has been drawn up and enacted by the
people through their representatives, and not just handed down to them by a king or any
outside powers.
“..having solemnly resolved to constitute India..”
 That is to say that by declaring such a phrase we have actually abide ourselves in it’s true
spirits to follow and give full effect to the policies and principles laid down in the Constitution.
“sovereign”
1
AIR 1960 SC 858
2
AIR 1973 SC 1461
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 This indicates that India is a sovereign, a nation free from any external control or interference
i.e. no external power can dictate the government of India. India is internally and externally
sovereign i.e. externally free from the control of any foreign power and internally, it has a free
government which is directly elected by the people and makes laws that govern the people.
 Constitution may appear to be sovereign as it is the supreme law of the land. However, a
document cannot be a sovereign. The people of India, according to this Constitution have given
to themselves this Constitution and therefore, we can say that the political sovereignty lies in
“We, the people..” and the legal sovereignty lies in the Constitution of India.
 The word “Sovereign” emphasizes that India is no more dependent upon any outside authority.
 It’s membership of that Commonwealth of Nations and that of the United Nations Organization
do not restrict her sovereignty.
“socialist”
 The word “socialist” was not there in the original draft of the Constitution. This has been
incorporated in the Preamble by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment, 1976.
 This is also reflected in the words “..economic justice..” in the preamble. In a democracy,
socialism simply refers to a system of government in which the means of productions are
wholly or partly controlled by the State.
 It implies social and economic equality. Social equality in this context means the absence of
discrimination on the grounds only of caste, colour, creed, sex, religion, or language. Under
social equality, everyone has equal status and opportunities. Economic equality in this context
means that the government will endeavour to make the distribution of wealth more equal and
provide a decent standard of living for all. This is in effect emphasized a commitment towards
the formation of a welfare state. India has adopted a socialistic and mixed economy and the
government has framed many laws to achieve the aim.
 In D.S. Nakara v. Union of India (UoI), the Supreme Court has observed that the basic
framework of socialism is to provide a decent standard of living to the people and specially
provide basic social security from cradle to grave. Therefore, it clearly marks the economic
equality and equitable distribution of income.
{Art. 39(b) and (c)}
“secular”
 The word “secular” also was not there in the original draft of the Constitution. This has also
been incorporated in the Preamble by the Constitutional (42nd Amendment) Act, 1976.
 It simply indicates that the State does not recognize any religion as its own religion and thus,
treats all religions equally. It’s a status of being neither pro-religion nor anti-religion. It is also
not based on total neutrality towards religion. It is based on equal respect for all religions. It
embodies the age old concept of ‘sarva dharma sambhava’.
 Art. 25 to 28 constitutes the right to freedom of religion
 Citizens have complete freedom to follow any religion, and there is no official religion. The
Government treats all religious beliefs and practices with equal respect and honour.
 In a secular State, the State regulates the relationship between man and man and it is actually
not concerned with the relation of man with God.
“democratic”
 This is based on the legal status of “Damus Cratus” which means rule of people i.e. where the
Government gets its authority from the will of the people. The rulers are elected by the people
and are responsible to them.
 There is a famous definition of democracy as given by Abrahim Lincoln that “democracy is by
the people, of the people and for the people.”
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 The first part of the preamble “We, the people of India” and, its last part “give to ourselves this
Constitution” clearly indicate the democratic spirit involved even in the Constitution. India is a
democracy.
 This simply means that the government of our country is carried on by the people of the State
through their representatives and the executive head of the State i.e. the President of India is
an elected representative of the People (and not a hereditary monarch as like King of England).
In India, President is elected by the people although he is elected indirectly. The people of
India elect their governments at all levels (Union, State and local) by a system of universal
adult franchise; popularly known as "one man one vote". Every citizen of India, who is 18 years
of age and above and not otherwise debarred by law, is entitled to vote. Every citizen enjoys
this right without any discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, colour, sex, religion or
education.
“republic”
 The Constitution of India is republican in nature as the executive head of India is not any
hereditary monarch. This indicates the form of Government in which the Head of State will be
an elected person and not a monarch like the King or the Queen in England. Such elected Head
will be the Chief Executive Head.
 This concept of being republic is taken from France.
 As opposed to a monarchy, in which the head of state is appointed on hereditary basis for a
lifetime or until he abdicates from the throne, a democratic republic is an entity in which the
head of state is elected, directly or indirectly, for a fixed tenure, the President of India is elected
by an electoral college for a term of five years. The post of the President of India is not
hereditary. Every single citizen of India is eligible to become the President of the country. The
leaders of the state and local bodies are also elected by the people in similar manner.
 India became a republic on 26th January, 1950.
“..and to secure to all its citizens..” - This is a declaratory statement wherein the ultimate objective of
the Constitution lies.
“..justice, social economic and political..”
Here, these words indicate that the Indian Constitution aims at achieving three-fold justice. It’s
simply about the attainment of common good and that the people cannot be discriminated on the
basis of caste, religion or gender or so and that the government or the State should work for the
welfare of the people as a whole irrespective of their social status.
 Economic justice can be and ought to be ensured by rational policy making and it’s proper
implementation. Socio-economic justice has been ensured by provision such as Art. 38 and 39.
 Political justice is ensured by way of the right of adult franchise i.e. exercise of right to vote as
soon as a citizen attains the age of 18 years.
 Social justice actually requires the abolition of all sorts of inequities which result from
inequalities of wealth, opportunity, race, caste and religion. Art. 14 to Art.18 provides for
equality of status and opportunity.
 The concept of social justice thus enables the legislature to enact and the Courts to uphold such
legislations-
(a) to protect the interests of the weaker sections;
(b) to remove economic inequalities;
(c) to provide a decent standard of living to the people of the country.
“..liberty, of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship..”
The Constitution regards liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship to be
essential to the development of the individual and the nation, and therefore the Preamble itself
promises to ensure the same to it’s citizens. In simple words, there are no unreasonable
restrictions on the citizens in what they think, how they think, how they wish to express their
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thoughts and the way they wish to follow up their thoughts in action. {Art. 19(1), Art. 25, Art.26
makes provision of such liberty}
“..fraternity, assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation..”
“Fraternity” means the spirit of brotherhood. Simply put it’s that all of us should behave as if we
are members of the same family and no one should treat any other person as inferior owing to any
factor. India being a multilingual and multi-religious State, the unity and integrity can be
preserved only through a spirit of brotherhood that pervades the entire country, among all its
citizens, irrespective of their differences. Indian Constitution provides for a single citizenship. All
citizens have been given the right to move freely throughout the territory of India and to reside
and settle in any part of the territory of India. [Art.19(1)(d) and Art.19(1)(e)]
“..In our Constituent Assembly this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do hereby ADOPT, ENACT
AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.”
This is a declaratory statement about the adopting, enacting the Constitution.
Art. 394 and some other Articles such as Art. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 379, 380, 388, 391,
392 and 393 came into force on 26th Nov.,1949 (celebrated as Lawyer’s day)
The remaining provisions of this Constitution came into force later on 26th January,1950
which day is referred to as the day of commencement of this Constitution. (As also celebrated
as the Republic Day)
PREAMBLE WHETHER A PART OF

CONSTITUTION OR NOT??
&
WHETHER AMENDABLE OR NOT??
 In Re Berubari Case {AIR 1960 SC 845}

The Supreme Court held that preamble is not a part of the Constitution as it does not create any
substantive rights or obligations or powers. It cannot be a source of powers or restrictions on such
powers. Further held that preamble is just an important tool for the interpretation of the
Constitution.
 In Keshwanand Bharti’s case {AIR 1973 SC 1461}
It was held that preamble of the Constitution cannot be compared to the preamble of any other
statute. It was also held that the objectives stated in the Preamble reflect the basic structure of the
Constitution. Thus, it must be considered a part of the Constitution. It was not a provision as held in
the Berubari’s case.
 S.R. Bommai v. UoI {AIR 1994 SC 1918}
Supreme Court held that the preamble forms a part of the Constitution.
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CAN PREAMBLE BE AMENDED??
 As far as the power of the Parliament to amend the Preamble is concerned, it can be concluded
that the Preamble is a part of the Constitution and therefore it can be amended by the Parliament
under Article 368 but the ‘basic features’ in the Preamble cannot be amended.
 Till date, preamble has been amended only ones i.e. by the Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act,
1976.
 By this 42nd Amendment, four words were added in the preamble i.e. “socialist”, ”secular”, “and
integrity”
 The Constitution of India has some outstanding features which distinguish it from other
Constitutions. The framers of our Constitution studied other Constitutions, selected their
valuable features and put them with necessary modifications in our Constitution.
 The framers of the Constitution of India did not aim at a completely new or original
Constitution. They just wanted to produce "a good and workable" Constitution. And they
succeeded doing this. The fact that the Constitution, for last 59 years, has been working
satisfactorily is a testimony to its quality and utility.
1) Written and lengthiest Constitution
 There are two types of Constitutions in the world. Most of the Constitutions are written. The
first modern written Constitution was the American Constitution. On the other hand, the
British Constitution is unwritten. It consists of customs and conventions which have grown
over the years.
 In India, we have a written Constitution. The framers of our Constitution tried to put
everything in black and white. Indian Constitution can be called the largest written
constitution in the world because of its contents. In its original form, it consisted of 395
Articles and 8 Schedules to which additions have been made through subsequent amendments.
At present it contains 395 Articles and 12 Schedules.
There are various factors responsible for the long size of the Constitution. The Constitution
became lengthy mainly due to the following factors-
(a) The Constitutional draftsmen wanted to put everything in black and white and that too in
great detail.
(b) In other federations, there are two Constitutions: one for the federation and the other for
the states. In India, the states do not have separate Constitutions. The powers of states along
with the powers of the federation i.e. the Union have been vested in one Constitution.
(c) The Government of India Act, 1935 was in operation when India got independence. Our
leaders were familiar with this Act. They borrowed heavily from this lengthy Act while framing
our Constitution.
(d) India is a country of great diversity. It is a country of several minorities; it has many
languages, castes, races and religions. The problems and interests of these different groups
have found place in one Constitution leading it to be a long document.
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(e) Good features of other Constitutions have been included, with necessary modifications, in
our Constitution. For example, we have brought the 'bill of rights' from the American
Constitution, parliamentary system of government from the British Constitution and Directive
Principles of State Policy from the Irish Constitution.
While including these elements of other Constitutions in our Constitution, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
said the framers of our Constitution tried to remove their faults and suit them to our
conditions.
2) Preamble
 The Preamble describes the source, nature, ideology, goals and objectives of the Constitution.
The Constitution declares India to be a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic. The
words, 'Socialist' and 'secular' were added in the Preamble of the Constitution by 42nd
amendment which was passed in 1976.
 It underlines the national objective of social justice economic justice and political justice as
well as fraternity. It emphasises the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the
nation.
Sovereign: Sovereign means absolutely independent; it is not under the control of any other state.
Before 1947, India was not sovereign as it was under the Britishers. Now it can frame its policy
without any outside interference.
Socialist: Word 'Socialist' was added in the Preamble by 42nd Amendment of the Constitution
which was passed in 1976. This implies a system which will endeavour to avoid concentration of
wealth in a few hands and will assure its equitable distribution amongst all the people of the
nation. It also implies that India is against exploitation in all forms and believes in economic justice
to all its citizens. Indian Socialism is basically a combination of Marxist and Gandhian ideology.
Secular: The word 'Secular', like Socialist, was also added in the Preamble by 42nd Amendment of
the Constitution. India is a country of several religions but India has no official religion of the
Indian State. There is no State Religion. In matters relating to religion, the state is neutral and non-
interfering. It does not patronize any religion. Nor does it discriminate against any religion. Every
citizen is free to follow and practise the religion of his/her own choice. The state cannot
discriminate among its citizens on the basis of religion or it cannot force a citizen to accept any
specific religion.
Democratic: Democracy means that the power of the government is vested in the hands of the
people. People exercise this power through their elected representatives who, in turn, are
responsible to them. All the citizens enjoy equal political rights. Our Constitution lays a lot of
emphasis on democratic values, and a number of democratic institutions have been established to
give shape to these values. The centre, states and local self-governing bodies follow democratic
principles, and all elections from gram panchayats to parliament are democratically held.
Republic: Means that the head of the State is not a hereditary monarch but a President who is
indirectly elected by the people for a definite period is actually the political head of the nation.
3) Federal government
 The Constitution provides for a federal form of government. In a federation, there are two
governments - at the central level and at the state level. In India, the powers of the government
are divided between the central government and state governments.
 Article 1 of the Constitution of India says: - "India, that is Bharat shall be a Union of States."
Though the word 'Federation' is not used, the government is federal. A state is federal when
(a) there are two sets of governments and there is distribution of powers between the two, (b)
there is a written constitution, which is the supreme law of the land and (c) there is an
independent judiciary to interpret the constitution and settle disputes between the centre and
the states. All these features are present in India. There are two sets of government, one at the
centre, the other at state level and the distribution of powers between them is quite detailed in
our Constitution. The Constitution of India is written and the supreme law of the land. At the
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apex of single integrated judicial system, stands the Supreme Court which is independent from
the control of the executive and the legislature.
 But in spite of all these essential features of a federation, Indian Constitution has a centralizing
or a unitary tendency. While other federations like U.S.A. provide for dual citizenship, the India
Constitution provides for single citizenship. There is also a single integrated judiciary for the
whole country. The provision of All India Services, like the Indian Administrative Service, the
India Police Service, and Indian Forest Service prove another unitary feature. Members of
these services are recruited by the Union Public Service Commission on an All-India basis.
Because these services are controlled by Union Government, to some extent this constitutes a
constraint on the autonomy of states.
 A significant unitary feature is the Emergency provisions in the Indian constitution. During the
time of emergency, the Union Government becomes most powerful and the Union Parliament
acquires the power of making laws for the states. The Governor placed as the constitutional
head of the state, acts as the agent of the centre and is intended to safeguard the interests of
the centre. These provisions reveal the centralising tendency of our federation.
 Prof: K.C. Wheare has rightly remarked that Indian Constitution provides, "a system of
government which is quasi-federal, a unitary state with the subsidiary unitary features". The
framers of the constitution expressed clearly that there exists the harmony of federalism and
the unitarism. Dr. Ambedkar said, "The political system adopted in the Constitution could be
both unitary as well as federal according to the requirement of time and circumstances". We
can say that India has a "Cooperative federalism" with central guidance and state compliance.
 There are three different lists of subjects given under the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution
- Union list, State list and Concurrent list.
 The Union list contains 97 subjects of national importance like Defence, Foreign Affairs,
Currency, Post and Telegraph, Railways. On these subjects, only central legislature
(Parliament) can make laws.
 The State list contains 66 subjects of local importance. On these subjects, state legislatures
make laws. These subjects include agriculture, police, and jails.
 Concurrent list contains 47 subjects which are of common concern to both the central and
state governments. These include education, roads, social security etc. On these subjects, both
the parliament and state legislatures can legislate. However, if there is a conflict between a
central law and the state law over a subject given in the concurrent list, the central law will
prevail.
4) Parliamentary government
 India has adopted the Parliamentary system as found in Britain. In this system, the executive is
responsible to the legislature, and remains in power only as long and it enjoys the confidence
of the legislature. The president of India, who remains in office for five years is the nominal,
titular or constitutional head. The Union Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister as its
head is drawn from the legislature. It is collectively responsible to the House of People (Lok
Sabha), and has to resign as soon as it loses the confidence of that house. The President, the
nominal executive shall exercise his powers according to the advice of the Union Council of
Ministers, the real executive. In the states also, the government is Parliamentary in nature.
 Indian Constitution provides for a parliamentary form of government. The majority party in
the Lower House (Lok Sabha) forms government. The Council of Ministers is collectively
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responsible to the Parliament. The Cabinet is the real executive head. In Presidential form of
government, the President is the executive head. In India, the President is only the nominal
head.
 In Britain, the monarchy is hereditary. But in India, the post of President is elective.
5) Three Tier Government

 Indian Constitution provides for a three tier government.
 Originally, it was two tier i.e. Centre and the State
 But by 73rd and 74th Amendment Act, 1992 three tier government has been established.
(Centre, state & local self government)
 Panchayat raj system was adopted by way of these two amendments.
6) Fundamental rights and duties

 These rights are fundamental because they are basic to the moral and spiritual development of
the individual and these rights cannot be easily abridged by the parliament.
 Now the citizen enjoys six fundamental rights, originally there were seven fundamental rights.
One of them was taken away from Part III of the Constitution by the Forty-fourth Amendment
Act, 1978. As a result, the Right to Property is no longer a fundamental right. Since 1978, it has
become a legal right.
 The idea of fundamental rights has been borrowed from the American Constitution.
 Any citizen of India can seek the help of High Court or Supreme Court of India if any of his
fundamental rights is undermined by the government or any institution or any other
government.
 Fundamental rights are justiciable in nature. (i.e. they are legally enforceable by the court of
law). These are not absolute in nature & are subject to some restrictions. Parliament can
amend them but not those provisions that form the “basic structure” of the Constitution.
 Suspended during National Emergency (Except Art 20 & 21).
 The Constitution of India guarantees six fundamental rights to every citizen. These are:
i. Right to Equality.[Article 14-18]
ii. Right to Freedom. [Article 19-22]
iii. Right against Exploitation. [Article 23,24]
iv. Right to Freedom of Religion. [Article 25-28]
v. Cultural and Educational Rights. [Article 29, 30]
vi. Right to Constitutional Remedies. [Article 32]
(Right to property (Article-31) originally a fundamental right has been omitted by the 44th
Amendment Act. 1978. It is now a legal right.)
7) Fundamental Duties
 Non-justiciable in nature (i.e. they are not legally enforceable by the court of law)
 Not present in the original Constitution. (Added by 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 on the
recommendation by Swarn Singh committee.)
 Reminds people that while enjoying rights they have some duties to do.
8) Directive principles of state policy

 These principles are in the nature of directives to the government to implement them for
establishing social and economic democracy in the country.
 The Directive Principles of State Policy are enumerated in Part IV of the Constitution. The
framers of our Constitution took the idea of having such principles from the Irish Constitution.
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 These principles have been stated a; "fundamental in the governance of the country".
 They are instructions or directives from the Constitution to the state and the government. It is
the duty of the government to implement them.
 Non-justiciable in nature (i.e. they are not legally enforceable by the court of law) but they
are nevertheless fundamental in the governance of the country.
 Promotes social and economic democracy
 In general, the Directive Principles aim at building a Welfare State. These principles provide
the criteria with which we can judge the performance of the government.
Some of the important Directive Principles are:
(1) There should not be concentration of wealth and means of production to the detriment of
common man;
(2) Workers should be paid adequate wage & there should be equal pay for equal work for
both men and women;
(3) Weaker sections of the people, Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe people should be
given special care;
(4) The state should promote respect for international law and international peace.
 All the governments-Central, State and Local-are expected to frame their policies in accordance
with these principles. The aim of these principles is to establish a welfare state in India. They,
however, are not binding on the government-they are mere guidelines.
9) Fundamental Duties
 A new part IV (A) after the Directive Principles of State Policy was incorporated in the
constitution by the 42nd Amendment, 1976 for fundaments duties. Fundamental Duties did
not form part of the Constitution. Ten Fundamental Duties were inserted in Part IV by the
Constitution 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.
 A new Article - Article 51-A enumerates ten Fundamental Duties. These duties are assigned
only to citizens and not to non-citizens. These duties are not justifiable (i.e. These cannot be
enforced through the courts of law)
 The purpose of incorporating these duties in the Constitution is just to remind the people that
while enjoying their right as citizens, should also perform their duties for rights and duties are
correlative.
10) Partly rigid and partly flexible

 Whether a Constitution is rigid or flexible depends on the nature of amendment.
 The Constitution of India is neither wholly rigid nor wholly flexible. It is partly rigid and partly
flexible. It is because of the fact that for the purpose of amendment, our Constitution has been
divided into three parts:
(a) Certain provisions of the Constitution can be amended by a simple majority in the
Parliament.
(b) Certain provisions can be amended by a two-third majority of the Parliament and its
ratification by at least half of the states.
(c) The remaining provisions can be amended by the Parliament by two-third majority.
 These different amendment procedures make our Constitution partly flexible and rigid. In fact,
there is a balance between rigidity and flexibility in our Constitution.
 Some amount of flexibility was introduced into our Constitution in order to encourage its
growth.
 Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru feared that if a Constitution is too rigid, it will be stagnant and that the
growth of the nation would be hampered.
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11) Single citizenship

 In a federation, normally we have double citizenship. In the United States of America, there is
double citizenship. An American is a citizen of America and at the same time he is also a citizen
of one of the 50 States of America where he resides. In India, there is only single citizenship.
Every Indian, irrespective of his place of birth or residence, is a citizen of India only. He is not a
citizen of any Indian state. There is no citizenship of Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, Punjab, U.P. or so.
 Single citizenship is meant to ensure national unity and national integration.
12) Universal Adult Franchise
 Article 326 of the Constitution of India provides Universal Adult Franchise. It means that every
citizen of India who has completed 18 years of age is eligible to vote in general elections
irrespective of his caste, creed, sex, religion or place of birth. This is one of the most
revolutionary aspects of Indian democracy.
13) Language Policy
 The Constitution has also defined the language policy. India is a country where different
languages are spoken in various parts of the country. Hindi and English have been made
official languages of the Central Government. A state can adopt the language spoken by its
people in that state also as its official language.
 Although India is a multi-lingual nation, the Constitution provides that Hindi in Devnagri script
will be the national language. It shall be the duty of the union to promote and spread Hindi
language.
 At present, we have 22 languages which have been recognised by the Indian Constitution.
These are: Assamese, Gujarati, Konkani, Marathi, Sanskrit, Telugu, Bengali, Hindi,
Maithili, Nepali, Santhali, Urdu, Bodo, Kannada, Malayalam, Oriya, Sindhi, Dogri,
Kashmiri, Manipuri, Punjabi, Tamil.
14) Independent judiciary
 The Indian Constitution provides for an independent judiciary as also envisaged as a directive
principle laid down under Art. 50 i.e. “Separation of judiciary from executive”. The judiciary
has been made independent of the Executive as well as the Legislature.
 The judiciary in India is independent and impartial. It is an integrated and a hierarchical
judiciary with the Supreme Court at the apex of the hierarchy. The High Courts stand in its
middle, and the lower courts are located at its bottom.
 The Judges security of tenure and it is extremely difficult to remove any Judge of the Supreme
or of the High Court through impeachment.
 Also, the Supreme Court and the High Courts have the power of Judicial Review. They have the
power to declare acts of legislatures and actions of the Executive ultra vires and such acts or
actions are found to be in conflict with the provisions of the Constitution.
15) A Constitution derived from many sources
 The framers of our Constitution borrowed many things from the Constitutions of various other
countries and included them in our Constitution. That is why some writers call Indian
Constitution a 'bag of borrowings'.
16) Emergency provisions
 The framers of our Constitution had realised that there could be certain dangerous situations
when government could not be run as in ordinary time. Hence our Constitution contains
certain emergency provisions.
 During emergency the fundamental rights of the citizens can be suspended and our
government becomes a unitary one.
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17) Federal Government with Unitary Bias

 India is a federation, although word 'federation' does not find a place in the whole text of the
Indian Constitution. The elements of federation are present in the Indian Constitution. It is a
written and rigid Constitution.
 There is dual polity and there is Constitutional division of powers between the centre and the
states. There is also an independent judiciary. The Supreme Court arbitrates the disputes
between the centre and the states.
 All these provisions make India a federation. But in Indian Federation, the centre is strong as
compared to the states. The centre has more financial powers and the states largely depend
upon it for their economic development. The Governor acts as the agent of the centre.
 The centre can reorganize a state, but a state cannot reorganize the centre. In other words, the
centre is indestructible while the states are destructible. During emergencies, the powers of
the centre considerably grow and the states become weak.
 K. C. Where has described the Indian government as 'quasi-federal'. India has also been
characterised as 'a federal state with unitary spirit.‘
 Indian Constitution establishes India as the federal system of government. Federal system
means a political system where is there division of powers between centre and State. But
Indian federal system is unique in itself as it has a strong centre.
 So, Indian Political structure can be rightly described as “federal system with strong centre”
NATURE OF VARIOUS CONSTITUTIONS IN THE WORLD
Nature of Constitution necessarily depends upon the types of Constitution

Written or unwritten Constitution: Most of the countries over the world have a written Constitution.
Best example of an unwritten Constitution is British Constitution (UK)
 Rigid or Flexible Constitution
 A Constitution is rigid if for the amendment or review of its provisions, a special provision is
required to be followed. Example - Constitution of USA.
 A Constitution is flexible if its provisions can be amended or revised by the ordinary
legislative process. Example - Constitution of UK
 A rigid Constitution possesses the quality of stability. And the drawback of being a rigid
Constitution is that such a Constitution cannot be tuned in accordance with the needs of the
society as and when required. It places obstacles in the required social changes.
 Flexible Constitution, on the other hand, can be easily amended according to the needs of the
society but the drawback is that such a Constitution lacks stability.
 Federal and Unitary Constitution
Typically, democratic Constitutions are classified into two categories-

UNITARY FEDERAL
CONSTITUTION CONSTITUTION
 Constitution which provides for a federal system of government is called a Federal

Constitution, while a Constitution which provides for a unitary form of government is called a
Unitary Constitution.
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 In a Unitary Constitution, all the powers of the government are given to the Centre and the
local govt. enjoy the powers delegated to them by the Centre.
 The federal Constitution establishes a federal system of government. It establishes a system of
double government – Central government, and the State government.
 Merits of Unitary Constitution

1. Unitary Constitution establishes a strong Central Government which is found more useful
in times of war and emergencies.
2. The Central govt. has all the powers of the govt. and the local or the State govt. just enjoys
the powers delegated to them.
3. No conflict of authority and no overlapping of jurisdiction.
4. Unitary Constitution is more flexible.
 Demerits of Unitary Constitution

1. Unitary Constitution develops centralized bureaucracy.
2. The laws are often made in ignorance of the local conditions and needs.
3. They are administered by the persons who do not have sufficient knowledge of the local
needs.
4. Unitary Constitution is more flexible and therefore it does lack stability.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FEDERALISM
1. System of double government: India has two sets of government - the Central or Union
government and the State government. The Central government works for the whole country
and the State governments look after the States. The areas of activity of both the governments
are different.
2. Distribution of Powers: The Constitution of India has divided powers between the Central
government and the state governments. The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution contains
three lists of subjects which show how division of power is made between the two sets of
government. Both the governments have their separate powers and responsibilities.
3. Written and rigid Constitution: The Constitution of India is written. Every provision of the
Constitution is clearly written down and has been discussed in detail. It is regarded as one of
the longest constitutions of the world which has 395 Articles 22 Parts and 12 Schedules.
4. Supremacy of the Constitution: The Constitution is regarded as the supreme law of the land.
No law can be made which will go against the authority of the Constitution. The Constitution is
above all and all citizens and organizations within the territory of India must be loyal to the
Constitution.
5. Independent judiciary and Supremacy of judiciary: The Supreme Court of India is the
highest court of justice in India. It has been given the responsibility of interpreting the
provisions of the Constitution. It is regarded as the guardian of the Constitution.
6. Bi-cameral legislation: In India, the legislature is bi-cameral. The Indian Parliament, i.e., the
legislature has two houses - the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. The Rajya is the upper house
of the Parliament representing the States while the Lok Sabha is the lower house representing
the people in general.
All the above characteristics are present in the Indian Constitution. However, there are certain
provisions that affect its federal character.
1. Appointment of the Governor of a State – Art.155 and Art.156 provide that the Governor, who is
the Constitutional head of a State, is to be appointed by the President and stays only until the pleasure
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of the President. Further, that the Governor can send the laws made by the state for assent from the
President, who can veto the law.
It should be noted that Governor is only a ceremonial held and he works on the advice of council of
ministers. In past 50 yrs, there has been only one case (Re Kerala Education Bill), where
amendments to a state law were asked by the centre and that too after the opinion of the Supreme
Court. Thus, it does not tarnish the federal character and states are quite free from outside control.
2. Power of the Parliament to make laws on subjects in the State list - Under Art. 249, centre is
empowered to make laws on subjects in the State list. On the face of it, it looks a direct assault on the
power of the states. However, this power is not unlimited. It is exercised only on the matters of
national importance and that too if the Rajya Sabha agrees with 2/3rd majority. It should be noted that
Rajya Sabha is nothing but the representative of the States. So an approval by Rajya Sabha means that
States themselves are giving the power to the centre to make law on that subject.
3. Power to form new states and to change existing boundaries - Under Art. 3, centre can change
the boundaries of existing states and can carve out new states. This should be seen in the perspective
of the historical situation at the time of independence. At that time there were no independent states.
There were only provinces that were formed by the British based on administrative convenience. At
that time States were artificially created and a provision to alter the boundaries and to create new
states was kept so that appropriate changes could be made as per requirement. It should be noted that
British India did not have states similar to the States in the USA.
4. Emergency Provisions - Centre has the power to take complete control of the State in the following
3 situations:
(a) An act of foreign aggression or internal armed rebellion (Art. 352)
(b) Failure of constitutional machinery in a state (Art. 356)
(c) Financial Emergency (Art. 360)
In all the above cases, an elected State government can lose control of the State and a central rule can
be established. In the first case, it is very clear that such a provision is not only justified but necessary
to protect the existence of a state. A state cannot be left alone to defend itself from outside aggression.
In the third case also, it is justified because a financial emergency could cause severe stress among the
population, plunge the country into chaos and jeopardize the existence of the whole country. Such
provisions exist even in USA. The second provision is most controversial. It gives the Centre the power
to take over the control of a State. However, such an action can be taken only upon the advice of the
governor and such an advice is not beyond the purview of the Supreme Court. Thus, it can be safely
said that Indian Constitution is primarily federal in nature even though it has unique features that
enable it to assume unitary features upon the time of need.
 Merits of Federal Constitution

1. Federal Constitution better protects the Regional and Local interest.
2. Subjects of local interest are entrusted to the regional govt. and that of the national
importance are entrusted to the Central govt. Therefore, the local Legislatures gets an
opportunity to make laws according to the local needs.
3. A federal Constitution tends to develop decentralization.
4. A federal Constitution is therefore more democratic in nature.
 Demerits of Federal Constitution

1. A Federal Constitution leads to the establishment of a weak government. The Central govt. has
no direct control over the matters allotted to the regional governments.
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2. Such weaknesses are evident on the times of emergencies.

3. Possibility of development of regionalism.
4. Citizens may show a greater loyalty towards their region rather than the Union. This may be a
serious threat to the national unity.
5. A Federal Constitution, a conflict of authority and overlapping of jurisdiction may always arise
and in such a govt., there is a possibility of confusion regarding the responsibility for work to
be done and duplication of work.
6. Duplication of work may always lead to more administrative expenses.
7. A Federal Constitution is rigid in nature and therefore it cannot be amended according to the
needs.
8. Such double system of govt. is also a cause of the delayed execution and implementation of
plans and projects.
INDIAN CONSTITUTION
WHETHER FEDERAL OR UNITARY??
 No doubt, Indian Constitution is a blend of features of both Federal as well as Unitary

Constitution. But, after observing all the features of Indian Constitution, it is conclusive that it
is federal with a unitary bias.
 Austin rightly says about Indian Constitution, it is a co-operative federalism.
Nature of Indian Constitution
A controversy has always been there as to the actual nature of the Indian Constitution that,
whether the Indian Constitution is federal or unitary in nature. It is mandatory here to examine the
basic features of Indian Constitution and critically analyze the same in order to conclude upon its
nature.
Dr. Ambedkar has categorically said in Constituent Assembly discussions that

“notwithstanding certain provisions that centralize the powers, Indian Constitution is
essentially federal.” Prof. Wheare and some other academicians, however, are hesitant
in calling it a federal constitution and prefer to term it as "quasi-federal" or "federal
with strong centralizing tendency". Though, it should be noted that even Prof. Wheare
accepts the existence of certain provisions in the American Constitution, such as
dependence of Senate on States that are contrary to federal character. However, he
says that while the principles of federalism should be rigid, the terminology of "federal
Constitution" should be wide. A Constitution should be called federal if it displays
federal character predominantly.
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Comparative analysis of essential features of federal Constitution and

Indian Constitution
A federal Constitution possesses the following characteristics -

1. System of double governments
In a federal Constitution, there exists a double government i.e. the Central government and the
State or the regional Governments. This feature is also found under the Indian Constitution.
2. Distribution of powers
A Federal Constitution essentially provides for distribution of powers between the Central and
the State Governments. Both the governments are coordinate and independent in their sphere and
not subordinate to one another.
Indian Constitution also provides for such distribution of powers.
LEGISLATIVE
As far as the legislative powers are concerned, the subjects have been divided into three
lists as given under the Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution, namely –
UNION LIST
STATE LIST
CONCURRENT
LIST
 Subjects of national importance such as defense of India, Naval, Military and Air Forces,
Foreign Affairs, Railways, National Highways, Foreign Exchange, Banking etc have been placed
under the Union List i.e. List I. The union list in all contains 97 items.
 The subjects of local interest such as public order, police, local government, public health and
sanitation, hospitals, agriculture, etc. have been placed under the State list i.e. List II which
contains 66 items.
 The subjects which are of local interest but require uniform treatment all over the
country such as education, factories, newspapers, civil or criminal laws, contract have been
placed under the Concurrent list i.e. List III which contains 47 items.
Parliament i.e. the Central legislature has exclusive power to make laws with respect to any of the
matters as mentioned under List I. The State legislature has the exclusive power to make laws
upon the matters that are mentioned in the State list.
Parliament as well as the State legislatures has a concurrent (co-existing) power to make
laws on the matters listed in the concurrent list. If there is a conflict between same laws as passed
by the Parliament and a State legislature on a particular subject, then the law passed by the
Parliament shall have an over-riding effect or it will prevail and the State law to the extent of
repugnancy will be void.
Distribution of powers is an essential feature of Federal Constitution but Indian Constitution

also has following characteristics of a Unitary Constitution.
(Unitary features)
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 Although law making power is vested in both, the Parliament and the State Legislature as to
the matters enlisted in List 3, but the very factor that if both the above said legislative bodies
enact their own legislations on a particular matter and such laws tends to conflict, then the law
passed by the Parliament would prevail and the State law shall, to the extent of repugnancy, be
void.
 An exception to this is given under Article 254(2) wherein such repugnant law made by State
legislature was reserved for President’s consideration and it has received President’s assent,
then such law may prevail in that State.
 Also, the residuary power to legislate upon any matter that has not been listed in any of the three
lists has been vested in the Parliament. Whereas in American Constitution, such residuary power is
vested in the State legislatures.
Parliament can also make laws with matters listed in the State list in the following cases –
1) Under Art.248 – A general power of the Parliament to legislate upon matters mentioned in
State List.
2) If Council of States i.e. Rajya Sabha declares by a resolution supported by not less than 2/3 rd of
the members present and voting that it is in the national interest that Parliament should make
law regarding a subject-matter of the State list, it shall be lawful for the Parliament to pass such
law. {valid for 1 year/ceases after 6 months}
3) While proclamation of emergency is there.
4) If two or more State Legislatures feels that Parliament should legislate upon a matter of
common concern to such states, but the Parliament directly does not have a power to legislate
upon such matter, then on such request being made by such States, the Parliament can legislate
upon the same.
5) In case of State emergency (under Art. 356)
 The provisions under Art. 2 and 3 also indicates the unitary features of the Indian
Constitution.
Art. 2 – Admission or establishment of new States.
Art. 3 – Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of
existing States.
Both the above functions and powers to do the same have been vested in the Parliament by the
Indian Constitution.
ADMINISTRATIVE
As such, Indian Constitution provides for distribution of the administrative powers as
well. But, there are certain features of being unitary system with this regard as well.
1) Art.256 – The State must so exercise their executive powers as to ensure compliance with the
laws made by Parliament and the Union govt. can also give directions to a State in this regard. If
the State fails to comply, the President may impose State emergency on this very ground.
FINANCIAL
Under a Federal Constitution, the union and the States are financially independent. But,
under Indian system, the States are dependent upon the Centre for the grants-in-aid and the
financial assistance. This indicates the unitary feature of Indian Constitution.
3. Rigid and Written Constitution
It is not necessary that a federal Constitution should always be a written
Constitution but it has been observed that in most of the countries having a Federal Constitution
are generally written Constitutions. India too has a written Constitution and under Art.368, three
18
modes of amendment have been provided, which renders it neither absolutely rigid nor absolutely
flexible.
4. Independent judiciary - Independence of judiciary is necessary to maintain the federal
structure intact.
Various provisions to ensure the independence of judiciary are-

 Appointment of judges by the Head of the executive or through independent
Commission.
 Difficult procedure for their removal(impeachment)
 No variation in conditions of their services to their disadvantage after their
appointment.
 Prohibition of any discussion as to the conduct of any judge.
 Security of tenure.
5. Supremacy of Constitution -
 In India, Constitution is the supreme of the land.
 All three organs of the Indian democracy i.e. the executive, legislature and the judiciary, all
have to abide by and follow the Constitutional principles.
 Here, judiciary is regarded as the guardian of Indian Constitution and therefore the power
of judicial review holds a very significant place as far as the power of judiciary as the
guardian of Constitution is concerned.
 In USA’s Constitution also, since it establishes a federalism, the Constitution is supreme
like India.
 In England, there is supremacy of the Parliament. In England, the Parliament is sovereign.
 Supremacy of Constitution is also one of the basic structures in the Indian Constitution
which cannot be disturbed in the name of a Constitutional amendment.
 Power of judicial review as provided under Article 13 is a reflection of the independence of
the judiciary. Here, it simply means that if the Parliament passes any law which actually
contravenes the basic principles laid down in the Constitution, then the judiciary is
empowered to review the Constitutionality of a particular enactment and the judiciary may
struck down the said law as null and void.
 Art. 32 and Art. 226 are also a different aspect of the independence of judiciary.
Comparative analysis of essential features of Unitary Constitution and

Indian Constitution
 Single citizenship
 Unified system of Courts.
 Election Commission
 Comptroller and Auditor General of India
 All India Services. (Like IAS, IPS, IFS, IRS)
 Governor of the States.
 Emergency provisions.
 Legislative functions.
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CASES ON NATURE OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION
 State of West Bengal v. UoI {AIR 1963 SC 1241} - Supreme Court held that Indian Constitution is
not truly federal because the States are not coordinate with the Union.
 Kuldeep Nayyar v. UoI {AIR 2006 SC 3127} - Supreme Court held that federal principle is the
basic feature of the Constitution however federation leans in favour of strong Centre.
OPINIONS REGARDING NATURE OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

 K.C. Wheare has characterized Indian Constitution as quasi-federal.
 Jennings opined that Indian Constitution should be described as federation with a strong
centralizing tendency.
 Austin suggested that Indian Constitution can be called federal, “ a Co-operative federalism”
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UNIT-II (A)
CITIZENSHIP, FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
1. STATE
2. CITIZENSHIP
STATE
Article 1 (1) of the Indian Constitution provides that- “India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of
States.” Thus, Article 1 describes the name by which our Country shall be called or known. The
expression “Union of States” has been taken from the Preamble to the North America (Canada) Act,
1867. The expression indicates that India is a federation. The Preamble to the Constitution of India
declares that the Republic of India is creation of the people of India and not of the States. But, the
States are also a creation of the people of India and they cannot break away from the Republic.
Although, the Republic of India is described as a union and it cannot be said to be a federation
in the strict sense of the term. The Constitution makers had a purpose in choosing the word “Union” in
preference to “Federation”. They were of the view that the word “Union” better expresses the fact that
the Union of India is not the outcome of an agreement among the old provinces with the result that it
is not open to any State or a group of states to secede or withdraw from the Union or to vary the
boundary of the states on their free will.
Article 1 : Name and territory of the Union

(1) India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.
(2) The States and the territories thereof shall be as specified in the First Schedule.
(3) The territory of India shall comprise—
(a) the territories of the States;
(b) the Union territories specified in the First Schedule; and
(c) such other territories as may be acquired.
According to Article 1 of the Indian Constitution, India is declared a Union of States, and the States and
territories are specified in the First Schedule. The territory of India which is described in clause(3)
falls under three categories— the State territories, the Union territories, the territories which may be
acquired by Government of India.
Before the Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1953, the Union consisted of States which
were classified into three main Categories—Parts A, B and C of the First Schedule. In addition to these
there were territories specified in Past D of The First Schedule. Thus there were four categories in all.
Thus at the time of the commencement of the Constitution (Seventh amendment) Act, 1956, the Union
of India consisted of 10 Part A States, 8 Part B States, 9 Part C States and 1 Part D State.
The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956, has abolished the three categories and
placed all the States of the Union on the same footing as a result of the reorganization made by the
State Reorganization Act, 1956. At present, the territory of India consists of 29 states and 7 Union
Territories namely the following—
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STATES
Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar
Gujarat Kerala Madhya Pradesh
Tamil Nadu Maharashtra Karnataka
Orissa Punjab Rajasthan
Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Jammu & Kashmir
Nagaland Haryana Himachal Pradesh
Manipur Tripura Meghalaya
Sikkim Mizoram Arunachal Pradesh
Goa Chhattisgarh Uttaranchal
Jharkhand Telangana
UNION TERRITORIES
Delhi
Andaman & Nikobar Island
Dadara & Nagar Haveli
Daman & Diu
Pondicherry
Chandigarh
Laccadive
The Union territories mentioned above are centrally administered areas, to be governed by the
President, acting, through an administrator appointed by him. By 69th Amendment Act, Union
Territory of Delhi was converted into National Capital Territory of Delhi, and the 70th Amendment
Act, provides that 'State' includes National Capital of Delhi, and Union Territory of Pondicherry. Now
both these union territories enjoy the status of a state with legislative assemblies and are governed by
the Council of Ministers with a Chief-Minister as its head.
Any territory which may at any time, be acquired by India will be included in the definition of union
territories. A territory can be said to have been acquired when the Indian Union acquires sovereignty
over such territory. The usual modes of acquisition of territory by a State are cession following a
treaty, occupation, subjugation, acquisition and prescription. Thus, foreign territories acquired by
India may be admitted into the union or Constitution into new states under Article 2 or may be
merged into an existing State under Article 3(a) or 3(b).
Article 2 : Admission or establishment of new States - Parliament may by law admit into the Union,
or establish, new States on such terms and conditions as it thinks fit.
The admission or establishment of a new State will be on such terms and conditions as
Parliament may think fit. Such terms and conditions must, however, be consistent with the
foundational principles of the basic structure of the Constitution.
Article 3 : Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States
-
Parliament may by law—
(a) form a new State by separation of territory from any State or by uniting two or more States or
parts of States or by uniting any territory to a part of any State;
(b) increase the area of any State;
22
(c) diminish the area of any State;

(d) alter the boundaries of any State;
(e) alter the name of any State:
Provided that no Bill for the purpose shall be introduced in either House of Parliament except on the
recommendation of the President and unless, where the proposal contained in the Bill affects the
area, boundaries or name of any of the States, the Bill has been referred by the President to the
Legislature of that State for expressing its views thereon within such period as may be specified in the
reference or within such further period as the President may allow and the period so specified or
allowed has expired.
Explanation I : In this article, in clauses (a) to (e), “State’’ includes a Union territory, but in the
proviso, “State’’ does not include a Union territory.
Explanation II : The power conferred on Parliament by clause (a) includes the power to form a new
State or Union territory by uniting a part of any State or Union territory to any other State or Union
territory.
The scope of Article 3 is different from that of the preceding provisions as Article 2 relates to
admission or establishment of new States which are not part of the Union whereas Article 3 provides
for the formation of or changes in the existing States including Union Territories.
Article 4: Laws made under articles 2 and 3 to provide for the amendment of the First and the
Fourth Schedules and supplemental, incidental and consequential matters -
1) Any law referred to in article 2 or article 3 shall contain such provisions for the amendment of
the First Schedule and the Fourth Schedule as may be necessary to give effect to the provisions
of the law and may also contain such supplemental, incidental and consequential provisions
(including provisions as to representation in Parliament and in the Legislature or Legislatures
of the State or States affected by such law) as Parliament may deem necessary.
2) No such law as aforesaid shall be deemed to be an amendment of this Constitution for the
purposes of article 368.
This article directs the Parliament, in case it makes a law under Article 2 or Article 3, to include
therein necessary provisions for amendment of the First and Fourth Schedules of the Constitution. The
First Schedule specifies the States which are the members of the Union and their respective territories.
The Fourth Schedule specifies the number of seats to which each State is entitled to in the Council of
States (i.e. the upper house of the Parliament, Rajya Sabha)
CITIZENSHIP
Part II of the Indian Constitution defines several categories of Indian citizens at the
commencement of the Constitution. A citizen of a given State is a person who enjoys full membership
of the political community or the State. Citizens are different from aliens or mere residents who do not
have all the rights which go to make full membership of a State. A citizen actually enjoys full civil and
political rights. Citizenship carries with it certain advantages conferred by the Constitution.
Citizenship inheres only in natural persons and not in juristic persons like corporations or societies
etc. There is single citizenship for the whole of India i.e. Indian citizenship. In many federal
constitutions, there are dual citizenship—a state citizenship and a federal citizenship. Under dual
citizenship the citizen of one federating state is virtually an alien in another such state. There being
only single citizenship, the rights, privileges and obligations are the same for all citizens throughout
India.
23
Indian Constitution ensures certain fundamental rights which are available to Indian citizens
only. Aliens cannot enjoy these rights. Such fundamental rights as exclusively enjoyable by the Indian
citizens are enumerated under Articles 15, 16, 18(2), 19 and 29. Also, citizens alone have the right to
hold certain high offices such as those of President of India [Article 58 (1)(a)], Vice-President [Article.
66(3)(a)], Governor of the State [Article 157], Judge of the Supreme Court [Article 124(3)], High Court
Judge [Article 217(2)], Attorney General of India [Article 76(1)] and Advocate General [Article 165].
The Constitution lays down sets of provisions relating to citizenship—one set which tells us
who are, or who may be deemed to be, Indian citizens at the commencement of the Constitution, the
other set tells us that Parliament may make any provision with respect to acquisition and termination
of citizenship and all other matters relating to citizenship. The Constitution thus, as it stands, does not
contain the exhaustive law on the subject and that is why a separate enactment (i.e. The Indian
Citizenship Act, 1955) has been passed. Citizenship is to be determined as per the Citizenship Act,
1955 and the Constitutional provisions.
Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution

Article 5 to 8 describes 4 classes of people who were deemed to be citizens of India at the time of the
commencement of the constitution-
1. Persons domiciled in India
2. Persons who migrated from Pakistan
3. Persons who migrated to Pakistan
4. Persons living abroad i.e., in foreign countries other than Pakistan
Citizenship by domicile (Article 5) - A person is entitled to citizenship by domicile if he fulfils two

conditions laid down by Article 5. First, he must, at the commencement of the Constitution, have his
domicile in the territory of India. Secondly, such person must fulfil any one of the three conditions laid
down in the Article, namely,
(a) he was born in India,
(b) either of his parents was born in India,
(c) he must have been ordinarily resident in the territory of India for not less than 5 years
immediately before the commencement of the Constitution.
Domicile is of two kinds- domicile of origin and domicile of choice. Every person is born with a
domicile of origin. It is domicile received by him at his birth. The domicile of origin of every person is
the country in which at the time of his birth his father was domiciled. Thus the domicile of origin is a
concept of law. It clings to a man till he abandons it and acquires a new domicile. Every independent
person can acquire a domicile of choice by a combination of-
(a) actual residence in a particular place, and
(b) intention to remain there permanently or for an indefinite period.
Citizenship of persons who migrated to India from Pakistan before the commencement of the
Constitution (Art. 6)
Persons who have migrated from Pakistan to India have been classified into two categories for the
purposes of citizenship—
(a) those who migrated to India before July 19, 1948, and
(b) those who migrated on or after July 19, 1948.
{NOTE – 19/07/1948 is the date when permit system was introduced for going from India to
Pakistan and for coming from Pakistan to India.}
24
According to Article 6-
(i) The persons of the first category i.e. persons who migrated from Pakistan to India before July 19,
1948 shall be deemed to be a citizen of India at the commencement of the Constitution, that is on 26th
January, 1950, if-
(a) he or either of his parents or any of his grand-parents was born in India as defined in the
Government of India Act, 1935 and
(b) he should have resided in India since the date of his migration.
(ii) As regarding the persons of second category i.e. persons who migrated from Pakistan to India on
or after July 19, 1948, following conditions must be fulfilled to enable him to acquire Indian citizenship
and to be deemed as a citizen of India at the commencement of the Constitution i.e. on 26th January,
1950-
(a) he or either of his parents or any of his grand-parents was born in India as defined in the
Government of India Act, 1935 and
(b) he should have resided in India, after migration for at least six months.
(c) he must have submitted an application for registration as a citizen wherein he must prove that
he resided in India for at least six months preceding submission of such application.
(d) he has been registered as citizen of India by an officer appointed by the Government of India
for that purpose.
Citizenship of migrants of Pakistan (Article 7)

Article 7 provides that anyone who has, after 1st March, 1947 migrated from India to Pakistan,
cannot be a citizen of India. But, Article 7 also makes a special provision regarding the citizenship
rights of persons who migrated to Pakistan after March 1, 1947 but returned to India subsequently.
Such a person becomes entitled to Citizenship of India, provided they fulfil the conditions stated for
Migrants from Pakistan stated in Article 6. An immigrant to Pakistan after 1st March, 1947, who has
returned to India under a proper legal permit for resettlement or permanent return to India— such a
person should fulfil all other conditions necessary for immigrants from Pakistan after July 19, 1948.
Citizenship of persons of Indian origin residing outside India (Article 8)

Article 8 provides that any person who or either of whose parents or grandparents was born
in India as defined in Government of India Act 1955 but who is ordinarily residing in any country
outside India, shall be deemed to be a citizen of India if he has been registered as an Indian Citizen by
the diplomatic or consular representative of India in that country on an application made by him/her
in the prescribed form to such diplomatic or consular representative, whether before or after the
commencement of the Constitution.
A person residing outside India if he satisfies the following two conditions—

(i) he or either of his parents or any of his grand-parents must have been born in undivided
India and
(ii) he must have been registered as a citizen of India by the Diplomatic or Consular
representative of India in the country where he is for the time being residing on an
application made to such representative in prescribed form and manner.
Article 9 provides that if a person voluntarily acquires the citizenship of any foreign State, he shall not
remain a citizen of India under Article 5, 6 and 8. Article 9 does not disable Parliament from conferring
Indian citizenship on a person who has voluntarily acquired the citizenship of any foreign state. The
Citizenship Act was amended in 2003 and again in 2005 to introduce the concept of overseas
citizenship for citizens of other countries.
25
Continuance of the rights of citizenship (Article 10)

Article 10 reads every person who is or is deemed to be a citizen of India under any of the
foregoing provisions of Article 5-10 shall continue to be a citizen of India, subject to the provisions of
any law that may be made by Parliament. In the other words, the right of citizenship cannot be taken
away from a person except through express parliamentary legislation.
Parliament is empowered under Article 11 to make any provision with respect to acquisition
and termination of citizenship. In exercise of that power it may take away the right of citizenship
which has accrued to a person under the foregoing provisions. But until that is done, a person who is
or is deemed to be a citizen of India shall continue to be a citizen of India.
In connection with provisions relating to citizenship in the Constitution of India, the framers of Indian
Constitution did not actually intended to frame comprehensive rules regarding citizenship.
Constitution has simply described the persons who would be deemed to be citizens of India at the date
of the commencement of the Constitution. Parliament has been empowered to make laws relating to
citizenship. In exercise of this power the Parliament has enacted the Citizenship Act, 1955. This Act
contains elaborate provisions relating to Citizenship.
The Citizenship Act, 1955 that came into force with effect from 30th December, 1955 deals with
matters relating to the acquisition, determination and termination of Indian citizenship. The act has
been amended by the Citizenship (Amendment) Act 1986, the Citizenship (Amendment) Act 1992, the
Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2003, and the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2005.
The Act provides for five ways for acquiring Indian citizenship as follows-
1. By birth.
2. By descent.
3. By registration.
4. By naturalisation, and
5. By incorporation of territory into India.
1. By Birth— A person born in India on or after the 26th January, 1950, is a citizen of India by birth,
when—
(1) His father possesses diplomatic immunity and is not an Indian citizen; or
(2) His father is an enemy alien and he is born at a place under enemy occupation.
2. By Descent— A person born outside India on or after January 26th, 1950, is a citizen of India by
descent if at the time of his birth his father was an Indian citizen. But if the father of such a person was
a citizen of India by descent only, the person becomes an Indian citizen only when his birth has been
registered at an Indian consulate within one year of his birth or the commencement of Citizenship Act,
whichever is later, or unless his father is, at the time of his birth, in service under the Government of
India.
3. By Registration— Subject to certain restrictions and conditions, the appropriate authority may
register the following person, who is already a citizen of India by virtue of any other provision of the
Citizenship Act, as a citizen of India on an application made by such person and after taking an oath of
allegiance:
a) a person of Indian origin ordinarily resident in India and must have been ordinarily
resident in India for at least 6 months immediately preceding the application for
registration;
b) persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident outside undivided India;
c) women married to Indian citizens;
d) minor children of Indian citizens;
26
e) persons of full age and capacity who are citizens of a Commonwealth country.
4. By Naturalization— A person of full age and capacity who is a citizen of a non-Commonwealth

country may become a citizen by naturalization, after taking an oath of allegiance, if the Central
Government is satisfied that he fulfils the conditions laid down in the Act. As per Section 6 of the
Citizenship Act, 1955 the qualifications for naturalization are as follows-
a) He is not a subject or citizen of a country where Indian citizens are prevented from becoming
citizens by naturalization.
b) He renounces his citizenship of the other country.
c) He has resided and/or has been in service of the Government for 12 months immediately
preceding the date of application.
d) During 7 years prior to the aforesaid 12 months, he has resided and/or has been in
Government service for not less than four years;
e) He is of good character ;
f) He has an adequate knowledge of language recognized by the Constitution of India ;
g) After naturalization he intends to reside in India or enter into service with Government of
India, international organization, or a society or company established in India.
5. By incorporation of territory in India— If a territory becomes a part of India, the Central

Government may notify the persons who shall be citizens of India by reason of their connection with
that territory.
Termination or deprivation of Citizenship

Citizenship Act, 1955 provides for three ways for terminating Indian Citizenship as following—
1) Renunciation of Citizenship—If a person renounces Indian citizenship by words or conduct,
he ceases to be a citizen of India.
2) Termination of Citizenship—Termination is an act of law. It takes place as soon as a citizen of
India voluntarily acquires the citizenship of another country whereby he shall cease to be a
citizen of India.
3) Deprivation of Citizenship—Deprivation is a compulsory termination of the citizenship of
India by an order of the Government of India.
A citizenship of India by a naturalization, registration, domicile and residence may be
deprived of his citizenship by an order of the Central Government after making due inquiry in
matter of any one of the following grounds-
a) Obtaining citizenship by fraud or misrepresentation.
b) Showing and on proving of disloyalty towards the Indian Constitution.
c) Communication with India’s enemy during war.
d) Imprisonment for longer than 2 years within 5 years of registration on
naturalization.
e) Residing outside India for longer than 7 years at a time.
The citizenship of India cannot be claimed as a matter of fundamental right. There is no such
fundamental right.
27
UNIT-II (B) : FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

3. FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS – EQUALITY, FREEDOM AND SOCIAL
CONTROL, PERSONAL LIBERTY, CHANGING DIMENSIONS OF
PERSONAL LIBERTY, CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS.
4. RIGHT TO CONSTITUTIONAL REMEDIES
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
Rights are claims that are essential for the existence and development of individuals. In that
sense there will be a long list of rights. Whereas all these are recognized by the society, some of the
most important rights are recognized by the State and enshrined in the Constitution. Such rights are
called fundamental rights. These rights are fundamental because of two reasons.
1. These are mentioned in the Constitution which guarantees them; and
2. These are justifiable, i.e. enforceable through courts.
Being justifiable means that in case of a violation of any of the fundamental rights the
individual can approach courts for their protection.
The fundamental rights were included under Part III of the Indian Constitution because they
were considered essential for the development of the personality of every individual and to preserve
human dignity. These Fundamental Rights guarantee to each citizen basic substantive and procedural
protections from any arbitrary state actions, but some rights are enforceable against individuals. For
instance, the Constitution abolishes untouchability and also prohibits begar. These provisions act as a
check both on state action as well as the action of private individuals. However, these rights are not
absolute or uncontrolled and are subject to reasonable restrictions as necessary for the protection of
general welfare. They can also be selectively curtailed.
ORIGIN OF
FUNDAMENTAL
RIGHTS This Chapter of the Constitution of India is well described as the
Magna Carta of India. If a government enacts a law that
restricts any of these rights, it will be declared invalid by courts.
As early as in 1214, the English people exacted an assurance from King John for respect of the
then ancient liberties. The Magna Carta is the evidence of their success which is a written document.
This is the first written document relating to fundamental rights. Thereafter from time to time, the
King had to accede to many rights to his subjects. In 1689, the Bill of rights was written consolidating
all important rights and liberties of the English people. In France Declaration of Rights of Man and the
Citizen (1789) declared the natural, inalienable and sacred rights of man. Following the spirit of the
Magna Carta of the British and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of France, the
Americans incorporated the Bill of Rights in their Constitution. The Americans were the first to give
28
Bill of Rights a Constitutional status. While drafting the Constitution of India, our Constitutional
draftsmen took an inspiration and therefore incorporated under Part III what is called “fundamental
rights”
Part III of the Indian Constitution guarantees six fundamental rights to Indian citizens which are as
follows:
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
RIGHT TO EQUALITY (Article 14 – 18)
RIGHT TO FREEDOM (Article 19 – 22)
RIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION (Article 23 – 24)
RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF RELIGION (Article 25 – 28)
CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL RIGHT (Article 29 – 30)
RIGHT TO CONSTITUTION REMEDIES (Article 32)
The 44th Amendment has abolished the right to property as a fundamental right
as guaranteed by Art. 19(1)(f) and Art.31 of the Constitution. Since this Right created a
lot of problems in the way of attaining the goal of socialism and equitable distribution of
wealth,
Part it was
III starts removed
with from
Article 12 the list
which of Fundamental
defines Rights
“State” as used in 1978.Articles
in different However, its deletion
in Part III for the
does not
purpose mean that
of enforcing we do not
fundamental haveUnlike
rights. the right
otherto acquire,
legal rights, hold
whichand dispose
are the of of
creation property.
the State,
the fundamental rights are claimed against the State.
Citizens are still free to enjoy this right. But now it is just a legal or a Constitutional right as
incorporated under Art. 300A. It is not a Fundamental Right anymore.
P.D. Shamdasani v. Central Bank of India [AIR 1952 SC 59]

Bank confiscated property on loan default. Supreme Court held that fundamental
rights are available against the state and not against private individuals because there
already are enough safeguards under ordinary laws for such disputes.
ARTICLE 12 : DEFINITION OF STATE
29
In this Part, unless the context otherwise requires, “the State’’ includes the Government and
Parliament of India and the Government and the Legislature of each of the States and all local or other
authorities within the territory of India or under the control of the Government of India.
The definition of the term “State” specifies the authorities and the instrumentalities functioning within
or without the territory of India which shall be deemed to be ‘the State’ for the purpose of Part III of
the Constitution.
By the express terms of Article 12, the expression "the State" includes :
o the Government of India;
o Parliament of India;
o the Government of each of the States
o the Legislature of each of the States
o all local authorities within the territory of India;
o all local authorities under the control of the Government of India;
o all other authorities within the territory of India; and
o all other authorities under the control of the Government of India.
The State is an abstract entity and it can, therefore only act through its agencies or instrumentalities,
whether such agency or instrumentality be human or juristic.
STATE INSTRUMENTALITIES - Authorities constituted under and corporations established by
statutes have been held to be instrumentalities and agencies of the Government in several decisions of
the Supreme Court. The observations in several of these decisions are general in nature and take into
their count all instrumentalities and agencies of the State, whatever be the form which such
instrumentality or agency may have assumed.
University of Madras v. Santa Bai [AIR 1954 Madras 67]

Madras High Court held that “other authorities” referred under Art.12 could only
indicate authorities of a like nature i.e. ejusdem generis. If so construed or interpreted, it
could only mean authorities exercising governmental or sovereign functions. It cannot
include persons, natural or juristic, such as a University unless it is ‘maintained by the
State’
Ujjambai v. State of U.P. [AIR 1962 SC 1621]

Court rejected the above restrictive interpretation of the words “other authorities”
given by the Madras High Court and held that ejusdem generis rule could not be resorted
to in interpreting this expression.
30
Rajasthan Electricity Board v. Mohan Lal [AIR 1967 SC 1857]

Definition of State is not narrow. The expression ‘other authorities’ is wide enough
to include all such authorities and entities that are constituted by the State under the
Constitution or a statute on whom powers are conferred by law. It is not a mandate that
such a statutory authority should be engaged in performing governmental or sovereign
function. On this interpretation, Electricity Board, Co-operative Societies etc which have
power to make bye-laws under Co-operative Societies Act, 1911 will be included in the
definition of State under Article 12.
Sukhdev v. Bhagatram [AIR 1975 SC 1331]

Oil and Natural Gas Commission, Life Insurance Corporation, Industrial Finance
Corporations are all ‘States’ under Article 12, because all these three statutory
Corporations have power to make rules and regulations for regulating conditions of
service of their employees and such rules and regulations have the force of law.
Justice Mathew in a separate but a concurring judgment preferred a broader test that if the functions
of the Corporation are of public importance and closely related to Governmental functions it should be
treated an agency or instrument of government and hence a “State” within the ambit of Article 12 of
the Constitution.
In subsequent decisions, the Supreme Court has given a broad and liberal interpretation to the
expression ‘other authorities’ under Article 12. With the changing role of the State from merely being a
police State to a welfare State it was necessary to widen to scope of the expression “authorities” in Article
12 so as to include all those bodies which are, though not created by the Constitution or by a statute, are
acting as agencies or instrumentalities of the Government.
Ramana Dayaram Shetty

v.
The International Airport Authority of India
[AIR 1979 SC 1628]
The Supreme Court laid down five tests to be an “other authority”-
1. Entire share capital is owned or managed by State i.e. financial resources

of the State is the chief funding source.
2. Enjoys monopoly status, whether it is State conferred or State protected.
3. If a department of Government is transferred to a corporation.
4. Functional character being governmental in essence i.e. if the functions of
the corporation are of public importance and closely related to
governmental functions.
5. Existence of deep and pervasive State control. 31
Ajay Hasia v. Khalid Mujib & Others [AIR 1981 SC 487]

It has been held that the societies registered under the Societies Registration
Act, 1898 is an agency or instrumentality of the State and therefore it is covered
under the definition of State under Article 12. The Court also observed that the test
to know whether a juristic person such as registered societies is State is not how it
has been brought but why it has been brought. (i.e. the purpose behind creation of
such society or trust)
In Central Inland Water Transport Corporation v. Brojo Nath Ganguly [(1986) 3 SCC 156],
applying the above test, Central Inland Water Transport Corporation was held to be ‘State’ under
Article 12.
In Union of India v. R.C. Jain[1981 SCR (2) 854], it was held that to be a
“local authority” within the definition of “State” under Article 12, an authority
must fulfil the following tests-
1. Separate legal existence.

2. Function in a defined area (territory).
3. Has power to raise funds.
4. Enjoys autonomy.
5. Entrusted by a statute with functions which are usually entrusted to
municipalities.
WHETHER JUDICIARY IS
INCLUDED IN THE DEFINITION OF
STATE???
32
The definition of State under Article 12 of the Constitution does not explicitly mention the
Judiciary. Hence, a significant amount of controversy surrounds its status with respect to Part III of the
Constitution.
Bringing the Judiciary within the scope of Article 12 would mean that it is deemed capable of
acting in contravention of Fundamental Rights. It is well established that in its non-judicial functions,
the Judiciary does come within the meaning of State. However, challenging a judicial decision which
has achieved finality, under the writ jurisdiction of superior courts on the basis of violation of
fundamental rights, remains open to debate.
Naresh v. State of Maharashtra [AIR 1967 SC 1]

The issue posed before the Supreme Court for consideration whether judiciary is covered by
the expression ‘State’ in Article 12 of the Constitution. The Court held that the fundamental right is not
infringed by the order of the Court and no writ can be issued to High Court.
This question has raised a controversy, because of non-mentioning of judiciary under Art, 12.
Judiciary is the prominent organ of the State. Legislature frames the law and executor organ
implements them and enjoys vast power of delegated legislation as well. One of the most important
functions of Judiciary is to check invasion of fundamental rights by these two organs and their
instrumentality.
Judiciary is to turn down the rules, regulation etc. which are in clear violation of fundamental
rights. Inclusion of judiciary under Article 12 sets judiciary as the possible violator of fundamental
rights as well. Judiciary being the guardian of the Constitution is not supposed to violate the
Fundamental Rights.
Jurists like H.M.Seervai, V.N.Shukla consider judiciary to be State. Their view is supported by Articles
145 and 146 of the Constitution of India.
(a) The Supreme Court is empowered to make rules for regulating the practice and procedure
of Courts.
(b) The Supreme Court is empowered to make appointments of its staff and servants; decide
its service conditions.
Such kind of administrative duties of the judiciary bring it within the purview of the definition of
State
Also, in A.R. Antulay v. R.S. Nayak [AIR 1988 SC 1531] and N.S.Mirajkar v. State of Maharashtra
[AIR1967 SC 1], it has been observed that while exercising the rule making powers, the judiciary is
covered by the expression state within Art.12 but while performing its judicial functions it is not
so included.
The word ‘State’ under Article 12 has been interpreted by the courts as per the changing
times. It has gained wider meaning which ensures that Part-III can be applied to a larger extent. The
ultimate aim is to attain a welfare State.
ARTICLE 13
LAWS INCONSISTENT WITH OR IN DEROGATION
OF THE FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
1) All laws in force in the territory of India immediately before the commencement of this
Constitution, in so far as they are inconsistent with the provisions of this Part, shall, to the
extent of such inconsistency, be void.
33
2) The State shall not make any law which takes away or abridges the rights conferred by this
Part and any law made in contravention of this clause shall, to the extent of the contravention,
be void.
3) In this article, unless the context otherwise requires,—
a) “law” includes any Ordinance, order, bye-law, rule, regulation, notification, custom or
usage having in the territory of India the force of law;
b) “laws in force” includes laws passed or made by a Legislature or other competent
authority in the territory of India before the commencement of this Constitution and
not previously repealed, notwithstanding that any such law or any part thereof may
not be then in operation either at all or in particular areas.
4) Nothing in this article shall apply to any amendment of this Constitution made under article
368.
POWER OF JUDICIAL REVIEW
The power of the Judiciary to review the Act of the Legislature or the Executive or the validity
of a law or an order in order to determine its constitutional propriety and to ensure that such actions
conform to the provisions of the nation’s Constitution is known as the “Doctrine of Judicial Review”.
Judicial Review implies that the Constitution is the supreme power of the nation and all laws are under
its supremacy and that any law inconsistent therewith is void through judicial review. Judicial review
is adopted in the Indian Constitution from the Constitution of the United States of America.
Judicial review has two important functions-

 Of legitimizing government action, and
 The protection of constitution against any undue encroachment by the government.
In the Indian Constitution, Judicial Review is dealt with under Article 13 which provides for the
judicial review of all legislations in India, past as well as future. This power has been conferred on the
High Courts and the Supreme Court of India (Article 226 and Article 32 respectively) which can
declare a law unconstitutional if it is inconsistent with any of the provisions of Part III of the
Constitution.
BASIS AND ORIGIN OF JUDICIAL REVIEW
The doctrine of judicial review was for the first time propounded by the Supreme Court of America.
Originally, the United States Constitution did not contain an express provision for judicial review. The
power of judicial review was, however, assumed by the Supreme Court of America in the historic case
of Marbury v. Madison by Justice John Marshall.
State of Madras v. V.G. Row [AIR 1952 SC 196]
In Indian Constitution, there is an express provision for judicial review, and in this sense it is
on more solid footing than it is in America.
L. Chandra Kumar v. Union of India [AIR 1997 SC 1125]
The power of judicial review of legislative action as vested in Supreme Court by Article 32 and
in High Court by Article 226 is a basic feature of the Constitution and cannot be curtailed even by
constitutional amendment.
When a part of a statute is declared unconstitutional then a question arises whether the whole
of the statute is to be declared void or only that part which is unconstitutional should be declared as
34
such. To resolve this problem, the Supreme Court has devised the doctrine of severability or
separability. This doctrine means that if an offending provision can be separated from that which is
unconstitutional then only that part which is offending is to be declared as void and not the entire
statute. This conclusion can be very well drawn from the words that Article 13 uses i.e. “…to the
extent of such inconsistency be void”
DOCTRINE OF SEVERABILITY
Doctrine of Severability or Separability is incorporated under Art. 13 Clause (2) which states that
the State shall not make any laws which take away Fundamental Rights of a citizen. Therefore, laws
made after adoption of the Constitution by the Constituent Assembly must be compatible with the
Constitution, otherwise the laws and amendments will be deemed to be void-ab-initio. Such a law will
be ultra vires (i.e. out of authority)
When a part of the statute is declared unconstitutional, then the unconstitutional part is to be
removed and the remaining valid portion will continue as valid. The idea is to retain the Act or
legislation in force by discarding or deleting only the void portion and retaining the rest. However,
invalid part of the law will be severed only if it is severable, i.e., if after separating the invalid part, the
valid part is capable of giving effect to the legislature’s intent, then only it will survive otherwise the
court shall declare the entire law as invalid.
RELEVANT CASES
A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras [AIR 1950 SC 27]
Only Section 14 of Preventive Detention Act, 1950 was held unconstitutional. Applying the
doctrine of severability, whole Act except Section 14 was held valid.
State of Bombay v. F.N. Balsara [AIR 1951 SC 318]
It was observed that the certain provisions of Bombay Prohibition Act, 1949, which have been
declared as void do not affect the entire statute, therefore, there is no necessity for declaring the whole
statute as invalid.
Romesh Thapper v. State of Madras [AIR 1950 SC 124]
Supreme Court held that only if the unconstitutional portions cannot be removed then the
whole Act will be utra-vires and thus unconstitutional.
R.M.D.C. v. Union of India [AIR 1957 SC 628]
Supreme Court held that where after removing the invalid portion what remains constitutes a
complete Code there is no necessity to declare the whole Act invalid. In such cases, whether the valid
parts of the statute are separable from the invalid, the intention of the legislature is the determining
factor.
THEORY OF ECLIPSE
According to Article 13(1), “All pre-constitutional laws, after the coming into force of
Constitution, if in conflict with it in all or some of its provisions then the provisions of Constitution will
prevail and the provisions of that pre-constitutional law will not be in force until an amendment of the
Constitution relating to the same matter is made. In such situation the provision of that law will again
come into force, if it is compatible with the Constitution as amended. This is called the Theory of
Eclipse.
35
Article 13(1) is prospective in nature. All pre-Constitution laws inconsistent with the
Fundamental Rights will become void only after the commencement of the Constitution. They are not
void ab initio.
In addition to article 13, articles 32, 124, 131, 219, 226 and 246 provide a constitutional basis to
the Judicial review in India.
CAN SUCH A LAW WHICH BECOMES UNENFORCEABLE AFTER THE

CONSTITUTION CAME INTO FORCE BE AGAIN REVIVED AND MADE
EFFECTIVE BY AN AMENDMENT IN THE CONSTITUTION??
It was to solve this problem that the Supreme Court formulated the doctrine of eclipse in
Bhikaji vs. State of M.P. [AIR 1955 SC 781]. Government of Central Province monopolized motor
transport by an Act. Supreme Court held that the pre-constitutional law that violates fundamental
rights is not void ab initio. It is merely eclipsed. When Art 19 was amended to allow the state to
monopolize any business, the said act became constitutional again.
Post-Constitutional Laws- Clause (2) of Article 13 prohibits the State to make any law which takes
away or abridges the rights conferred by Part III of the Constitution. If State makes such a law then
that law will be ultra vires and void to the extent of the contravention. As contrary to Article 13 clause
(1), clause (2) makes the inconsistent laws void ab initio.
Deep Chand v. State of U.P. [AIR 1959 SC 648]
It was held that doctrine of eclipse does not apply to Post-Constitutional law because such a
law is void ab initio. A subsequent constitutional amendment cannot revive such a law.
State of Gujarat v. Ambica Mills [AIR 1974 SC 1300]
Overruled Deep Chand’s ruling and held that a post-Constitutional law which is inconsistent
with fundamental rights is not nullity or non-existent in all cases and for all purposes.
Dulare Lodh v. III Additional District Judge, Kanpur [AIR 1984 SC 1260]
Held that Doctrine of Eclipse applies to post-constitutional law and it is applicable to citizens
as well.
DOCTRINE OF WAIVER
Waive means ‘to give away’ or ‘to surrender’
Point of concern here regarding Part III of Indian Constitution is that whether can a citizen waive
his fundamental rights??
As held in Behram v. State of Bombay [AIR 1955 SC 146], the doctrine of waiver has no
application to the provision of law enshrined in Part III of the Constitution of India. It is not open to an
accused person to waive or give up his Constitutional rights and get convicted.
Basheshar Nath v. Income Tax Commissioner [AIR 1959 SC 149]
The appellant had reached a settlement with Income Tax Department to pay 3 Lakh rupees
per month for taxes that he owed under Income Tax Act. However, later that Act was determined to be
unconstitutional. So he challenged the settlement. Income Tax Department argued that he had waived
36
his right by reaching a settlement. Supreme Court held that, unlike USA, Indian Constitution does not
follow Doctrine of Waiver. It was further held that it is not open to a citizen to waive any of the
Fundamental Rights conferred by Part III of the Constitution. Fundamental rights are an obligation
imposed upon the state by the Constitution. It is the court’s duty to enforce them. No person can
relieve the State of this obligation.
A question arises as to whether the term ‘law’ in Article 13 (2)

includes just ordinary laws or Constitutional Amendment Acts
also.
If Constitutional Amendment Act is not covered under
law then the Parliament can amend the Fundamental rights by
amending the Constitution itself.
For the purposes of Article 13, “law” is defined as including an Ordinance, Order, bye-law,
rule, regulation, notification, custom or usage having in the territory of India the force of law. The
definition of “law” in this Article is wider than the ordinary connotation of law which refers to enacted
law or enactment.
The Supreme Court in Shankari Prasad v. Union of India [AIR 1951 SC 458] held that Constitutional
Amendment Act is not a law and thus Parliament can amend any Fundamental Right by using
Constitutional Legislative power.
Supreme Court gave a similar verdict in Sajjan Singh v. State of Rajasthan

[AIR 1965 SC 845].
In Golak Nath v. State of Punjab [AIR 1967 SC 1643], the Supreme Court held that the word ‘law’ in
Article 13 (2) included every branch of law, statutory, Constitutional, etc., and hence, if an amendment
to the Constitution took away or abridged fundamental right of citizens, the amendment would be
declared void.
In order to remove the difficulty created by the Supreme Court’s decision in Golak Nath’s case, the
Constitution (24th Amendment) Act, 1971 was enacted. By this amendment a new clause (4) was
added to Article 13 which makes it clear that Constitutional amendments passed under Article 368
shall not be considered as ‘law’ within the meaning of Article 13 and, therefore, cannot be challenged
as infringing the provisions of Part III of the Constitution. Therefore, Parliament has the power to
amend Fundamental Rights through Constitutional Amendment.
37
The validity of Constitution (24th Amendment) Act, 1971 was challenged in the Supreme Court in
Keshavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala [AIR 1973 SC 1461] The Supreme Court overruled Golak
Nath case and upheld the validity of 24th Amendment Act. However, the Supreme Court held that the
Parliament’s amendment power is limited and is subject to “Basic Structure” of the Constitution. The
Supreme Court has not explicitly defined the term “Basic Structure”. However, in various judgments,
the Supreme Court has held that the following concepts form a part of Basic Structure-
 Supremacy of the Constitution
 Secular character of the Constitution
 Federalism
 Separation of Powers
 Power of Judicial Review
 The mandate to build a welfare state
RIGHT TO
EQUALITY
[ARTICLES 14 to 18]
Right to equality is a reflection of the high

aspirations as enshrined in the Preamble of the
Indian Constitution. The words “...JUSTICE, social,
economic and political; EQUALITY of status and of
opportunity...” in the Preamble of the Indian
Constitution gives the very backing to this essential
human right i.e. Right to equality.
Article 14 to 18 guarantees the right to equality to every citizen of India. Article 14 embodies
the general principles of equality before law and prohibits unreasonable discrimination between
persons. The succeeding Articles 15, 16, 17 and 18 lay down specific application of the general rules
laid down in Article 14.
Article 14
“The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law
or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.”
The words “shall not” puts a mandatory duty upon the State not to discriminate on any ground. The
words ‘any person’ denote that the guarantee of the equal protection of the laws is available to any
person, which includes any company or association or body of individuals. The protection extends to
both citizens and non-citizens and to natural persons as well as legal persons.
38
Article 14 uses two expressions
“Equality
The phrase before
"equality beforethe “Equal
the law" occurs in almost protection
all written of that guarantee
Constitutions
law”
fundamental rights. the islaw”
The first expression “Equality before the law” of English origin while “equal
protection of law” owes its origin to the American Constitution. Both the phrases aim to establish
what is called the "equality to status and of opportunity" as embodied in the Preamble of the
Constitution.
Equality before the law is somewhat negative concept implying the absence of any special
privilege in favour of any individual and the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law. Equal
protection of law is a more positive concept employing equality of treatment under equal
circumstances.
Thus, India has taken best aspects of both systems Unitary and federal; i.e. from England we
have taken equality before the law which means supremacy of the Parliament and from America we
have taken the equal protection of the laws which means supremacy of the Courts and the law.
Therefore, in India, the administration is based on a compromise between Judicial and Parliamentary
Supremacy. This way Indian constitution aims towards establishing a rule of law.
As Dr.Jennings puts it-
“Equality before the law” means that among equals the law should be equal
and should be equally administered, that like should be treated alike. The right to sue
and be sued, to prosecute and be prosecuted for the same kind of action should be same
for all citizens of full age and understanding without distinctions of race, religion,
wealth, social status or political influence.
It only means that all persons similarly circumstanced shall be treated alike, both in
the privileges conferred and liabilities imposed by the laws. Equal laws should be applied
to all in the same situation, and there should be no discrimination between one person
and another.
Thus the rule is that the like should be treated alike and not that unlike should
be treated alike
The guarantee of equality before the law is an aspect of what Dicey calls the rule of the law in
England. It means that no man is above the law and that every person, whatever be his rank or
conditions, is subject to the jurisdiction of ordinary courts. Rule of law requires that no person shall be
subjected to harsh, uncivilized or discriminatory treatment even when the object is the securing of the
paramount exigencies of law and order.
PROFESSOR DICEY GAVE THREE MEANINGS OF THE RULE OF LAW
Absence of Arbitrary Power or Supremacy of the law

A man may be punished for a breach of law, but he can be 39
punished for nothing else.
Equality before the law

It means subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of land
administered by ordinary law courts. This means that no one is
above law.
The Constitution is the result of the ordinary law of the land

It means that the source of the right of individual is not the written
Constitution but the rules as defined and enforced by the courts.
EXCEPTIONS TO RULE OF LAW
The rule of equality is not an absolute rule and there are number of exceptions to it-
1) “Equality before the law” does not mean the “powers of the private citizens are the same
as the powers of the public officials”. For example- A police officer has a power to arrest
whereas no private individual has that power generally. But, the rule of law does require that
these powers should be clearly defined by law and that abuse of authority by public officers
must be punished by ordinary courts in the same manner as illegal acts committed by private
persons.
The rule of law does not prevent certain classes of persons being subject to special
rules. Thus, members of the armed forces are controlled by military laws. Similarly, medical
practitioners are subjected to the regulation framed by the Medical council of India.
2) Article 361 of the Indian Constitution affords immunity to the President of India and State
Governors. According to the said provision, the President, or the governor or rajpramukh of
a State, shall not be answerable to any court for the exercise and performance of the powers
and duties of his office or for any act done or purporting to be done by him in the exercise and
performance of those power and duties.
Provided that the conduct of the president may be brought under review by any court,
tribunal or body appointed or designated by either House of Parliament for the investigation of
a charge under article 61.
Article 361 Clause (2) provides that- “No criminal proceedings whatsoever shall be
instituted or continued against the President, or the Governor of a State, in any court during
his term of office.”
Article 361 Clause (3) provides that- “No process for the arrest or imprisonment of the
President, or the Governor of a State, shall issue from any court during his term of office.”
40
Article 361 Clause (4) provides that- “No civil proceedings in which relief is claimed
against the President, or the Governor of a State, shall be instituted during his term of office in
any court in respect of any act done or purporting to be done by him in his personal capacity,
whether before or after he entered upon his office as President, or as Governor of such State,
until the expiration of two months next after notice in writing has been delivered to the
President or the Governor, as the case may be, or left at his office stating the nature of the
proceedings, the cause of action therefore, the name, description and place of residence of the
party by whom such proceedings are to be instituted and the relief which he claims.”
3) Besides above, under international law, the foreign sovereigns and ambassadors are also
exempted from the jurisdiction of the Indian courts and they enjoy full immunity from any
judicial process. This is also available to enemy aliens for acts of war.
ART. 14 PERMITS REASONABLE CLASSIFICATION BUT IT

PROHIBITS CLASS LEGISLATION
What Article 14 forbids is class legislation and it does not forbid reasonable classification. The
classification must not be “arbitrary, artificial or evasive” but must be based on some real and
substantial bearing, a just and reasonable relation to the object sought to be achieved by the
legislation.
Class legislation is that which makes an improper discrimination by conferring particular
privileges upon a class of persons arbitrarily selected from a large number of persons, all of whom
stand in the same relation to the privilege granted and that no reasonable distinction or substantial
difference can be found justifying the inclusion of one and the exclusion of the other from such
privilege.
From the very nature of society there should be different laws in different places and the
legislature controls the policy and enacts laws in the best interest of the safety and security of the
state. In fact identical treatment in unequal circumstances would amount to inequality. So, a
reasonable classification is not only permitted but it is necessary if society is to progress.
Classification to be reasonable must fulfil the following two conditions:-
 Firstly, the classification must be founded on the intelligible differentia.
 Secondly, the differentia must have a rational relation to the object

sought or to be achieved by the act.
The differentia which is the basis of the classification and the object of the act are two distinct
things. What is necessary is that there must be nexus between the basis of classification and the
object of the Act which makes the classification. It is only when there is no reasonable basis for a
classification that legislation making such classification may be declared discriminatory and violative
of Article 14.
41
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ONNCCEEP
PTTO
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QUUA
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TYY
E.P. Royappa v. State of Tamil Nadu [AIR 1974 SC 555]
Supreme Court challenges the traditional concept of equality which was based on reasonable
classification and has laid down a new concept of equality. The Honourable Judges who gave the
decision were of the opinion that “Equality is a dynamic concept with many aspects and dimensions
and it cannot be cabined or confined within traditional limits”.
D.S Nakara v. union of India [AIR 1983 SC 130]

In this case, Supreme Court struck down Rule 34 of the Central Services (Pension) Rules, 1972
as unconstitutional on the ground that the classification made by it between pensioners retiring before
a certain date and retiring after that date was not based on the any rational principle and it was
arbitrary and violative of Article 14 of Indian Constitution.
Mithu v. State of Punjab [AIR 1983 SC 473]

The Supreme Court struck down Section 303 of Indian Penal Code as unconstitutional on the
ground that the classification between persons who commits murders whilst under the sentence of
imprisonment and those who commit murders whilst they were not under the sentence of life
imprisonment for the purposes of making the sentence of death mandatory in the case of the former
class and optional in the latter class was not based on any rational principle and was somehow
violative of Article 14.
K.A. Abbas v. Union of India [AIR 1971 SC 481]

Validity of Cinematograph Act, 1952 was challenged on the ground that it makes unreasonable
classification of cinema films in “U” films and “A” films. Supreme Court held the classification to be
logical and a reasonable one as also not being violative of Article 14 in any manner.
Ajay Hasia v. Khalid Mujib [AIR 131 SC 487]
Air India v. Nargesh Meerza [AIR 1981 SC 1829]

Supreme Court struck down the Air India and Indian Airlines Regulations on the
retirement and pregnancy bar on services of air hostesses as unconstitutional on the ground
that the conditions laid down therein were entirely unreasonable and arbitrary. Regulation 46
of Indian Airlines Regulations provided that an air hostess would retire from the service upon
attaining the age of 35 years or on marriage, if it took place within 4 years of service or on first
pregnancy, whichever occur earlier. Such rules for the termination of service on pregnancy were
manifestly unreasonable and arbitrary as it was in violation of Article 14 of Indian Constitution.
Randhir Singh v. Union of India [AIR 1982 SC 879]

Supreme Court held that although the principle of ‘equal pay for equal work’ is not expressly
declared by our Constitution to be a fundamental right, but it is certainly a Constitutional goal under
Article 14. This right can, therefore, be enforced in cases of unequal scales of pay based on irrational
classification.
Javed v. State of Haryana [AIR 2003 SC 3057]

Petitioners challenged the validity of Section 175 (1) (g) of the Haryana Panchayati Raj Act,
1994 on the ground that it was violative of Article 14 as the said provision disqualified a person having
42
more than two children from contesting elections for Sarpanch or Panch in Gram Panchayats. Supreme
Court upheld the constitutionality of the said provision and held that it is not violating Article 14 in
any manner.
Article 15 : Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of

religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth
1) The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex,
place of birth or any of them. {rrcsp}
2) No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them, be
subject to any disability, liability, restriction or condition with regard to—
(a) access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment; or
(b) the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public resort maintained
wholly or partly out of State funds or dedicated to the use of the general public.
3) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any special provision for women
and children.
4) Nothing in this article or in clause (2) of Article 29 shall prevent the State from making any
special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of
citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
5) Nothing in this article or in sub-clause (g) of clause (1) of article 19 shall prevent the State
from making any special provision, by law, for the advancement of any socially and
educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes or the Scheduled Tribes
in so far as such special provisions relate to their admission to educational institutions
including private educational institutions, whether aided or unaided by the State, other than
the minority educational institutions referred to in clause (1) of article 30.
Article 15 provides for a particular application of the general principle embodied under Article
14. The guarantee under Article 15 is available to citizens only. The state cannot discriminate only
on the above mentioned grounds but can discriminate on grounds other than these. The rights under
15 (2) are not only available against a State but also against other citizens.
Article 15 (1) states that no citizen shall be discriminated only on the grounds of religion,
race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them. But there are special considerations for women and
children, SC/ST, OBC. Exceptions for these categories are mentioned in Clause (2) and (3) of Article 15.
Article 15 (2) is a specific application of the general prohibition contained in Article 15 (1).
While Clause (1) prohibits discrimination by the State; clause (2) prohibits both the State and private
individuals from making any discrimination.
Women and children require special treatment on account of their very nature and therefore
Article 15 (3) empowers the State to make special provisions for women and children. The reason
is that “women’s physical structure and the performance of maternal functions place her at a
disadvantage in the struggle for subsistence and her physical well-being. Thus, under Article 42,
women workers can be given special maternity relief and a law to this effect will not infringe Article
15 (1). Also, if an educational institution is established by the State exclusively for women or if
reservation of seats is made for women in a college, it does not offend Article 15 (1).
Article 15 Clause (4) is another exception to clause (1) and (2) of Article 15.
Article 15(4) has been inserted by the constitution ( first amendment ) Act, 1951. It was added by the
Constitution (1st Amendment) Act, 1951, as a result of the decision in State of Madras v.
Champakam Dorairajan[AIR 1951 SC 226]. The provision made in clause (4) is only an enabling
43
provision and does not impose any obligation on the State to take any special action under it. It merely
confers discretion to act if necessary by way of making special provision for backward classes. A writ
cannot be issued to the State to make reservation. The basic principle underlying this clause is that a
preferential treatment can be given validly where socially and educationally backward classes need it.
Thus under Article 15 (4), two things are to be determined-

1. Who are socially and educationally backward classes?
2. What is the limit of reservation?
Constitution nowhere defines ‘backward classes’. Article 340, however, empowers the President
to appoint a Commission to investigate conditions of socially and educationally backward classes. On
the basis of the report of the Commission the president may specify who are to be considered as
‘Backward classes’. In Balaji v. State of Mysore [AIR 1963 SC 649], it was held that ‘backward’ and
‘more backward’ classification is not bad.
In the historic Mandal Commission Case [Indira Sawhney v. Union of India, AIR 2000 SC
498], the Supreme Court by 6-3 majority has held that the sub-classification of backward classes into
backward into more backward and backward classes for the purpose of Article 16(4) can be done. But
as result of sub-classification, the reservation cannot exceed more than 50 percent. Creamy layer must
be excluded from the backward classes.
High caste girl marrying a male of Scheduled tribe is not entitled to reservation benefit
under Clause (4) of Article 15. Also, a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe candidate is entitled
to reservation benefit only in the State of his origin and not in other State where he migrates to.
Article 15 clause (5)- In order to serve the educationally and socially backward classes, the State
asked the private education institutions also to reserve seats for the backward classes. Private
institutions objected to it, stating it would amount to violation of right under Article 19 (1) (g). The
Parliament, by amending the Constitution in 2005, added Clause (5) to Article 15. According to this, it
is mandatory to reserve seats for backward classes also even in private institutions whether aided or
unaided, by the State. The only exception is educational institutions run by minority communities. A
law was enacted in this effect called Central Educational Institutions Reservation in Admission Act,
2006. This Act was challenged in the Supreme Court, but the Supreme Court upheld the validity of this
law.
Landmark cases on Clause (5)-

 T.M. Pai Foundation v. State of Karnataka [AIR 2003 SC 355]
 Islamic Academy v. State of Karnataka [AIR 2003 SC 3724]
 P. A. Inamdar v. State of Maharashtra [AIR 2005 SC 3226]
ARTICLE 16: EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY

IN MATTERS OF PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT
(1) There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or
appointment to any office under the State.
(2) No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence or
any of them, be ineligible for, or discriminated against in respect of, any employment or office under
the State.
(3) Nothing in this article shall prevent Parliament from making any law prescribing, in regard to a
class or classes of employment or appointment to an office under the Government of, or any local or
other authority within, a State or Union territory, any requirement as to residence within that State or
Union territory prior to such employment or appointment.
44
(4) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any provision for the reservation of
appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens which, in the opinion of the State, is
not adequately represented in the services under the State.
(4A) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any provision for reservation in
matters of promotion, with consequential seniority, to any class or classes of posts in the services
under the State in favour of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes which, in the opinion of the
State, are not adequately represented in the services under the State.
(4B) Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from considering any unfilled vacancies of a year
which are reserved for being filled up in that year in accordance with any provision for reservation
made under clause (4) or clause (4A) as a separate class of vacancies to be filled up in any succeeding
year or years and such class of vacancies shall not be considered together with the vacancies of the
year in which they are being filled up for determining the ceiling of fifty per cent. reservation on total
number of vacancies of that year.
(5) Nothing in this article shall affect the operation of any law which provides that the incumbent of an
office in connection with the affairs of any religious or denominational institution or any member of
the governing body thereof shall be a person professing a particular religion or belonging to a
particular denomination.
Article 16 (1) and (2) applies only in respect of employment or office under the State.
Clause (3), (4), (4-A), (4-B), (5) of Article 16 provide four exceptions to this general rule of
equality of opportunity.
Clause (4) enables the State to make provision for the reservation of posts in government jobs
in favour of any backward class of citizen which, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately
represented in the services of the State.
The newly added clause (4-A), added by 77th Amendment, 1955, empowers the State to
make any provision for the reservation in matters of promotions of SCs and STs which, in the
opinion of the State, are not adequately represented in the services of the State.
The Constitution (81st Amendment) Act, 2000 has added a new clause (4-B) in Article 16
which seeks to end the 50% limit for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and other Backward
Classes in backlog vacancies which could be filled up due to the non availability of eligible candidates
of these categories in the previous year or years.
Important Amendments with reference to Article 16 are 77th, 81st, 85th Constitutional
Amendments.
ARTICLE 17: ABOLITION OF UNTOUCHABILITY
“Untouchability’’ is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden. The enforcement of any
disability arising out of “Untouchability’’ shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law.
In exercise of the powers conferred by Article 35, Parliament has enacted the Untouchability
(Offences) Act, 1955. This Act was amended by the Untouchability (Offences) Amendment Act, 1976, in
order to make the law more stringent to remove untouchability from the society. It has now been
renamed as ‘The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955’. Under the amended Act, any discrimination on
the ground of untouchability will be considered as an offence.
45
ARTICLE 18: ABOLITION OF TITLES
1) No title, not being a military or academic distinction, shall be conferred by the State.
2) No citizen of India shall accept any title from any foreign State.
3) No person who is not a citizen of India shall, while he holds any office of profit or trust under
the State, accept without the consent of the President any title from any foreign State.
4) No person holding any office of profit or trust under the State shall, without the consent of the
President, accept any present, emolument, or office of any kind from or under any foreign
State.
Article 18 prohibits the State to confer titles on anybody whether a citizen or a non-citizen.
Military and academic distinctions are, however, exempted from the prohibition. Clause (3) is there to
ensure loyalty to the Government that such person serves for the time being and to shut out all foreign
influence in Government affairs or administration.
This is the reason why the conferment of titles of “Bharat Ratna”, “Padma Vibhushan”, “Padma
Shri”, etc. is not prohibited under Article 18 as they merely denote State recognition of good work or
exceptional or distinguished services of the high integrity by citizens in any field.
These National Awards were formally instituted in January, 1954 by two Presidential
Notifications. The said Notifications also provide that any person without distinction of race,
occupation, position or sex, shall be eligible for these awards. It was also made clear that these civilian
awards cannot be used as titles and should not be attached as suffixes or prefixes to the name. In 1977,
these awards were discontinued but were again revived in 1980. Since then, the National Awards are
conferred annually on Republic Day.
RIGHT TO FREEDOM [ARTICLE 19-22]
Personal liberty is the most important of all fundamental rights. Articles 19 to 22 deal with different
aspects of this basic right. The rights guaranteed under Article 19 are available only to citizens and not
to an alien or a foreigner. Citizens under Article 19 mean only natural persons and not legal or juristic
persons, such as corporation or a company which cannot claim a right under Article 19 because they
are not natural persons.
Art. 19 (1)(a)
Freedom of Speech and Expression
Art. 19 (1)(b)
Freedom to assemble peacefully and without arms
46
Art. 19 (1)(c)
Freedom to form associations and unions
Art. 19 (1)(d)
Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India
Art. 19 (1)(e)
Freedom to reside and settle in any part of India
Art. 19 (1)(g)
Freedom to practise any profession or
to carry on any occupation, trade or business
The purpose of providing these freedoms is to build and maintain an environment for proper
functioning of democracy. However, these six freedoms are not absolute. The guarantee of each of
the above rights is, therefore, restricted by the Constitution itself by conferring upon the State to
impose certain reasonable restrictions on each of them as may be necessary in the larger interest of
the community. The restrictions on these freedoms are provided in clauses (2) to (6) of Article 19
of the Constitution.
FREEDOM PROVISION GROUND FOR RESTRICTIONS
REGARDING
RESTRICTION
8 Grounds namely-
1) Security of the State
FREEDOM OF SPEECH 2) Friendly relations with Foreign
AND EXPRESSION States
ARTICLE 19 (2) 3) Public order
4) Decency or Morality
5) Contempt of Court
6) Defamation
7) Incitement of an offence
8) Sovereignty and integrity of India
FREEDOM TO ASSEMBLE
PEACEFULLY WITHOUT ARTICLE 19 (3) The assembly must be peaceful and must be
ARMS unarmed, restrictions may be imposed in the
interest of public order and the sovereignty
and integrity of India
FREEDOM TO FORM
ASSOCIATIONS OR ARTICLE 19 (4) In the interest of public order, morality and
UNIONS sovereignty and integrity of India
FREEDOM TO MOVE
FREELY THROUGHOUT ARTICLE 19 (5) In the interest of the general public,
THE TERRITORY OF for example, restrictions may be imposed on
INDIA movement and travelling,
so as to control epidemics; or
for the protection of the interest of
Scheduled Tribes
47
FREEDOM TO RESIDE
AND SETTLE IN ANY ARTICLE 19 (5) In the interest of the general public,
PART OF THE for example, restrictions may be imposed on
TERRITORY OF INDIA movement and travelling,
so as to control epidemics; or
for the protection of the interest of
Scheduled Tribes
FREEDOM TO PRACTICE
ANY PROFESSION OR TO In the interest of the general public.
CARRY ON ANY ARTICLE 19 (6) Also, the professional or technical
OCCUPATION, TRADE OR qualifications may be prescribed for
BUSINESS practicing any profession or
carrying on any trade.
The restrictions on the rights under Article 19 (1) can only be imposed by a ‘Law’ and not executive or
departmental instructions. Restrictions should not be arbitrary or of an excessive nature, beyond what
is actually required in the interest of the public. It is the Courts and not the Legislature which has to
decide finally whether a restriction is reasonable or not.
FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND EXPRESSION

[ARTICLE 19(1) (a)]
In Romesh Thapar v. State of Madras [AIR 1950 SC 124], Patanjali Shastri, Justice observed:
“Freedom of speech and of the press lay at the foundation of all democratic organisations, for
without free political discussion no public education, so essential for the proper functioning of the
process of popular government, is possible.”
Territorial extent of freedom- In a landmark judgement of Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India [AIR
1978 SC 597], the Supreme Court held that the freedom of speech and expression has no geographical
limitation and it carries with it the right of a citizen to gather information and to exchange thought
with others not only in India but abroad also.
RIGHT TO VOTE
The Supreme Court observed in Union of India v. Association for Democratic Reforms- “One
sided information, disinformation, misinformation and non-information, all equally create an
uninformed citizenry which makes democracy a farce. Freedom of speech and expression includes
right to impart and receive information which includes that voters have a right to know about their
candidates and also freedom to hold opinions”.
Bijoe Emmaneul v. State of Kerala [(1986)3 SCC 615]

The Supreme Court held that no person can be compelled to sing National Anthem, “if he has
genuine conscientious objections based on religious faith”. Standing up respectfully while the National
Anthem is being sung is good enough as freedom under Art. 19 (1) (a) also includes freedom of silence.
Secretary, Minister of I & B v. Cricket Association od Bengal [(1995)2 SCC 161]

Government has no monopoly on the electronic media and a citizen has under Article 19(1), a
right to telecast and broadcast to the viewers/listeners through electronic media any important event.
48
The Government can impose restrictions on such a right only on grounds specified in Clause (2) of
Article 19 and not on any other ground.
Tata Press Ltd. v. Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Ltd. [(1995) 5 SCC 139] &
Hamdard Dawakhana v. Union of India [AIR 1960 SC 554]
Commercial advertisement also forms a part of freedom of speech and expression.
Commercial speech cannot be denied the protection of Article 19(1) (a) merely because the same are
issued by businessmen.
People’s Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of India [AIR 1997 SC 568]
Telephone tapping is an invasion on right to privacy.
FREEDOM OF THE PRESS

The phrase, “freedom of press” has not been used in Article 19, but freedom of expression
includes freedom of press. Freedom of press is implied from Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution. Thus
the press is subject to the restrictions that are provided under the Article 19(2) of the Constitution.
Before Independence, there was no Constitutional or statutory provision to protect the
freedom of press. The Preamble of the Indian Constitution ensures to all its citizens the liberty of
expression.
Freedom of the press has been included as part of freedom of speech and expression under the
Article 19 of the Universal Declarations of Human Rights. The heart of Article 19 says: “Everyone has
the right to freedom of opinion and expression, this right includes freedom to hold opinions without
interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless
of frontiers.”
Indian Express Newspapers v. Union of India [(1985) 1 SCC 641]

It has been held that the press plays a very significant role in the democratic machinery. The
courts have duty to uphold the freedom of press and invalidate all laws and administrative actions that
abridge that freedom. Freedom of press has three essential elements.
1. Freedom of access to all sources of information,
2. Freedom of publication, and
3. Freedom of circulation.
There are instances when the freedom of press has been suppressed by the legislature. The
authority of the government, in such circumstances, has been under the scanner of judiciary. In the
case of Brij Bhushan v. State of Delhi (AIR 1950 SC 129), the validity of censorship previous to the
publication (pre-censorship) of an English Weekly of Delhi, the Organiser was questioned. The court
struck down the Section 7 of the East Punjab Safety Act, 1949, which directed the editor and publisher
of a newspaper “to submit for scrutiny, in duplicate, before the publication, till the further orders, all
communal matters all the matters and news and views about Pakistan, including photographs, and
cartoons”, on the ground that it was a restriction on the liberty of the press. Similarly, prohibiting
newspaper from publishing its own views or views of correspondents about a topic has been held to
be a serious encroachment on the freedom of speech and expression.
Romesh Thapar v. State of Madras [AIR 1950 SC 124]
Entry and circulation of the English journal "Cross Road", printed and published in Bombay,
was banned by the Government of Madras. The same was held to be violative of the freedom of speech
and expression, as “without liberty of circulation, publication would be of little value”.
Prabha Dutt v. Union of India [AIR 1982 SC 6]
The Supreme Court directed the Superintendent of Tihar Jail to allow representatives of a few
newspapers to interview Ranga and Billa, the death sentence convicts, as they wanted to be
interviewed.
Sakal Papers Ltd. v. Union of India [AIR 1962 SC 305]
49
The Daily Newspapers (Price and Page) Order, 1960, which fixed the number of pages, size
and the price in which a newspaper could be published challenged as unconstitutional being violative
of freedom of press and not a reasonable restriction under the Article 19(2). It was held that the right
under Article 19 cannot be curtailed with the object of placing restrictions on the business activity of a
citizen.
Bennett Coleman and Company v. Union of India [AIR 1973 SC 106]
The validity of the Newsprint Control Order, which fixed the maximum number of pages, was
struck down by the Supreme Court of India holding it to be violative of provision of Article 19(1)(a)
and not to be reasonable restriction under Article 19(2). The Court struck down the rebuttal of the
Government that it would help small newspapers to grow.
R. Rajagopal v. State of Tamil Nadu (Known as ‘Auto Shankar Case’)
[(1994) 6 SCC 632]
Supreme Court held that Government has no authority in law to impose a prior-restraint upon
publication of defamatory material against its officials. It was held that no action could be initiated
against the press if the publication was based on public records including Court records.
K.A. Abbas v. Union of India [AIR 1971 SC 481]
This is the first case where the question whether prior censorship of films under
Cinematograph Act, 1952 is included in Article 19(2) came for the consideration of the Supreme Court.
Court held that the censorship and categorisation of films into ‘U’ and ‘A’ category was reasonable and
justified.
Ranjit D. Udeshi v. State of Maharashtra [AIR 1965 SC 881]
The word 'obscenity' of English law is identical with the word 'indecency' under the Indian
Constitution. In an English case of R. v. Hicklin, the test was laid down according to which it is seen
'whether the tendency of the matter charged as obscene tend to deprave and corrupt the minds which
are open to such immoral influences'. This test was upheld by the Supreme Court in Ranjit D. Udeshi
case. In this case the Court upheld the conviction of a book seller who was prosecuted under Section
292, Indian Penal code, for selling and keeping the book Lady Chatterley's Lover. The standard of
morality varies from time to time and from place to place.
FREEDOM TO ASSEMBLE PEACEFULLY AND

WITHOUT ARMS [ARTICLE 19 (1) (b)]
Article 19(1)(b) guarantees to all citizens of India right to assemble peacefully and without arms. The
right of assembly also includes right to hold meetings and to take out processions. This right is subject
to following restrictions-
1) The assembly must be peaceful
2) It must be unarmed
3) Reasonable restrictions can be imposed under Clause 3 of Article 19
Chapter VIII of the Indian Penal code, 1860 lays down the conditions when an assembly becomes
“unlawful”. Under Sec. 141 of the IPC, an assembly of five or more persons becomes an unlawful
assembly if the common object of the persons composing assembly is-
1. To resist the execution of any law or legal process,
2. To commit any mischief or criminal trespass
3. Obtaining possession of any property by force
4. To compel a person to do what he is not legally bound to do or omit which he is legally
entitled to do
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5. To overawe the Government by means of criminal force or show of criminal force or any
public servant in the exercise of his lawful powers.
Freedom to assemble peacefully without arms can be reasonably restricted by the State in the interest
of public order and the sovereignty and integrity of India.
FREEDOM TO RESIDE AND SETTLE IN ANY PART OF THE

TERRITORY OF INDIA [ARTICLE 19 (1) (e)]
Freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India is also subject to reasonable
restrictions by the State in the interest of the general public or for the protection of the scheduled
tribes because certain safeguards as are envisaged here seem to be justified to protect indigenous and
tribal peoples from exploitation and coercion. Article 370 restricts citizens from other Indian states
and Kashmiri women who marry men from other states from purchasing land or property in Jammu &
Kashmir.
FREEDOM TO PRACTICE ANY PROFESSION OR

TO CARRY ON ANY OCCUPATION, TRADE OR BUSINESS
[ARTICLE 19 (1) (g)]
The State may impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of the general public on this right.
Thus, there is no right to carry on a business which is dangerous or immoral. Also, professional or
technical qualifications may be prescribed for practicing any profession or carrying on any trade.
Sodan singh v. New Delhi Municipal Committee [AIR 1989 SC 1988]
Supreme Court held that the hawkers have a fundamental right to carry on trade on pavement
of roads, but subject to reasonable restrictions under article 19 Clause (6).
ARTICLE 20
PROTECTION IN RESPECT OF CONVICTION FOR OFFENCES
Article 20 affords protection against arbitrary and excessive punishment to any person who commits
an offence.
1) No person shall be convicted of any offence except for violation of the law in force at the time
of the commission of the act charged as an offence, nor be subjected to a penalty greater than
that which might have been inflicted under the law in force at the time of the commission of
the offence
[Protection against Ex post facto law]
This has two basic implications-
(a) A person can be convicted of an offence only if he has violated a law in force at the
time when he is alleged to have committed the offence.
(b) No person can be subjected to a greater penalty than what might have been given
to him under the law that was prevalent when he committed the offence.
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2) No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once.
[Protection against Double jeopardy]
3) No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
[Prohibition against self-incrimination]
According to Article 20(1), no one can be awarded punishment which is more than what the law of
the land prescribes at that time. This legal axiom is based on the principle that no criminal law can
be made retrospective, that is, for an act to become an offence, the essential condition is that it should
have been an offence legally at the time of committing it.
Protection against double jeopardy- Article 20(2) establishes what is known as “principle of double
jeopardy”, that is, no person can be convicted twice for the same offence. This principle was first
established in the Magna Carta. This clause embodies the common law rule of ‘nemo debet vis vexari
pro una et eadem causa’ which means that no man should be put twice in peril for the same offence.
If he is prosecuted again for the same offence for which he has already been prosecuted he can take
complete defence of his former acquittal or conviction.
Prohibition against self-incrimination

As per Article 20(3), no person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness
against himself. “Compulsion” in this article refers to what in law is called “Duress” (injury, beating or
unlawful imprisonment to make a person do something that he does not want to do). This article is
known as a safeguard against self incrimination.
Self-incrimination is the act of exposing oneself (generally, by making a statement) "to an
accusation or charge of crime; to involve oneself or another person in a criminal prosecution or the
danger thereof."
Self-incrimination can occur either directly or indirectly:

 directly, by means of interrogation where information of a self-incriminatory nature is
disclosed;
 indirectly, when information of a self-incriminatory nature is disclosed voluntarily without
pressure from another person.
Relevant Cases-
State of Bombay v. Kathi Kalu [AIR 1961 SC 108]
Nandani Satpathy v. PL Dani [AIR 1977 SC 1025]
NARCO ANALYSIS, POLYGRAPHY, BRAIN

MAPPING AND FINGER PRINTING
Selvi v. State of Karnataka [AIR 2010 SC 1974]

People on whom this test is conducted often allege it to be violation of their right to self-
incrimination guaranteed under Article 20(3) of the Constitution of India.
What is Narco Analysis test?
Narco-Analysis test, also known as ‘Truth Serum Test’, is done with the main intent and aim
of extracting information from the accused when he is in hypnotic state. The Hon’ble Supreme Court
of India is of the view that narco analysis, polygraph or brain mapping tests cannot be conducted on
any person, whether an accused or a suspect, without their consent.
52
The Court further stresses that no person should be compelled to go through such test as it
amounts to violation of Art 21 i.e. Right to Personal Liberty and prohibits self-incrimination and
thereby violates Art 20 (3). In short according to Supreme Court, conducting Narco Analysis Test is
Unconstitutional and Illegal.
PROTECTION OF LIFE AND

PERSONAL LIBERTY [ARTICLE 21]
“No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty

except according to procedure established by law.”
This means that a person’s life and personal liberty can only be disputed if that person has committed
a crime. However, the right to life does not include the right to die, and hence, suicide or an attempt
thereof, is an offence.
“Personal liberty” includes all the freedoms which are not included in Article 19 (that is, the six
freedoms). The right to travel abroad is also covered under “personal liberty” in Article 21.
The words “No person...” simply indicates that this right is available to every individual, be it a
citizen or a non- citizen. The right guaranteed in Article 21 is available to ‘citizens’ as well as ‘non-
citizens’.
“..procedure established by law..”

Constitution make no distinction between a law made by the legislature & ordinance issued by
president, both are equally subject to limitation which the Constitution has placed upon that power i.e.
“..procedure established by law..”
It extends both to substantive as well as procedural laws. A procedure not fulfilling these
attributes is no procedure at all in the eyes of art.21
In American Constitution, the corresponding provision is-
SCOPE OF THE RIGHT UNDER ARTICLE 21
“No person shall be deprived of his life or liberty or property

except by due process of law”
Here, ‘..due process..’ refers to a just, fair and a reasonable procedure.
A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras [1950 SC 27]

A communist leader A. K. Gopalan was detained under Preventive Detention Act, 1950. The
first major constitutional issue came out of the preventive detention of communist leader A. K.
Gopalan. The issue was whether somebody's detention could be justified merely on the ground that it
had been carried out "according to the procedure established by law," as stipulated in Article 21 of the
Constitution. Or, would that procedure be valid only if it complied with principles of natural justice
such as giving a hearing to the affected person?
In this case, the Supreme Court, taking a narrow view of Article 21, refused to consider if the
procedure established by law suffered from any deficiencies. Three decades later, Supreme Court took
a new approach on this issue in the Maneka Gandhi case of 1978. The provocation was the arbitrary
53
law that had allowed the Janata Party government to take away Maneka's passport without any
remedy. Importing the American concept of due process, the Supreme Court ruled that the procedure
established by law for depriving somebody of their life or personal liberty had to be "just, fair and
reasonable".
Kharak Singh v. State of U.P. [AIR 1963 SC 1295]

UP Police performed domiciliary visits to make sure that he was at home in the nights. This was
challenged. SC held the following-
1. Personal liberty is not confined only to bodily restraint or confinement in prisons but includes
all those things through which life is enjoyed.
2. Personal Liberty means much more that mere animal existence.
3. Article 19 gives some of the freedoms required to enjoy personal liberty, while Article 21
constitutes the rest.
4. Since there was no law which could justify domiciliary visits, they were held to be an
unauthorized intrusion into a person’s life and were held to be in violation of Article 21.
Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India [AIR 1978 SC 597]

Prior to Maneka Gandhi’s decision, Article 21 guaranteed the right to life and personal liberty
to citizens only against arbitrary action of the executive, and not from legislative action. But after this
case Article 21 now protects the right to life and personal liberty of citizen not only from the executive
action but from the legislative action also.
Facts : Maneka Gandhi’s passport was impounded by the Central government under the Passport Act
in the interest of the general public and in the name of security reasons. Maneka filed a writ petition
challenging the order on the ground of violation of fundamental right of personal liberty under Article
21. The major ground of challenge was the order impounding the passport was null and void as it had
been made without affording her an opportunity of being heard in her defence. Also, that such an
impounding order was not in accordance with the procedure established by law.
After Maneka Gandhi’s case, there has been a new interpretation of this right. Earlier the
concept as understood was that Article 21 gives a safeguard only against executive action which is
unsupported by law. In this case, the Supreme Court made it clear that a procedure established by the
legislature must also be reasonable, just and fair and not an arbitrary one. In order that the
procedure was just, fair and reasonable, it should conform to the principles of natural justice.
The Constituent Assembly in 1948 eventually omitted the phrase "due process" in favour of
"procedure established by law". As a result, Article 21, which prevents the encroachment of life or
personal liberty by the State except in accordance with the procedure established by law, was, until
1978, construed narrowly as being restricted to executive action. However, in 1978, the Supreme
Court in the case of Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India extended the protection of Article 21 to legislative
action, holding that any law laying down a procedure must be just, fair and reasonable, and effectively
reading due process into Article 21. In the same case, the Supreme Court also ruled that "life" under
Article 21 meant more than a mere "animal existence"; it would include the right to live with human
dignity and all other aspects which made life "meaningful, complete and worth living". Subsequent
judicial interpretation has broadened the scope of Article 21 to include within it a number of rights
including those to livelihood, clean environment, good health, speedy trial and humanitarian
treatment while imprisoned. The right to education at elementary level has been made one of the
Fundamental Rights under Article 21A by the 86th Constitutional amendment of 2002.
Francis Coralie v. Union territory of Delhi [AIR 1981 SC 746]

Right to life is not only about mere animal existence rather it means something more
than just physical survival. It rather involves many other basic rights which are necessary to lead a life
with human dignity.
54
People’s Union for Democratic Rights v. Union of India [AIR 1982 SC 1473]
It was held that if the government fails to ensure the proper implementation of the labour laws, it
is a deemed denial of the right to life and personal liberty of the workers.
Bandhua Mukti Morcha v. UoI [AIR 1984 SC 802]
Supreme Court held that right to life should be taken to mean right to live with human dignity
free from exploitation.
Neerja Choudhary v. State of M.P. [AIR 1984 SC 1099]
It was held that bonded labourers should not only be identified and released but also they
must be rehabilitated after their release.
Parmanand Katara v. Union of India [AIR 1989 SC 2039]
SC held that it is the professional duty of all doctors, whether government or private, to
extend medical aid to the injured persons so as to preserve his life without waiting for the compliance
of the legal formalities like form filling etc.
M.C. Mehta v. Union of India [AIR 1988 SC 1115]
SC held that a pollution free environment i.e. pure air, pure water, edible food do form
an essential part of right to life.
Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar [AIR 1991 SC 420]
Right to pollution free air and water falls within the ambit of Article 21.
Indian Council for Enviro Legal Action v. Union of India [(1996)3 SCC 212]
Private companies are also bound under statutes and under constitution not to affect
the right to life of the citizens.
Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India [(1996)5 SCC 650]
Precautionary principle and polluter pays principal have been accepted as part of the
law of land. “Green benches” have been formed in pursuance of these two principles. Thus the two
concepts aim towards ensuring a pollution free atmosphere and creates an extra burden on the private
companies and factories etc to be have more self monitoring mechanisms towards ensuring rights of
the citizens.
Olga Tellis V. Bombay Municipal Corporation [AIR 1986 SC 180]
The right to livelihood is borne out of the right to life, as no person can live without the means
of living, that is, the means of livelihood. If the right to livelihood is not treated as a part and parcel of
the Constitutional right to life, the easiest way of depriving a person of his right to life would be
deprived him of means of livelihood to the point of abrogation.
Murali S. Deora v. Union of India [AIR 2002 SC 40]
Smoking in public places was banned. By no means, the passive smokers must be
allowed to get affected by the act of a active smoker. It was here when smoking in public places such as
auditoriums, hospital buildings, health institutions or hospitals, educational institutions, libraries,
court buildings, public offices, public conveyances including railways, is banned.
People’s Union for Civil Liberties(PUCL) v. Union of India [AIR 1997 SC 568]
Popularly known as “Phone Tapping case”. Supreme Court held that telephone tapping is a
serious invasion of an individual’s right to privacy which is a part of the right to life and personal
liberty and it should not be resorted by the State unless there is public emergency or interest of public
safety requires.
Kishore Singh v. State of Rajasthan [AIR 191 SC 625] &
Sheela Barse v. State of Maharashtra [(1983) 2 SCC 96]
Supreme Court held that the use of ‘third degree’ method by police is violative of Article 21.
Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan [AIR 1997 SC 3011]

The SC has declared sexual harassment of a working woman at her place of work as
amounting to violation of rights of gender equality and right to life and liberty which is clear violation
55
of Article 14, 15 and 21. In this case, the Supreme Court has formulated the basic guidelines as to the
conditions of work of working women at their work places and factories etc. The guidelines basically
relates to the number of working hours and the phase of work i.e. the female workers can only work in
between 8 A.M. to 5 P.M.
Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar [AIR 1979 SC 1360]
Right to speedy trial was recognised to be a part of Art. 21
A.R. Antulay v. R.S. Nayak [AIR 1988 SC 1531]
The SC laid down detailed guidelines for speedy trials of an accused in a criminal trial.
However, the SC declined to fix any time limit for trial of offences. The Court held that the right to
speedy trial flowing from Article 21 is available to accused at all stages namely the stage of
investigation, inquiry, trial, appeal, revision and retrial.
ADM, Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla [AIR 1976 SC 1207] {Also known as “Habeas
Corpus case”}
The detenue challenged Sec. 16-A of the MISA (now repealed). The detention was
challenged as being violative of Art. 21. The Court held that Article 21 is the sole repository of the right
to life and personal liberty and if the right to move to any court for the enforcement of that right was
suspended by the Presidential Order under Article 359 the detenue had no locus standi to file a writ
petition for challenging the validity of their detention.
Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration [AIR 1978 SC 1575]
It was held that custodial violence to the arrested person is a grave violation of
person’s right to life.
Rudal shah v. State of Bihar [AIR 1983 SC 1086]
Supreme Court held that the Court has power to award monetary compensation in
appropriate cases where there has been a violation of the Constitutional rights of the citizens. In this
case, the SC directed the Bihar Government to pay compensation of Rs. 30,000/- to Rudal Shah who
had to remain in the jail for 14 years because of the irresponsible behaviour of the State Govt. Officers
even after his acquittal.
Bhim Singh v. State of J & K [(1985) 4 SCC 677]
The Court awarded a compensation of Rs.50,000/- to the petitioner as
compensation for the violation of his right to personal liberty. The petitioner, an MLA, was arrested
and detained in police custody and deliberately prevented from attending the sessions of the
Legislative Assembly.
Bodhisathwa Gautam v. Subhra Chakravorthy [(1996) 1 SCC 490]
Interim compensation to a rape victim was awarded considering his right to life.
M.H. Hoskot v. State of Maharashtra [AIR 1978 SC 1548]
The right to legal aid is one of the ingredients of fair procedure. If a prisoner sentenced
to imprisonment, is virtually unable to exercise his constitutional and statutory right of appeal, for
want of legal assistance, there is implicit in the court under article 142 read with article 21 and 39-A of
the Constitution, power to assign council for such imprisoned individual for doing complete justice.
Where the prisoner is disabled from engaging a lawyer, on reasonable grounds such as indigence or
incommunicado situation, the court shall, if the circumstances of the case, the gravity of the sentence,
and the ends of justice so required, assign competent counsel for the prisoners defence, provided the
party doesn’t object to that lawyer.
Prem Shankar Shukla v. Delhi Administration [AIR 1980 SC 1535]
The petitioner was an under-trial prisoner in Tihar jail. He was required to be taken
from jail to magistrate court and back periodically in connection with certain cases pending against
him. The trial court has directed the concerned officer that while escorting him to the court and back,
handcuffing should not be done unless it was so warranted. But handcuffing was forced on him by the
escorts. He therefore sent a telegram to one of the judges of Supreme Court on the basis of which the
present habeas corpus petition has been admitted by the court. To handcuff is to hoop harshly and to
56
punish humiliatingly. The minimum freedom of movement, under which a detainee is entitled to under
Art.19, cannot be cut down by the application of handcuffs. Handcuffs must be the last refuge as there
are other ways for ensuring security.
Saheli v. Commissioner of Police [AIR 1990 SC 513]

In this case, a 9 year old boy died after being beaten by the Indian Police. The Court
directed a payment of Rs 75,000 to the mother of the deceased child and permitted the Delhi
Administration to take appropriate steps for the recovery of the amount paid as compensation or part
thereof from the officers responsible for this dastardly act.
The ambit of right to life has thus widened with the changing times. Many corollary and
incidental rights have now been considered to fall under Art.21 and these are now to be ensured as
fundamental rights. In a nutshell, various rights involved under article 21 may be enumerated as-
RIGHT TO EDUCATION (Article 21-A)
Article 21-A reads as:-

“The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to
fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine.”
Article 21-A added by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 makes the education from 6 to
14 years old, a fundamental right, within the meaning of Part III of the Constitution.
Article 21-A may be read with the new substituted Article 45 and new clause(k) inserted in Article
51-A by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002. To study the status of right to education, it is
necessary to understand the relationship between Art.21-A, Art.45 and Art. 51-A (k)
Article 45 calls upon the State “to endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all
children until they complete the age of six years”
Clause (k) inserted in Article 51-A imposes a fundamental duty on parent/guardian “to provide
opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be, ward, between the age of six and
fourteen years.”
Mohini Jain V. State of Karnataka [AIR 1992 SC 1858]

(Also known as “Capitation Fee case”)
Supreme Court held that right to education is a fundamental right under Art. 21 of the
Constitution which cannot be denied by charging a higher fee in the name of ‘Capitation fees’.
Facts : In this case, the petitioner Mohini Jain of Meerut, U.P. had challenged the validity of a
Notification issued by the government under the Karnataka Educational Institutions (Prohibition of
Capitation Fee) Act, 1984 which was passed to regulate tuition fees to be charged by private Medical
colleges in the State.
The Notification provided for the following tuition to be charged at the time of admissions-
Candidates on Govt seats – Rs.2,000/- per annum.
Karnataka students – Rs.25,000/- per annum.
Students from outside Karnataka – Rs.60,000/-
The petitioner was denied admission on the ground that she was unable to pay such higher tuition fee.
The SC held that such a notification is violative of Art.14 and it’s arbitrary, unfair and unjust. “The right
to education flows directly from the right to life,” and the right to education being concomitant to the
fundamental right, “The state is under a Constitutional mandate to provide educational institutions at
all levels for the benefit of the citizens.”
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Unni Krishnan v. State of Andhra Pradesh [(1993) 1 SCC 645]

In this case, SC examined the correctness of the Mohini Jain’s case judgment. The SC
rejected the view held in Mohini Jain’s case and held that State is bound only till the age of 14 years to
provide free education and the private colleges are no ways bound to provide free education. But, they
should be allowed to run their institutions under strict regulatory controls in order to prevent
education sector being commercialised. The majority view was that in all such institutions, 50% seats
should be filled on merit basis and rest 50% seats may be filled by charging a higher fee.
TMA Pai Foundation v. State of Karnataka [AIR 2003 SC 355]
The scheme as laid down by Unni Krishnan case was rejected and it was held that the private
institutions may charge a capitation fee but that always remains in the strict regulation of the State
Govt.
DEATH SENTENCE
Various issues involved are-
1. DELAY IN EXECUTION
In T.V. Vatheeswaram v. State of Tamil Nadu [AIR 1981 SC 643], the Supreme Court held
that delay in execution of death sentence exceeding 2 years would be sufficient ground to invoke
protection under Article 21 and the death sentence would be commuted to life imprisonment.
In Sher Singh v. State of Punjab [AIR 1983 SC 465], the Supreme Court said that prolonged
wait for execution of a sentence of death is an unjust, unfair and unreasonable procedure and the only
way to undo that is through Article 21. But the Court held that this cannot be taken as the rule of law
and applied to each case and each case should be decided upon its own faces.
2. VALIDITY OF HANGING BY ROPE
The Rajasthan High Court, by an order directed the execution of the death
sentence of an accused by hanging at the Stadium Ground of Jaipur. It was also directed that the
execution should be done after giving widespread publicity through the media. On receipt of the above
order, the Supreme Court in Attorney General v. Lachma Devi [AIR 1986 SC 467], held that the said
direction for execution of the death sentence was unconstitutional and violative of Article 21. It was
further made clear that death by public hanging would be a barbaric practice. Although the crime for
which the accused has been found guilty was barbaric it would be a shame on the civilised society to
reciprocate the same. The Court said “a barbaric crime should not have to be visited with a
barbaric penalty.”
RIGHT TO DIE WHETHER COVERED UNDER RIGHT TO LIFE??
This question came for consideration for first time before the High Court of Bombay in State
of Maharashtra v. Maruti Sripati Dubal [1987 Cr.L.J. 549]
In this case the Bombay High Court held that the right to life guaranteed under
Article 21 includes right to die, and the Hon’ble High Court struck down section 309, IPC which
provides punishment for attempt to commit suicide by a person as unconstitutional.
In P. Rathinam v. Union of India [(1994) 3 SCC 394] a Division Bench of the Supreme Court
supporting the decision of the High Court of Bombay in Maruti Sripati Dubal Case held that under
Article 21, right to life also include right to die and laid down that Section 309 of Indian Penal Court
which deals with attempt to commit suicide is a penal offence and is unconstitutional as well.
This issue again raised before the court in Gian Kaur v. State of Punjab [(1996)2 SCC 648].
In this case a five judge Constitutional Bench of the Supreme Court overruled the P. Ratinam’s case and
held that “Right to Life” under Article 21 of the Constitution does not include “Right to die” or “Right
to be killed” and there is no ground to hold that the section 309, IPC is constitutionally invalid. The
true meaning of the word ‘life’ in Article 21 means life with human dignity. Any aspect of life which
makes life dignified may be included in it but not that which extinguishes it. The ‘Right to Die’ if any, is
inherently inconsistent with the “Right to Life” as is “death” with “Life”
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A question may arise, in case of a dying man, who is, seriously ill or has been suffering from
virulent and incurable form of disease he may be permitted to terminate it by a premature extinction
of his life in those circumstances. This category of cases may fall within the ambit of ‘Right to Die’ with
dignity as a part of life with dignity. According to the court these are not cases of extinguishing life but
only of accelerating the process of natural death which has already commenced.
EUTHANASIA
Aruna Ramchandra Shanbaug v. Union of India(2011)
On 7 March 2011, the Supreme Court of India legalised passive euthanasia by means of the
withdrawal of life support to patients in a permanent vegetative state. The decision was made as part
of the verdict in a case involving Aruna Shanbaug, who has been in a vegetative state for 37 years at
King Edward Memorial Hospital. The Court rejected active euthanasia by means of lethal injection. In
the absence of a law regulating euthanasia in India, the court stated that its decision becomes the law
of the land until the Indian parliament enacts a suitable law. Active euthanasia, including the
administration of lethal compounds for the purpose of ending life, is still illegal in India, and in most
countries. While rejecting Pinki Virani's plea for Aruna Shanbaug's euthanasia, the court laid out
guidelines for passive euthanasia. According to these guidelines, passive euthanasia involves the
withdrawing of treatment or food that would allow the patient to live. As India had no law about
euthanasia, the Supreme Court's guidelines are law until and unless Parliament passes legislation.
The following guidelines were laid down:-

A decision has to be taken to discontinue life support either by the parents or the spouse or other close
relatives, or in the absence of any of them, such a decision can be taken even by a person or a body of
persons acting as a next friend. It can also be taken by the doctors attending the patient. However, the
decision should be taken bona fide in the best interest of the patient.
The question remained as to who is to decide what is the patient’s best interest where he is in a
persistent vegetative state (PVS)? Most decisions have held that the decision of the parents, spouse,
or other close relative, should carry weight if it is an informed one, but it is not decisive. It is ultimately
for the Court to decide, as parens patriae, as to what is in the best interest of the patient, though the
wishes of close relatives and next friend, and opinion of medical practitioners should be given due
weight in coming to its decision.
Even if a decision is taken by the near relatives or doctors or next friend to withdraw life support, such
a decision requires approval from the High Court concerned.
When such an application is filed the Chief Justice of the High Court should forthwith constitute a
Bench of at least two Judges who should decide to grant approval or not. A committee of three reputed
doctors to be nominated by the Bench, who will give report regarding the condition of the patient.
Before giving the verdict a notice regarding the report should be given to the close relatives and the
State. After hearing the parties, the High Court can give its verdict.
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SAFEGUARDS AGAINST ARBITRARY

ARREST AND DETENTION [Article 22]
Article 22 of the Constitution provides preventive detention laws. The object of preventive detention is
to prevent a person from committing a crime and not to punish him as is done under punitive
detention.
Article 22 provides specific rights to arrested and detained persons, in particular the rights to
be informed of the grounds of arrest, consult a lawyer of one's own choice, be produced before a
magistrate within 24 hours of the arrest, and the freedom not to be detained beyond that period
without an order of the magistrate.
The Constitution also authorises the State to make laws providing for preventive detention,
subject to certain other safeguards present in Article 22. Article 22 Clause (4) to (7) provides for the
rights of a person detained under preventive detention. Art. 22 provides that when a person is
detained under any law of preventive detention, the State can detain such person without trial for only
three months, and any detention for a longer period must be authorised by an Advisory Board. The
person being detained also has the right to be informed about the grounds of detention, and be
permitted to make a representation against it, at the earliest opportunity.
Preventive detention has not been unknown in other democratic countries like England and
Canada but their recourse has been had to it only in war time. In A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras,[AIR
1950 S.C. 27], the Supreme Court had expressed the view that a detenue could not claim the freedom
guaranteed by Article 19(l)(d) if it was infringed by his detention.
But this view of the court changed in R.C. Cooper v. Union of India, [AIR 1970 S.C. 564], and
in Maneka Gandhi’s case. The court expressed the view in these cases that a law relating to preventive
detention must satisfy not only the requirements of Article 22 but also the requirements of Article 21
of the Constitution.
The legislative capacity of Parliament or the State legislatures to enact a law of preventive
detention is however, limited to Clauses (4) to (7) of Article 22 which lay down a few safeguards for a
person subjected to such detention. The scheme of these clauses is to classify preventive detention in
three categories, viz.:
(a) A preventive detention up to two months, provision for which may be made either by
Parliament or a State legislature, in such a case, no reference may be made to an Advisory
Board;
However, Constitution (44th Amendment Act, 1978) has substituted a new clause for clause
(4) which now reduces the maximum period for which a person may be detained without obtaining
the opinion of Advisory Board from 3 months to 2 months. The detention of a person for a longer
period than 2 months can only be made after obtaining the opinion of the Advisory Board.
(b) Preventive detention for over three months subject to safeguard of an Advisory Board
consisting of persons qualified to act as High Court judges. No person can remain in
preventive detention for more than 3 months unless the Board holds that in its opinion,
there are sufficient causes for detention.
(c) Preventive detention for over three months without the safeguard of an Advisory Board.
Such detention is possible if Parliament prescribes by law the circumstances under which,
and the class or classes of cases in which a person may be detained for over three months
without reference to Advisory Board.
Parliament may also prescribe the maximum period for which a person can be detained in cases (b)
and (c). This provision, it has been held is merely permissive and does not oblige Parliament to
prescribe any maximum period. Further, Parliament may by law prescribe the procedure to be
followed by an Advisory Board in an inquiry under Clause (4).
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The following safeguards have been provided to a detenue:

(1) Grounds of detention must be communicated
Article 22(5) gives the right to the detenue to be communicated the grounds of detention
as soon as possible, the detaining authority making the order of detention must as soon as possible
communicate to the person detained the grounds of his arrest and to give the detenue the earliest
opportunity of making representation against the order of the detention.
The clause (5) of Article 22 imposes an obligation on the detaining authority to furnish to
the detenue the grounds for detention, “as soon as possible”. The grounds of detention must be
clear and easily understandable by the detenue.
(2) Right of representation
Article 22 imposes an obligation upon the Government to afford the detenue the
opportunity to make representation under clause (5) of Article 22. It makes no distinction
between order of detention for only two months and less and for those for a longer duration.
The obligation applies to both kinds of orders. It is clear from clauses (4) and (5) of Article 22 that
there is dual obligation on the appropriate Government and dual right in favour of detenue,
namely, (1) to have his representation irrespective of the length of detention considered by the
appropriate Government, and (ii) to have once again in the light of the circumstances of the case
considered by Board before it gives its opinion. If in the light of the representation, the Board finds
that there is no sufficient cause for detention, the Government has to revoke the order of detention
and set at liberty the detenue.
(3) Advisory Board
Article 22 provides that the detenue under the preventive detention law shall have the
right to have his representation against his detention reviewed by an Advisory Board. If the
Advisory Board reports that the detention is not justified, the detenue must be released forthwith.
If the Advisory Board reports that the detention is justified, the government may fix the period for
detention.
The Advisory Board must conclude its proceedings expeditiously and must express its opinion
within the time prescribed by law. Failure to do that makes detention invalid. Along with its
opinion, the Board must forward the entire record to the Government who is supposed to take a
decision on the perusal of the entire record.
The Constitution (44th Amendment Act, 1978) has amended Article 22 and reduced the maximum
period for which a person may be detained without obtaining the opinion of the Advisory Board
from 3 months to 2 months.
It has also changed the constitution of the Board which shall now consist of a Chairman and two
other members. The Chairman must be a sitting judge of the appropriate High Court and other
members shall be either a sitting or retired judge of a High Court.
The detenue has no right of legal assistance in the proceedings before the Advisory Board. But if
the Government is given a facility, it should equally be provided to the detenue.
ADM, Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla [AIR 1976 SC 1207]
(Also known as “Habeas Corpus case”)
RIGHT AGAINST EXPLOITATION

[ARTICLE 23-24]
The right against exploitation, contained in Articles 23–24, lays down certain provisions to prevent
exploitation of the weaker sections of the society by individuals or the State.
Article 23 provides prohibits human trafficking, making it an offence punishable by law, and
also prohibits forced labour or any act of compelling a person to work without wages where he was
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legally entitled not to work or to receive remuneration for it. However, it permits the State to impose
compulsory service for public purposes, including conscription and community service.
The Bonded Labour system (Abolition) Act, 1976, has been enacted by Parliament to give
effect to this Article. Article 24 prohibits the employment of children below the age of 14 years in
factories, mines and other hazardous jobs. Parliament has enacted the Child Labour (Prohibition and
Regulation) Act, 1986, providing regulations for the abolition of, and penalties for employing, child
labour, as well as provisions for rehabilitation of former child labourers.
As per the provisions enshrined the Constitution, the government passed “The Immoral Traffic
(Prevention) Act 1956” and “The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act 1976.”
1. Even when the state takes up relief works such as famine or flood relief, it cannot pay less than
minimum wages.
2. When the prisoners are sent for the rigorous imprisonment, they must be paid reasonable wages.
Please note that as per Supreme Court if a prisoner is not paid wages, it is not a violation of Article
23. But if the under trials, persons sentences to simple imprisonments and those who have been
detained under preventive detention cannot be asked to do manual work. They can do work if they
wish to do out of their choice and it would require equitable wages.
What is Bonded Labor?

Bonded Labour or Forced Labour is forbidden. The Forced Labour means not only the physical
and legal force but also arising out of the compulsion of the economic circumstances.
In this context, the Supreme Court of India in People’s Union for Democratic Rights and
others v. Union of India and others [1982] also known as “Asiad Workers Case” gave the following
explanation:
“We are, therefore, of the view that when a person provides labour of service to another for
remuneration which is less than the minimum wage, the labour or service provided by him
clearly falls within the scope and ambit of the words “forced labour” under Article 23 of the
Constitution of India.”
RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF RELIGION

(ARTICLE 25-28)
The concept of secularism is implicit in the preamble of the Indian Constitution which declares
to secure to all its citizens “liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship.”The word
‘secularism’ has been inserted by the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976. In S.R. Bommai v. UoI (1994), the SC
has held that “secularism is a basic feature of the Constitution.”
The chief aspects of Indian Secularism are:-
1. No State Religion - Separation of State and Religion,
2. Peaceful co-existence of all religions,
3. Treatment of all religions equally by the State,
4. Equality of opportunity in the public field for all, irrespective of caste or creed or race or
religion ensuring equal citizenship,
5. Freedom of religion both individual and corporate
The Right to Freedom of Religion, covered in Articles 25–28, provides religious freedom to all
citizens and ensures a secular state in India. According to the Constitution, there is no official State
religion, and the State is required to treat all religions impartially and neutrally.
Article 25 guarantees all persons the freedom of conscience and the right to preach practice
and propagate any religion of their choice. This right is, however, subject to public order, morality and
health, and the power of the State to take measures for social welfare and reform. The right to
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propagate, however, does not include the right to convert another individual, since it would amount to
an infringement of the other's right to freedom of conscience.
Article 26 guarantees all religious denominations and sects, subject to public order, morality
and health, to manage their own affairs in matters of religion, set up institutions of their own for
charitable or religious purposes, and own, acquire and manage property in accordance with law.
These provisions do not derogate from the State's power to acquire property belonging to a religious
denomination. The State is also empowered to regulate any economic, political or other secular
activity associated with religious practice.
Article 27 guarantees that no person can be compelled to pay taxes for the promotion of any
particular religion or religious institution.
Article 28 prohibits religious instruction in a wholly State-funded educational institution, and
educational institutions receiving aid from the State cannot compel any of their members to receive
religious instruction or attend religious worship without their (or their guardian's) consent.
RESTRICTIONS ON FREEDOM OF RELIGION

1) Religious liberty subjected to public order, morality and health - In the name of religion, no
act can be done against public order, morality and health of public. Thus Section 34 of the
Police Act prohibits the slaughter of cattle or indecent exposure of one's person in public place.
These acts cannot be justified on plea of practice of religious rites. Likewise, in the name of
religion 'untouchability' or traffic in human beings' e.g. system of Dev-dasis cannot be
tolerated. These rights are subjected to the reasonable restrictions under clause (2) of Article
19. For instance, a citizen's freedom of speech and expression in matters of religion is
subjected to reasonable restrictions under Article 19 (2). Right to propagate one's religion
does not give right to anyone to "forcibly" convert any person to one's own religion. Forcible
conversion of any person to one's own religion might disturb the public order and hence could
be prohibited by law.
2) Regulation of economic, financial, political and secular activities associated with religious
practices- Clause (2)(a) - The freedom to practice extends only to those activities which are
the essence of religion. It would not cover secular activities which do not form the essence of
religion. It is not always easy to say which activities fall under religious practice or which are
of secular, commercial or political nature associated with religion practice. Each case must be
judge by its own facts and circumstances.
3) Social Welfare and Social Reforms- Clause (2)(b) - Under this clause, the State is empowered
to make laws for social welfare and social reform. Thus under this clause the State can
eradicate social practices and dogmas which stand in the path of the country's onward
progress. Such laws do not affect the essence of any religion. Prohibition of evil practices such
as Sati or system of Devadasi has been held to be justified under this clause. The right
protected under this clause is a right to enter into a temple for the purpose of worship. But it
does not follow from this that, that right is, absolute and unlimited in character. No one can
claim that a temple must be kept open for worship at all hours of the day and night or that he
should be permitted to perform services personally which the Acharya alone could perform.
The State cannot regulate the manner in which the worship of the deity is performed by the
authorised pujaris of the temple or the hours and days on which the temple is to be kept open
for Darshan or Puja for devotees. The right of Sikhs to wear and carry Kripan is recognised as a
religious practice in Explanation 1 of Article 25. It does not mean that he can keep any number
of Kripans. He cannot possess more than one Kripan without licence.
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FREEDOM TO MANAGE RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS

(ARTICLE 26)
Article 26 says that, subject to public order, morality and health, every religious denomination or any
section of it shall have the following rights-
(a) to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purpose,
(b) to manage its own affairs in matters of religion,
(c) to own and acquire movable and immovable property,
(d) to administer such property in accordance with law.
The right guaranteed by Article 25 is an individual right

while the right guaranteed by Article 26 is the right of an 'organised body'
like the religious denomination or any section thereof.
FREEDOM FROM TAXES FOR PROMOTION

OF ANY PARTICULAR RELIGION (ARTICLE 27)
Article 27 provides that no person shall be compelled to pay tax for the promotion or maintenance of
any religion or religious denomination. This Article emphasises the secular character of the State. The
public money collected by way of tax cannot be spent by the State for the promotion of any particular
religion.
PROHIBITION OF RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION

IN STATE AIDED INSTITUTION (ARTICLE 28)
According to Article 28(1), no religious instruction shall be imparted in any educational institution
wholly maintained out of State funds. But this clause shall not apply to an educational institution
which is administered by the State but was not established under any endowment or trust which
requires that religious instruction shall be imparted in such institution. Thus Article 28 mentions four
types of educational institutions:
(a) Institutions wholly maintained by the State.
(b) Institutions recognised by the State.
(c) Institutions that are receiving aid out of the State fund.
(d) Institutions that are administered by the State but are established any trust or
endowment.
In the institutions of (a) type, no religious instructions can be imparted.
In (b) and (c) type of institutions, religious instructions may be imparted only with the consent of the
individuals.
In the (d) type institution, there is not restriction on religious instructions.
N Aditya v. Travancore Dewaswom Board
SC held that Brahmins do not have a monopoly over performing puja in a temple and said that
a non-brahmin can be appointed as a pujari if he is properly trained and well versed with rituals and
the mantras, as necessary to be recited for the particular deity.
Gulam Kadar Ahmadbhai Menon v. Surat Municipal Corporation (1998)
The Gujarat HC held that the right to religion guaranteed to citizens under Art.25 and 26 does
not prohibit State to acquire any place of worship for public purpose or a welfare purpose.
Moulana Mufti Sayeed v. State of West Bengal (1999)
The Calcutta HC held that restrictions imposed by the State on the use of microphones and
loud-speakers at the time of Azaan are not violative of Art. 25. Azaan is certainly an essential and
integral part. Traditionally and according to the religious order, azaan has to be given by the imam or
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the person-in-charge of the mosques through their own voice and this is sanctioned under the
religious order.
Church of God in India v. K.K.R.M.C. Welfare Association (2000)
The SC has held that in the exercise of the right to religious freedom under Articles 25 and 26,
no person can be allowed to create noise pollution or disturb the peace of others.
Mohd. Hanif Qureshi v. State of Bihar (1958)
The petitioner claimed that the sacrifice of cows on the occassion of Bakrid was an essential
part of his religion and therefore the State law forbidding the slaughter of cows was violative of his
right to practise religion. The Court rejected this argument and held that this is not an essential part of
the religion and the State can prohibit the same under Art.25 (2).
Rev Stainislaus v. State of M.P.(1958) - Forcible conversion is not allowed in the name of propagation
of religion.
Aruna Roy v. Union of India (2002)
The validity of National Curriculum Framework for School Education, 2000 which provided for
education for value development based upon all religions and also a comparative study of philosophy
of all religions was challenged on the ground that it was violative of Art.28. Three judge bench of the
SC held that the above-said policy was neither violative of Art.28 nor it is against the concept of
secularism.
CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS

(Article 29-30)
India, being a diverse country with a myriad of ethnic backgrounds, religious influence and varied sub-
cultures, also have minority groups. Articles 29 to 30 of the Indian Constitution effectively aim to
eradicate this problem by making a provision in the article known as ‘Right to Cultural and
Educational rights of Minority groups’.
The Cultural and Educational rights are measures to protect the rights of cultural, linguistic
and religious minorities, by enabling them to conserve their heritage and protecting them against
discrimination.
Article 29 grants any section of citizens having a distinct language, script culture of its own the
right to conserve and develop the same, and thus safeguards the rights of minorities by preventing the
State from imposing any external culture on them. It also prohibits discrimination against any citizen
for admission into any educational institutions maintained or aided by the State, on the grounds only
of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.
However, this is subject to reservation of a reasonable number of seats by the State for socially
and educationally backward classes, as well as reservation of up to 50 percent of seats in any
educational institution run by a minority community for citizens belonging to that community.
Article 30 confers upon all religious and linguistic minorities the right to set up and administer
educational institutions of their choice in order to preserve and develop their own culture, and
prohibits the State, while granting aid, from discriminating against any institution on the basis of the
fact that it is administered by a religious or cultural minority.
The term "minority", while not defined in the Constitution, has been interpreted by the
Supreme Court to mean any community which numerically forms less than 50% of the population of
the state in which it seeks to avail the right under Article 30. In order to claim the right, it is essential
that the educational institution must have been established as well as administered by a religious or
linguistic minority. Further, the right under Article 30 can be availed of even if the educational
institution established does not confine itself to the teaching of the religion or language of the minority
concerned, or a majority of students in that institution do not belong to such minority. This right is
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subject to the power of the State to impose reasonable regulations regarding educational standards,
conditions of service of employees, fee structure, and the utilisation of any aid granted by it.
RIGHT TO PROTECTION OF INTERESTS

(ARTICLE 29)
The constitution of India ensures equal to all the citizens of India liberty pertaining to conserving their
culture, language and script under Article 29 (1).
This provision simply states that the citizens have the right to preserve their language,
heritage and backgrounds and cannot be stifled by major language groups.
The second right under Article 29 (2), says that ‘no minority groups will be denied admission into
any educational system or institution of their choice, and will also not be deprived of any funds from
the state purely based on religion, caste or language’.
In this case, no minority or majority can be denied admission into any state or private
institution on the basis of social factors such as language and religion. The institutions have the
responsibility of accepting students on the basis of merit and talent, and not on the basis of language,
class and religion. The institutions also have to make sure that the cultural diversity of the country is
well-maintained in the form of multifarious languages and various religious groups.
Although there appears to be overlapping of provisions in respect to Article 15 (1) and 29 (2),
Article 15 (1) is a more general provision stating that there shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex,
caste and religion. Article 29, however, is more specific pertaining to a particular species of the system in
the form of gaining admission into educational systems and getting benefits from state funds like all
other citizens.
RIGHT TO ESTABLISH EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
(ARTICLE 30)
Article 30 of the Indian Constitution states that religious and language minorities will have the right to
administer and start their own educational institutions. However, no minority, other than the ones
suggested in the article will have the right to establish any institution.
Article 30 (1A)- In making any law providing for the compulsory acquisition of any property of an
educational institution established and administered by a minority, referred to in clause (1), the State
shall ensure that the amount fixed by or determined under such law for the acquisition of such property is
such as would not restrict or abrogate the right guaranteed under that clause.
The second provision, under Article 30 (2) states that, the government will not deny these
institutions any state funds or aid on the basis that it is run and managed by minority groups.
PROTECTION OF MINORITY GROUPS
The government has come with varied laws to help protect the rights of the minorities. The
Protection of Civil Rights Act 1989 and the Prevention of Atrocities Act of 1989 are two such acts
established by the government. The National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions, 1992
was set up to look into any grievances lodged by the minorities or any violation of rights. The
commission was also set up to advice the state or central government on any matter relating to the
protection of educational minority groups by providing reports and suggestions.
LANDMARK JUDGMENTS ON RIGHT TO ESTABLISH AND ADMINISTER

S.P. Mittal v. UoI (1983) Validity of Auroville (Emergency Provisions) Act, 1980 was
challenged on the ground of being violative of Art. 29 and 30.
Facts: The society was established to preach and propagate the ideals and teaching of Sri Aurobindo.
On receiving complaints about mismanagement of the affairs of the society, the Central Government
enacted the Auroville (Emergency Provisions) Act, 1980 for taking over the management of the
society. It was held that the Act was not violative of Art. 30. Since the said Society was not a religious
denomination, the taking over of the management by the State did not violate Articles 29 and 30 of the
Constitution.
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State of Madras v. Champakam Dorairajan (1951)

An order of Madras Govt. which fixed the proportion of students of each community that could
be admitted into the State Medical and Engineering Colleges. The order was challenged on the ground
that it denied admission to a person only on the ground of religion or caste. The petitioners in this case
were denied admission only because they were Brahmins. The SC held the order invalid for being
violative of Art. 29(2)
State of Bombay v. Bombay Educational Society (1954)

The SC struck down an order of the Bombay Govt. banning admission of those whose
language was not English into schools having English as medium of instruction because it denied
admission solely on the ground of language.
St. Xaviers College v. State of Gujarat (1974)
The petitioners, a Jesuit Society of Ahmedabad, were running St. Xaviers College of Arts
and Commerce in Ahmedabad, which was affiliated to Gujarat University, with the object of giving
higher education to the Christian students. The said petitioners challenged certain provisions of the
Gujarat University Act, 1949 as being violative of Art. 30. The Court held that the said provisions
violated the rights provided by Art.30 and thus does not apply upon the minority institutions.
RIGHT OF A RECOGNITION OR AFFILIATION - NOT A FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT
Affiliation and recognition are matters of policy and the institution seeking recognition or an
affiliation has to comply with the basic norms and requirements for claiming the same.
In TMA Pai Foundation Judgment, the Supreme Court has laid down that the right to establish
educational institutions of their choice is available not only to the minorities but to all the citizens of
the India. One of the fundamental rights in Article 19(1)(g) of the Constitution i.e. “to practice any
profession, or to carry on any occupations, trade or business” - has been interpreted by the
Supreme Court to include right to establish educational institutions, which is a right guaranteed to all
the citizens.
What are the actual rights of the minorities?
Minorities can not only establish educational institutions of their choice but also administer
them. Supreme Court has further laid down that the right to establish and administer broadly
comprises of right to-
(a) admit students;
(b) set up a reasonable fee structure;
(c) constitute a governing body i.e. Management;
(d) appoint staff (teaching and non-teaching); and
(e) take action if there is dereliction of duty on the part of any employees.
Status of Non-minority Institutions-

Non-minority (i.e. the Majority) educational institutions are governed by the policies and
regulations of the state government or the Central Government in matters of admission, appointment
of staff, fixing the fee structure and constitution of governing body, where as the minority institutions
are not.
Except the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice, there is no other
right that minorities enjoy under the Constitution of India.
RIGHT TO CONSTITUTIONAL REMEDIES

(Article 32 & 226)
Any provision in any Constitution for Fundamental Rights is meaningless unless there are
adequate safeguards to ensure enforcement of such provisions. Enforcement of the fundamental rights
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largely depends upon the degree of independence of the Judiciary and the availability of relevant
instruments with the executive authority.
Indian Constitution lays down certain provisions to ensure the enforcement of Fundamental
Rights. These are as under:
(a) The Fundamental Rights provided in the Indian Constitution are guaranteed against any
executive and legislative actions. Any executive or legislative action, which infringes upon the
Fundamental Rights of any person or any group of persons, can be declared as void by the
Courts under Article 13 of the Constitution.
(b) In addition, the Judiciary has the power to issue the prerogative writs. These are the
extraordinary remedies provided to the citizens to get their rights enforced against any
authority in the State. These writs are - Habeas corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari
and Quo warranto. Both, High Courts as well as the Supreme Court may issue the writs.
The Fundamental Rights provided to the citizens by the Constitution cannot be suspended by the State,
except during the period of emergency, as laid down in Article 359 of the Constitution.
However, Article 32 is referred to as the "Constitutional Remedy" for enforcement of
Fundamental Rights. This provision itself has been included in the Fundamental Rights and hence it
cannot be denied to any person. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar described Article 32 as the heart and soul of Indian
Constitution, without which the Constitution would be reduced to nullity.
By including Article 32 in the Fundamental Rights, the Supreme Court has been made the
protector and guarantor of these Rights. An application made under Article 32 of the Constitution
before the Supreme Court, cannot be refused on technical grounds. In addition to the prescribed five
types of writs, the Supreme Court may pass any other appropriate order. Moreover, only the questions
pertaining to the Fundamental Rights can be determined in proceedings against Article 32.
Under Article 32, the Supreme Court may issue a writ against any person or government
within the territory of India. Where the infringement of a Fundamental Right has been established, the
Supreme Court cannot refuse relief on the ground that the aggrieved person may have remedy before
some other court or under the ordinary law. The relief can also not be denied on the ground that the
disputed facts have to be investigated or some evidence has to be collected. Even if an aggrieved
person has not asked for a particular writ, the Supreme Court, after considering the facts and
circumstances, may grant the appropriate writ and may even modify it to suit the exigencies of the
case.
Normally, only the aggrieved person is allowed to move the Court. But it has been held by the
Supreme Court that in social or public interest matters, any one may move the Court. Any piece of
legislation or law, which tends to interfere with the power of Supreme Court under Article 32 shall be
declared as void. Hence, there is no way that the legislative or the executive authorities can by-pass
the power and responsibility entrusted to the Supreme Court by the Constitution.
WRITS
WRIT OF WRIT OF
HABEAS WRIT OF QUO WRIT OF WRIT OF
CORPUS MANDAMUS WARRANTO PROHIBITION CERTIORARI
1) Writ of Habeas corpus: It is the most valuable writ for personal liberty. Habeas Corpus
means, "Let us have the body." A person, when arrested, can move the Court for the issue of
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Habeas Corpus. It is an order by a Court to the detaining authority to produce the arrested
person before it so that it may examine whether the person has been detained lawfully or
otherwise. If the Court is convinced that the person is illegally detained, it can issue orders for
his release.
2) The Writ of Mandamus: Mandamus is a Latin word, which means "We Command".
Mandamus is an order from a superior court to a lower court or tribunal or public
authority to perform an act, which falls within its duty. It is issued to secure the
performance of public duties and to enforce private rights withheld by the public authorities.
Simply, it is a writ issued to a public official to do a thing which is a part of his official duty, but,
which, he has failed to do, so far. This writ cannot be claimed as a matter of right. It is the
discretionary power of a court to issue such writs.
3) The Writ of Quo-Warranto: The word Quo-Warranto literally means "by what warrants?” or
"by what authority”. It is a writ issued with a view to restraining a person from acting in a
public office to which he is not entitled. The writ of quo warranto is used to prevent illegal
assumption of any public office or usurpation of any public office by anybody. For example, a
person of 62 years has been appointed to fill a public office whereas the retirement age is 60
years. Now, the appropriate High Court has a right to issue a writ of quo-warranto against the
person and declare the office vacant.
4) The Writ of Prohibition: Writ of prohibition means to forbid or to stop and it is popularly
known as 'Stay Order'. This writ is issued when a lower court or a body tries to transgress the
limits or powers vested in it. It is a writ issued by a superior court to lower court or a tribunal
forbidding it to perform an act outside its jurisdiction. After the issue of this writ, proceedings
in the lower court etc. come to a stop.
5) The Writ of Certiorari: Literally, Certiorari means to be certified. The writ of certiorari is
issued by the Supreme Court to some inferior court or tribunal to transfer the matter to it
or to some other superior authority for proper consideration.
WRITS OF PROHIBITION, MANDAMUS AND CERTIORARI

The writ of prohibition is issued by any High Court or the Supreme Court to any inferior court,
prohibiting the latter to continue proceedings in a particular case, where it has no legal jurisdiction of
trial. While the writ of mandamus commands doing of particular thing, the writ of prohibition is
essentially addressed to a subordinate court commanding inactivity. Writ of prohibition is, thus, not
available against a public officer not vested with judicial or quasi-judicial powers. The Supreme Court
can issue this writ only where a fundamental right is affected.
The writ of certiorari can be issued by the Supreme Court or any High Court for quashing the
order already passed by an inferior court. In other words, while the prohibition is available at the
earlier stage, certiorari is available on similar grounds at a later stage. It can also be said that the writ of
prohibition is available during the pendency of proceedings before a sub-ordinate court, certiorari can be
resorted to only after the order or decision has been announced.
There are several conditions necessary for the issue of writ of certiorari, which are as under:
(a) There should be court, tribunal or an officer having legal authority to determine the
question of deciding fundamental rights with a duty to act judicially.
(b) Such a court, tribunal or officer must have passed order acting without jurisdiction or in
excess of the judicial authority vested by law in such court, tribunal or law.
The order could also be against the principle of natural justice or it could contain an error of judgment
in appreciating the facts of the case.
69
U
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5. DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
6. INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES.
7. FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
Introduction-
Part IV of the Constitution of Indian contains Directive Principles of State Policy which
extends from Articles 36 to 51 (both inclusive). The concept of Directive Principles under Part IV of
Indian Constitution have been inspired by the Directive Principles given in the Constitution of
Ireland and also by the principles of Gandhism; and relate to social justice, economic welfare, foreign
policy, and legal and administrative matters.
In previous days, it was thought that the main duty of state is the maintenance of law and
order and the protection of life, liberty and property of the subjects. This was rather a restrictive
approach towards the concept of State. The Directive Principles are certain active obligations or
guidelines to State which lay down certain economic and social goal to be pursued by the State to
attain a welfare State. These principles impose certain obligations on the state to take positive action
in certain directions in order to promote the welfare of the people and achieve economic democracy. If
we go through the 16 articles contained in Part IV, we will find that these directives extend to almost
every field of life, i.e., economic, social, legal, environmental.
EXTENT TO WHICH THE EXECUTIVE, LEGISLATURE AND

JUDICIARY IS OBLIGED TO FOLLOW
THE DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
According to Article 37, the directive principles shall not be enforceable by any court, but these
principles are fundamental in the governance of the country and it shall be the duty of the state to
apply them in making laws.
Here, the word 'State' includes the executive, the legislature and the judiciary. Hence a duty has
been imposed upon the organs of the Government to apply these principles in making laws. It is the
duty of the Judiciary to interpret the law in the light of these directive principles.
70
Supreme Court in many decisions has laid down the following two propositions–
(i) The directive principles run as subsidiary to the fundamental rights.
(ii) The directive principles can also be taken into consideration in constructing the
ambiguous provisions of the Constitution.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES
They are not enforceable in

any law courts and therefore These are fundamental in the
if a directive is not obeyed or governance of the country and
implemented by the State, its it shall be the duty of the State
obedience or implementation to apply these principles in
cannot be secured through making laws.
judicial proceedings.
VARIOUS PROVISIONS FALLING UNDER PART IV COMPRISING THE

Despite being non-justiciable, the Directive Principles act as a check on the State; theorised as
a yardstick in the hands of the electorate and the opposition to measure the performance of a
government at the time of an election.
Article 37 while stating that the Directive Principles are not enforceable in any court of law, declares
them to be "fundamental to the governance of the country" and imposes an obligation on the State to
apply them in matters of legislation. Thus, they serve to emphasise the welfare state model of the
Constitution and emphasise the positive duty of the State to promote the welfare of the people by
affirming social, economic and political justice, as well as to fight income inequality and ensure
individual dignity, as mandated by Article 38.
Article 39 lays down certain principles of policy to be followed by the State, including providing an
adequate means of livelihood for all citizens, equal pay for equal work for men and women, proper
working conditions, reduction of the concentration of wealth and means of production from the hands
of a few, and distribution of community resources to "sub-serve the common good". These clauses
highlight the Constitutional objectives of building an egalitarian social order and establishing a welfare
state, by bringing about a social revolution assisted by the State, and has been used to support
71
the nationalisation of mineral resources as well as public utilities. Further, several legislations
pertaining to agrarian reform and land tenure have been enacted by the federal and state
governments, in order to ensure equitable distribution of land resources.
Article 39A requires the State to provide free legal aid to ensure that opportunities for securing justice
are available to all citizens irrespective of economic or other disabilities.
Article 40 provides that the State shall take steps to organise village panchayats and endow them with
such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-
government.
Articles 41–43 mandate the State to endeavour to secure to all citizens the right to work, to secure
a living wage, ensure social security, render maternity relief, and a decent standard of living. These
provisions aim at establishing a socialist state as envisaged in the Preamble.
Article 43 also places upon the State the responsibility of promoting cottage industries, and the
federal government has, in furtherance of this, established several Boards for the promotion
of khadi, handlooms etc., in coordination with the state governments.
Article 43A mandates the State to work towards securing the participation of workers in the
management of industries.
Article 44 encourages the State to secure a uniform civil code for all citizens, by eliminating
discrepancies between various personal laws currently in force in the country. However, this has
remained a "dead letter" despite numerous reminders from the Supreme Court to implement the
provision.
Article 45 originally mandated the State to provide free and compulsory education to children
between the ages of six and fourteen years, but after the 86th Amendment in 2002, this has been
converted into a Fundamental Right and replaced by an obligation upon the State to secure early
childhood care to all children below the age of six.
Article 46 makes it mandatory upon the State to promote the interests of and work for the economic
uplift of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and protect them from discrimination and
exploitation. Several enactments, including two Constitutional amendments i.e. 73rd and 74th
Constitutional Amendments, have been passed to give effect to this provision.
Article 47 commits the State to raise the standard of living and improve public health, and prohibit the
consumption of intoxicating drinks and drugs injurious to health. As a consequence, partial or
total prohibition has been introduced in several states, but financial constraints have prevented its
full-fledged application.
Article 48 makes it mandatory upon the State to organise agriculture and animal husbandry on
modern and scientific lines by improving breeds and prohibiting slaughter of cattle.
Article 48A mandates the State to protect the environment and safeguard the forests and wildlife of
the country.
Article 49 places an obligation upon the State to ensure the preservation of monuments and objects of
national importance.
Article 50 requires the State to ensure the separation of judiciary from executive in public services, in
order to ensure judicial independence, and federal legislation has been enacted to achieve this
objective.
The State, according to Article 51, must also strive for the promotion of international peace and
security, and Parliament has been empowered under Article 253 to make laws giving effect
to international treaties.
72
CLASSIFICATION OF DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
There is a classification of the Directive principles of State policy according to which the Constitutional
draftsmen have classified the articles or the provisions falling under Part IV on the basis of their basic
purposes or the legislative intent. There are three kinds of Directive Principles of State Policy as
enumerated in the Constitution of India from Article 38 to Article 51. They are as follows:-
1) DIRECTIVES IN THE
NATURE OF THE IDEALS
2) DIRECTIVES
OF THE STATE
SHAPING THE
POLICY OF THE 3) DIRECTIVES IN THE
STATE NATURE OF NON-
JUSTICIABLE RIGHTS OF
EVERY CITIZEN
1) The directives in the nature of ideals of the State are-

(a) The State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing a
social order permeated by social, economic and political justice (Art. 38).
(b) The State shall endeavour to secure just and humane conditions of work a
living wage a decent standard of living and social and cultural opportunities for all
workers (Art 43).
(c) The State shall endeavour to raise the level of nutrition and standard of living and to
improve the health of the people (Art. 47).
(d) The State shall endeavour to promote international peace and amity (Art. 51)
(e) The State shall direct its policy towards securing equitable distribution of the material
resources of the community and prevention of concentration of wealth and means of
production to the common detriment (Art . 39)
2) Directives in the nature of policy of the State–

(a) To establish economic democracy and justice by securing certain economic rights.
(b) To secure a uniform civil code for the citizen. (Art. 44)
(c) To provide free and compulsory primary education (Art. 45)
(d) To prohibit consumption of liquor and intoxicating drug except for medical purposes (Art.
47).
(e) To develop cottage industries (Art. 43).
(f) To organise agriculture and animal husbandry on modern lines (Art. 48).
(g) To prevent slaughter of useful cattle i.e. cows, calves and other milch and draught, cattle
(Art. 48).
(h) To organise village Panchayats as units of self-government (Art. 40),
(i) To protect and improve the environment and to safeguards forest and wild life (Art. 48A).
(j) To protect and maintain places of historic or artistic interest (Art. 49).
(k) To separate the Judiciary from the Executive (Art. 50).
73
3) Directives in the nature of non-justiciable rights of every citizen-

(a) Right to adequate means of livelihood (Art. 39 (a))
(b) Right to both sexes to equal pay for equal work (Art. 39 (d))
(c) Right against economic exploitation (Art. 39(e),(f)).
(d) Right to work (Art.41)
(e) Right to education (Art.45).
IMPORTANCE OF DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES
 The Directive Principles are fundamental in the smooth governance of the States
 The Directive Principles lay down the foundation of economic democracy.
 These are measuring rods to judge the achievements of the Government.
 The Directive Principles aim to establish a welfare state.
 These principles supplement the Fundamental rights.
 These principles also serve as guiding principles for courts.
 They bring stability and continuity in State policies.
WHY DID THE FRAMERS OF THE CONSTITUTION MADE

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES NON-JUSTICIABLE IN NATURE?
 India as a country didn’t possess enough financial resources to implement the directions given
in the directive principles.
 Moreover, vast diversity and backwardness in the country posed as a hurdle in the way of their
implementation.
 India after independence had many preoccupations i.e. various regions had their unique set of
problems which they needed to deal with them on priority. If these directive principles were
made compulsory they would have added to the burden on these regions.
CRITICISM OF DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
 Although very noble in thought but the Directive Principles are non-justiciable in nature.
 Directive Principles are nothing more than moral principles or obligations.
 Directive Principles are neither properly classified nor logically arranged.
 Some Directive Principles are not practicable.
 Directive Principles are foreign in nature.
 Directive Principles are actually against the principle of State Sovereignty.
 It is illogical to include these principles in the Constitution.
 These are responsible for Constitutional conflicts.
 No mention of methods to implement these has been provided.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS OF STATE POLICY
Part III—Arts. 12 to 35 deal with Fundamental Part 1V—Arts. 36 to 51 deal with

Rights. Directive principles.
74
Fundamental rights mainly aimed at assuring Directive principles are aimed at securing
political freedom to the citizen by protecting against social and economic freedom by
State action. appropriate State action.
Fundamental rights are justiciable rights Directive principles are justiciable rights.
Fundamental rights are sacrosanct and not liable to Directive principles are sacrosanct.
be curtailed by the State action.
Fundamental rights are negative in character and Directive principles are positive in
the State not to do certain things. character and the State is directed to take
certain positive steps.
Fundamental rights described by the Supreme Directive principles described by the

Court as transcended 'inalienable' and personal. Supreme Court as conscience or the
Constitution.
Fundamental rights considered as means by which Directive principles prescribed the goals
goals to be achieved. to be attained.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

AND
MILESTONE DESCRIPTION
Champakam Supreme Court (SC) in its verdict said that in case of conflict between
1. Dorairajan Case Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles, Fundamental Rights would
(1951) always prevail. It also said that Directive principles have to work as
a supplement with Fundamental rights & Parliament can’t amend
Fundamental Rights.
2. Golaknath Case SC held that Parliament cannot amend Fundamental Rights to give effect
(1967) to the Directive Principles.
3. 24th Amendment This amendment was done in reaction to Golaknath Case judgement and
Act, 1971 to nullify the effect of the same. It declared that Parliament has the right
to amend the Fundamental Right by use of a Constitutional Amendment.
It was also done in reaction to Golaknath Case judgement. It inserted a

new Article 31-C which contained the following two provisions:
75
(i) No law which gives effect to the directive principles can be

4. declared invalid and unconstitutional on the grounds that it
25th Amendment is violating fundamental rights namely Article 14 (equality before
Act, 1971 law and equal protection of laws), Article 19(protection of six
rights in respect of speech, assembly, movement, etc) & Article
31(right to property).
(ii) No law containing a declaration for giving effect to such policy
shall be questioned in any court on the ground that it does not
give effect to such a policy.
(Note: Right to Property was a fundamental right at this time.)
5. Kesavananda Bharti SC in its verdict held that the second provision mentioned in the Article
Case (1973) 31-C is invalid & unconstitutional as it is taking away the power of court
for judicial review. However, first provision of Article 31-C was held
valid & constitutional.
6. 42nd Position of Directive Principles was made

Amendment Act, 19 superior to Fundamental Rights
76
SC in its decision declared that Directive Principles are subordinate to

Fundamental Rights. But position of Fundamental Rights under Article
7. Minerva Mills Case 14 & Article 19 was made subordinate to Directive Principles. SC also
(1980) said that Constitution demands to maintain balance between the
Fundamental Rights & Directive principles. To give absolute primacy to
one over the other is to disturb the harmony of the Constitution.
[Note: Right to property (Article 31) was abolished as a

fundamental right by 44th Amendment Act (1978)]
For now Fundamental Rights enjoy supremacy over Directive Principles

8. Present Position (except Article 14 & Article 19). Parliament is entitled to amend
Fundamental Right in order to give effect to the Directive Principles as
long as it does not affect to the basic structure of the Constitution.
76
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
Rights and Duties are like two sides of a coin, absolutely inseparable. Whenever and wherever
we have any rights, we must have corresponding duties. Whether it be the home, the society or the
country, in every sphere of life we have rights and duties that go hand in hand. We have rights in the
same measure as we have duties. The Fundamental Duties are a novel feature of the Indian
Constitution. No democratic polity can ever succeed where the citizens are not willing to be active
participants in the process of governance by assuming responsibilities and discharging citizenship
duties and coming forward to give their best to the country.
ORIGIN: The Fundamental Duties of citizens were added to the Constitution by the 42nd
Amendment in 1976 by way of inserting PART IV-A upon the recommendations of the Swaran
Singh Committee that was constituted by the government earlier that year. All the fundamental duties
were incorporated in one article only i.e. Article 51-A. Originally, constitution had only 10
fundamental duties. Originally ten in number, the Fundamental Duties were increased to
eleven by the 86th Amendment in 2002, which added a duty on every parent or guardian to ensure
that their child or ward was provided opportunities for education between the ages of six and fourteen
years. The idea for Fundamental Duties has been borrowed from erstwhile USSR.
Fundamental duties are obligatory in nature. But there is no provision in the constitution for
direct enforcement of these duties. There is no sanction either to prevent their violation. However the
importance of fundamental duties can be gauged from the following facts:
(a) As rights and duties are the two side of the same coin, it is expected that one should observe
one’s duties in order to seek the enforcement of one’s fundamental rights, in the context if a
person approaches the court for the enforcement of any of his fundamental rights, the court
may refuse to take a lenient view of him if it comes to know that the concerned individual has
no respect for what is expected of him by the state as a citizen of the country.
(b) They can be used for interpreting ambiguous statutes. The court may look at the fundamental
duties while interpreting equivocal statutes which admit of two constructions.
(c) While determining the constitutionality of any law, if court finds that it seeks to give effect to
any of the duties, it may consider such law to be ‘reasonable’, and thereby, save such law from
unconstitutionality.
FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES IN INDIA

Under Article 51-A of Indian Constitution, every citizen has been obligated to perform certain
duties called the Fundamental Duties. These duties are defined as the moral obligations of all
citizens to help promote a spirit of patriotism and to uphold the unity of India.
The following are the Eleven Fundamental Duties of every citizen of India:
(a) To abide by the Constitution and respect the National Flag and the National Anthem;
The first and the foremost duty assigned to every citizen of India is to abide by the
Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National
Anthem. These are the very physical foundations of our citizenship. Citizens are supposed to
maintain the dignity of the Constitution by not indulging in any activities in violation of the
77
letter or spirit of the Constitution. Ours is a vast country with many languages, sub-cultures
and religious and ethnic diversities, but the essential unit of the country is epitomized in the
one Constitution, one flag, one people and single citizenship. We are all governed and guided
by this Constitution irrespective of caste, religion, race, sex, etc. National Flag and the National
Anthem are symbols of our history, sovereignty, unity and pride. We, the citizens of India,
have to be equally proud of our nation, our Constitution, our National Flag and our National
Anthem. We must put the nation above our narrow personal interests and then only we will
be able to protect our hard-earned freedom and sovereignty.
(b) To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom;
The citizens of India must cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired the
national struggle for freedom. The battle of freedom was a long one where thousands of
people sacrificed their lives for our freedom. It becomes our duty to remember the sacrifices
made by our forefathers for the cause of the country. But, what is much more important is to
remember, imbibe and follow the ideals which pervaded our unique struggle. It was not a
struggle merely for political freedom of India. It was for the social and economic
emancipation of the people all over the nation. If we, the citizens of India remain conscious of
and committed to these ideals, then only we will be able to do justice with the great struggle
of our freedom fighters.
(c) To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
It imposes a Fundamental Duty on every citizen of India that he shall not do anything
derogatory of upholding or protecting the sovereignty, unity or integrity of India. It is a duty
prohibitory in nature addressed to traitors and spies.
(d) To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
In modern nation States, it is goes without saying that every citizen is bound to be
ready to defend the country against war or external aggression. The present day wars are not
fought on the battlefield only nor are they won only by the armed forces; the citizens at large
play a most vital role in a variety of ways. Sometimes, civilians may be required also to take up
arms in defence of the country.
(e) To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all people of India
transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities and to renounce
practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
The duty to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the
people of India essentially flows from the basic value of fraternity enshrined in the Preamble
to the Constitution. India is a country of different castes, languages, religions and many
cultural streams but we are one people with one Constitution, one flag and single citizenship.
Spirit of brotherhood should come very normally among the citizens of a country like India
where the norm has been to consider the entire world as one family. The Constitution also
casts upon us the Fundamental Duty of ensuring that all practices derogatory to the dignity of
women are renounced. This again should come normally to a country where it is an saying
that Gods reside where women are worshipped.
(f) To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
Our cultural heritage is one of the noblest and the richest. What we have inherited
from the past, we must preserve and pass on to the future generations. In fact, each
78
generation leaves its footprints on the sands of time. We must hold precious and dear what
our fore-fathers have created and their successive generations bequeathed to us as symbols of
their artistic excellence and achievements. Generations to come will always draw an
inspiration from past history which stimulates them to aim at ever greater heights of
achievement and excellence. It becomes the ardent duty of every citizen to ensure that these
monuments and pieces of art are not in any way damaged, disfigured, scratched or subjected
to vandalism or greed of unscrupulous traders and smugglers.
(g) To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild
life and to have compassion for living creatures;
In the face of the menace of the increasing pollution and environmental degradation, it
is the duty of every citizen to protect and improve natural environment including forests,
lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures. The rising air, water
and noise pollution and large-scale denudation of forest are causing immense harm to all
human life on earth. The mindless and wanton deforestation in the name of needs of
development is causing havoc in the form of natural calamities and imbalances. By protecting
our forests, planting new trees, cleaning rivers, conserving water resources, reforesting
wastelands, hills and mountains and controlling pollution in cities, villages and industrial
units, we can help save the future of our coming generations and of planet itself. What is
needed is a concerted effort at, an awareness campaign and a planned strategy to move
forward through voluntary citizen initiatives. Governmental steps alone would not suffice.
(h) To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;
It is the bounden duty of every citizen to preserve and promote a scientific temper and
a spirit of inquiry to keep pace with the fast changing world.
(i) To safeguard public property and to abjure violence;

It is most unfortunate that in a country which preaches non-violence to the rest of the
world, we see from time to time instances of senseless violence and destruction of public
property indulged in by a few of its citizens. This is why it became necessary to prescribe the
responsibility "to safeguard public property and abjure violence" as a fundamental duty of the
citizens.
(j) To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity, so that the
nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement;
The drive for excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity is the
demand of times and a basic requirement in a highly competitive world. This would include
respect for professional obligations and excellence.
(k) To provide opportunities for education by the parent the guardian, to his child, or a ward
between the age of 6-14 years as the case may be.
Significant points of Fundamental Duties
 The Fundamental Duties of citizens were added to the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment in
1976, upon the recommendations of the Swarn Singh Committee that was constituted by the
government earlier that year.
 Fundamental duties are applicable only to citizens and not to the aliens.
 India borrowed the concept of Fundamental Duties from USSR.
 The inclusion of Fundamental Duties brought our Constitution in line with Article 29 (1) of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights and with provisions in several modern Constitutions of
other countries.
79
 Out of the ten clauses in Article 51A, six are positive duties and the other five are negative
duties. Clauses (b), (d), (f), (h), (j) and (k) require the citizens to perform these Fundamental
Duties actively.
 It is suggested that a few more Fundamental Duties, namely, duty to vote in an election, duty to
pay taxes and duty to resist injustice may be added in due course to Article 51A.
 A number of judicial decisions are available towards the enforcement of certain clauses under
Article 51A.
 Comprehensive legislation is needed for clauses (a), (c), (e), (g) and (i). The remaining 5
clauses, which are exhortation of basic human values, have to be developed amongst citizens
through the education system by creating proper and graded curricular input from primary
level of education to the higher and professional levels.
Some legal provisions in consonance with the Fundamental Duties are-

(a) In order to ensure that no disrespect is shown to the National Flag, Constitution of India and
the National anthem, the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971 was enacted.
(b) The Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950 was enacted soon after
independence to prevent improper use of the National Flag and the National Anthem.
(c) There are a number of provisions in the existing criminal laws to ensure that the activities
which encourage enmity between different groups of people on grounds of religion, race, place
of birth, residence, language, etc. are adequately punished. Writings, speeches, gestures,
activities, exercise, drills, etc. aimed at creating a feeling of insecurity or ill-will among the
members of other communities, etc. have been prohibited under Section 153-A of the Indian
Penal Code, 1860.
(d) Imputations and assertions prejudicial to the national integration constitute a punishable
offence under Section 153-B of the Indian Penal Code, 1860.
(e) A Communal organization can be declared unlawful association under the provisions of
Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967.
(f) Offences related to religion are covered in Sections 295-298 of the Indian Penal Code.
(g) Provisions of the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 (earlier the Untouchability
(Offences) Act, 1955).
(h) Sections 123(3) and 123(3A) of the Representation of People Act, 1951 declares that
soliciting of vote on the ground of religion and the promotion or attempt to promote feelings of
enmity or hatred between different classes of citizens of India on the grounds of religion, race,
caste, community or language is a corrupt practice. A person indulging in a corrupt practice
can be disqualified for being a Member of Parliament or a State Legislature under Section 8A
of the Representation of People Act, 1951.
 Bijoe Emannuel v. State of Kerala [AIR 1987 SC 758] - The Supreme court held that proper
respect was shown by the students to the National them by standing up in silence when the
National anthem was sung. By not joining in the singing, the Court held, did not amount to
committing disrespect to the National Anthem.
80
UNIT-IV
UNION EXECUTIVE, LEGISLATURE AND JUDICIARY
1. UNION EXECUTIVE – THE PRESIDENT, VICE-PRESIDENT

2. UNION LEGISLATURE – COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
3. UNION JUDICIARY – SUPREME COURT
4. RIGHT TO CONSTITUTIONAL REMEDIES
UNION EXECUTIVE: PRESIDENT, VICE PRESIDENT

The Union Executive broadly covers the President, Council of Ministers and the Prime
Minister. Under the Indian Constitution, the President of India enjoys a unique position. President is
the head of the Union Executive. Article 52 creates the position of the President. The President of
India is the head of state of the Republic of India. He is considered to be above party politics and is not
a member of any political party.
The President is the first citizen of the country and formal head of
the executive, legislature and judiciary of India. He is also the commander-in-chief of the Indian
Armed Forces. He represents sovereignty of the country. He is elected by the elected representatives
of the people.
POSITION OF THE PRESIDENT UNDER INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Article 52 provides that there shall be a President of India and Article 53 provides that the
executive powers of the Union shall be vested in the President of India and shall be exercised either
directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with the Constitution. Thus President of
India is bound to act in accordance with the Constitution.
Also, Article 74 of the Constitution provides that there shall be Council of Ministers with the
Prime Minister at the head to aid and advice the President of India. Thus, a question arises what does
aid and advise mean? Can President of India refuse or disallow or disregard the advice tendered or
given by the Council of Ministers to the President? As Article 75 (3) provides, the Council of Ministers
shall be collectively responsible to the House of the People. In Parliamentary form of Government,
Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha. Similarly, if President does not act in accordance
with the Constitution then there is provision for his impeachment. Under Article 368, a provision has
been made that if any Amendment Act has been passed in order to amend the Constitution, the
President shall have to sign it. It is very clear from all the above provisions that President cannot go
against the wishes of the Council of Ministers as headed by the Prime Minister. He is said to be a
puppet in the hands of Prime Minister.
DUTIES OF THE PRESIDENT
The primary duty of the President is to preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the
law of India as made part of his oath (Article 60). He is liable for impeachment for violation of the
Constitution (Article 61).
The Constitution of India envisages a parliamentary Government in India. Part V of the
Constitution of India deals with the office of the President of India. Although Article 53 of the
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Constitution says that the executive power of union shall be exercised by the President either directly
or through officers sub-ordinate to him.
In practice the President has to abide by the decisions of the council of ministers with the Prime
Ministers at the head. Our Constitution is a harmonious blend of the political systems of the U.S.A. and
the U.K. The President merely represents the nation, he does not rule.
QUALIFICATIONS TO BE ELECTED A PRESIDENT
The candidate-
(a) Should be a citizen of India;
(b) Should be of not less than 35 years of age;
(c) Should be qualified for elections as a member of the House of people; and
(d) Should not hold any office of profit under the Government of India or any state Government or
any local authority subject to the control of any of these Government;
(e) Must not be a member of the parliament.
ELECTION OF THE PRESIDENT
The founding fathers of the Constitution did not provide for the popular election of the President.
Article 54 of the Indian Constitution provides for the election of the President of India.
The President of India is elected by indirect election that is by an electoral college through secret
ballot, in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single
transferable vote.
As far as practicable, there shall be uniformity of representation of the different states at the election,
according to the population and the total number of elected members of the Legislative Assembly of
each state, and party shall also be maintained between the State as a whole and the Union (Article 55).
Electoral College which elects President consists of-
 Elected members of both the Houses of Parliament (does not include nominated members)
 Electoral college which elects the President consists of elected MP’s and elected MLA’s at the
state level
 MLA’s of National Capital Territory of Delhi and the Union territory of Pondicherry are also
included
SINGLE TRANSFERABLE VOTE

SYSTEM
The election of the President is held through single transferable vote system of proportional
representation. Under this system names of all the candidates are listed on the ballot paper and the
elector gives them numbers according to his/her preference. Every voter may mark on the ballot
paper as many preferences as there are candidates. Thus the elector shall place the figure 1 opposite
the name of the candidate whom he/she chooses for first preference and may mark as many
preferences as he/she wishes by putting the figures 2, 3, 4 and so on against the names of other
candidates. The ballot becomes invalid if first preference is marked against more than one candidate
or if the first preference is not marked at all.
As far as practicable, there shall be uniformity in the scale of representation of the different
States at the election of the President. For the purpose of securing such uniformity among the States
'inter se' as well as parity between the States as a whole and the Union, the number of votes which
each elected member of Parliament and of the Legislative Assembly of each State is entitled to cast at
such election shall be determined in the following manner-
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(a) Every elected member of the Legislative Assembly of a State shall have as many votes as there
are multiples of one thousand in the quotient obtained by dividing the population of the State
by the total number of the elected members of the Assembly;
(b) if, after taking the said multiple of one thousand; the remainder is not less than five hundred
than the vote of each member referred to in sub-clause (a) shall be further increased by one;
(c) Each elected member of either House of Parliament shall have such number of votes as may be
obtained by dividing the total number of votes assigned to the members of the Legislative
Assemblies of the States under sub-clause (a) and (b) by the total number of the elected
members of both Houses of Parliament, fractions exceeding one-half being counted as one and
other fractions disregarded.
The election of the President shall be held in accordance with the system of proportional
representation by means of the single transferable vote and the voting at such election shall be by
the secret ballot. In this Article, the expression "population" means the population as ascertained at
the preceding census of which the relevant figures have been published. [Article 55]
Conditions of President’s office - Article 59 of the Constitution lays down the conditions-
(a) The President cannot be a member of either of House of Parliament or State Legislature when
holding the office of President.
(b) The President cannot hold any other office of profit.
(c) Parliament by law will determine the salary of President.
Term of office: The President's term of office is for five years from the date on which he enters upon
his office; but he is eligible for re-election.
The President office may terminate within the term of five years in either of two ways-
(a) By resignation in writing under his hand addressed to the vice-President of India,
(b) By removal for violation of the constitution, by the process of impeachment (Art. 56).
VACANCY IN THE OFFICE OF PRESIDENT

A vacancy in the office of the President may be caused in way of the following ways-
(i) On the expiry of his term of five years,
(ii) By his death,
(iii) By his resignation. The President may, by writing under his hand addressed to the Vice-
President, resign from his office,
(iv) On his removal by impeachment,
The President may, for violation of the Constitution, be removed from the office by
impeachment in the manner provided in Art. 61
(v) Otherwise, e.g., on the setting aside of his election as President.
TIME FOR HOLDING PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS
(a) An election to fill a vacancy caused by the expiration of the term of office of President shall be
completed before the expiration of the current term.
(b) An election to fill a vacancy in the office of President occurring by the reasons of death,
resignation or removal, or otherwise, should be held within 6 months from the date of
occurrence of vacancy.
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PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES
(a) The President cannot be asked to be present in any court of law during his tenure.
(b) A prior notice of two months’ time is to be served before instituting a civil case against him.
(c) The President can neither be arrested nor any criminal proceedings be instituted against him
in any court of law during his tenure.
(d) The President is not answerable to any court of law for the exercise of his functions.
REMOVAL OF PRESIDENT (IMPEACHMENT PROCESS)
The President can only be removed from office through a process called impeachment. The
Constitution lays down a detailed procedure for the impeachment of the President. An impeachment is
a quasi-judicial procedure in parliament. Either House may prefer the charge of violation of the
Constitution before the other House which shall then either investigate the charge itself or cause the
charge to be investigated.
PROCEDURE FOR IMPEACHMENT
The resolution to impeach the President can be moved in either House of

Parliament. Such a resolution can be moved only after a notice has been given by
at least one-fourth of the total number of members of the House. Such a
resolution charging the President for violation of the Constitution must be passed by
a majority of not less than two-third of the total membership of that House before it
goes to the other House for investigation.
The charges levelled against the President are investigated by the second
House. President has the right to be heard or defended when the charges against
him are being investigated. The President may defend himself in person or through
his counsel.
If the charges are accepted by a two-third majority of the total membership

of the second House, the impeachment succeeds. The President thus stands
removed from the office from the date on which the resolution is passed.
But the charge cannot be preferred by a House unless-

(a) a resolution containing the proposal is moved after a 14 days notice in writing signed by not
less than 1/4 of the total number of members of the House; and
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(b) the resolution is then passed by a majority of not less than 2/3 of the total membership of the
House.
The President shall have a right to appear and to be represented at such investigation. If as a
result of the investigation, a resolution is passed by not less than 2/3 of the total membership of the
House before which the charge has been preferred declaring that the charge has been sustained, such
resolution shall have the effect of removing the President from his office with effect from the date on
which such resolution is passed (Article 61).
Since the Constitution provides the mode and ground for removing the President, he cannot be
removed otherwise than by impeachment, in accordance with the terms of Art 56 and 61.
ALLOWANCES AND EMOLUMENTS
The President shall be entitled without payment of rent to the use of his official residence and shall be
also entitled to such emoluments, allowances and privileges as may be determined by Parliament by
law that behalf is so made, such emoluments, allowances and privileges as are specified in the second
schedule of the Constitution.
The President receives a salary of Rs. 1,50,000/- per month and an annual pension on the expiration
of his term or on resignation provided he is not re-elected to the office. The emoluments and
allowances of the President shall not be diminished during his term of office.
POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT
The President of India is the head of a parliamentary state, entrusted with all the executive authorities
including the supreme command of the forces. He exercises his power with the aid and advice of the
Council of Ministers.
The Prime Minister is the real head of the Government. However, a vast number of powers have been
earmarked for the President by the Constitution. Powers of President can be summarized under
following categories:-
1. EXECUTIVE POWERS
(a) Article 53 of the Constitution declares the President to be the chief of the state. Sub-clause (i)
states, "The executive powers of the union shall be vested in the President and shall be
exercised by him either directly or through offices sub-ordinate to him in accordance with his
constitution. The Constitution vests the supreme executive authority of the Union in the
President.
(b) Under Article 77, all the executive actions of the government are taken under the name of the
President.
(c) He holds the supreme command of India's defence forces and has the power of declaring
war or concluding peace.
(d) Under Article 78, the President has the right to seek any information from the Centre and the
State.
(e) The President appoints, as Prime Minister, the person most likely to command the support of
the majority in the Lok Sabha (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition). The
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President then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios
to them on the advice of the Prime Minister.
(f) Under Article 310, every officer of the government occupies his/her position during the
pleasure of the President.
(g) It is the President of India by whom Houses of Parliament are summoned and he may convene
joint sitting of the two Houses in case of deadlock.
(h) The President nominates 12 members for the Rajya Sabha with extra-ordinary
accomplishments from amongst persons who have special knowledge or practical experience
in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service and two members for
the Lok Sabha from the Anglo-Indian Community.
(i) The President is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. These include:
 Governors of States
 The Chief Justice, other judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts of India
 The Chief Minister of National capital territory of Delhi (Article 239 AA 5 of the
constitution)
 The Attorney General
 The Comptroller and Auditor General
 The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners
 The Chairman and other Members of the Union Public Service Commission
 Vice Chancellor of central university and academic staff of central university through his
nominee
 Ambassadors and High Commissioners to other countries
(j) Besides he has the power to appoint an Inter-State Commission, Finance Commission,
Election Commission, etc. He has the power to be kept informed of all the officers of the
Union. It is the duty of the Prime Minister to communicate to the President all decisions of the
council of ministers relating to the administration of Union Affairs.
2. LEGISLATIVE POWERS
According to the Constitution, the President is an integral part of the Parliament. He has many
powers in relation to the Parliament-
(a) The President inaugurates the Parliament by addressing it after the general elections and
also at the beginning of the first session each year. Presidential address on these occasions is
generally meant to outline the new policies of the government.[Article 87]
(b) He summons, prorogues the Parliament.
(c) He can dissolve the House of people.
(d) He can address either Houses of Parliament or both the Houses jointly (i.e. a joint session
of both the houses of the Parliament).
(e) He can send message to either House of Parliament whether with respect to a Bill
pending in Parliament or otherwise.[Article 86(2)]
(f) The President decides questions as to disqualification of members.[Art. 103]
(g) He can cause certain reports and statements to be laid before the Parliament such as the
report of the Comptroller and Auditor General, or the Report of the Finance Commission.
(h) He recommends the introduction of certain bills in the Parliament such as the re-
organisation of states or alteration of boundaries; a money-bill involving expenditure.
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(i) No bill can become a law unless and until assented to by the President. [Article 114]
All bills passed by the Parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the
President.
After a bill is presented to him, the President shall declare either that he assents to the
Bill, or that he withholds his assent from it. As a third option, he can return a bill to the
Parliament, if it is not a money bill or a Constitutional amendment bill, for reconsideration.
When, after reconsideration, the bill is passed and presented to the President, with or
without amendments, the President cannot withhold his assent from it. The President can also
withhold his assent to a bill when it is initially presented to him (rather than return it to the
Parliament) thereby exercising a pocket veto.
(j) The President may withhold his assent or return the Bill to the House, for
reconsideration, if it is not a money bill.
(k) Certain types of bills passed by the state Legislature are to be reserved for Presidents’ assent.
Certain bills require his prior sanction before they are introduced in the state Legislature.
(l) The most important legislative power of the President is his power to promulgate
Ordinances under Article 123. According to this, the President is empowered to promulgate
ordinances, except when both the Houses of Parliament are in session, if he is satisfied that
circumstances exit compelling him to take immediate action.
A Presidential Ordinance has the same force and effect as an Act of Parliament.
However, every such ordinance should be laid before both Houses of Parliament within six
weeks from the re-assembly of Parliament. Failure to comply with this condition, or
Parliamentary disapproval within the six weeks' period, will make the Ordinance invalid. The
President may also withdraw the Ordinance at any time he likes.
3. FINANCIAL POWERS
In respect of finance, the President enjoys the following powers:

(a) No money bill can be introduced in the House of people without the previous sanction of
President. All money bills originate in House of the people (Lok Sabha) (Article 109).
(b) The president shall cause to be laid before Parliament, the Annual Budget and
supplementary Budget for its approval (Article 112).
(c) He causes to be laid before the Parliament the Annual Finance Statement called the Budget
before the beginning of every financial year.
(d) Withdrawal from the Contingency Fund of India is done after the permission of the
President. The Contingency Fund of India is at the disposal of the President. He can make
advances from the contingency fund of India to meet unforeseen expenses, pending approval
by the Parliament.
(e) The President appoints the Finance Commission from time to time to make
recommendation regarding the distribution of taxes between the Union and the states.
(f) He determines the shares of Income Tax receipts between the Union and the States.
4. JUDICIAL POWERS (PARDONING POWER)
The President has the power to grant pardons and reprives, and suspend, remit or commute sentences
of persons convicted by court martial, and in all cases in which sentences of death have been passed.
As mentioned in Article 72 of Indian Constitution, the President is empowered with the powers to
grant pardons in the following situations:
 Punishment is for offence against Union Law
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 Punishment is by a Military Court

 Sentence is that of death
To pardon means to forgive a person of his offence. It is an act of grace and cannot be claimed or
demanded as a matter of right. It is purely an executive act. The decisions involving pardoning and
other rights by the President are independent of the opinion of the Prime Minister or the Lok Sabha
majority. In most cases, however, the President exercises his executive powers on the advice of the
Prime Minister and the cabinet.
The Presidents power does not affect the similar powers of the Governor and military officers
with respect to Court-Martial. It is noteworthy that the Presidents’ judicial power does not include the
power to grant amnesty. This power is left to the Parliament.
(b) Advisory Jurisdiction under Article 143 also comes under judicial powers of the President.
(c) The President enjoys certain privileges in respect to criminal or civil proceedings against him. No
criminal proceedings can be started against him during his term of office. Civil proceedings can be
initiated only after he has been served with a two months written notice.
5. MILITARY POWERS
The Supreme Command of the Defence Forces is vested in the President of India, but the
Constitution expressly lay down that the exercise of this power shall be regulated by law.
This means that though the President may have the power to take action as to declaration of
war or peace or the employment of the Defence Forces, it is competent for Parliament to regulate or
control the exercise of such powers.
6. DIPLOMATIC POWERS
Like the head of other States, the President of India represents India in international affairs
and has the power to appoint Indian representatives to other countries and receives diplomatic
representatives of other states.
7. EMERGENCY POWERS
In addition to the power enumerated above the President of India enjoys vast emergency powers.
Article 352 to 360 deals with the emergency provisions. The Constitution visualizes three kinds of
emergencies:-
(a) Emergency arising out of a threat to the security of India or any part of it by war,
external aggression or internal disturbances,
(b) Emergency arising out of the failure of the constitutional machinery in any one of the
states.
(c) Emergency caused by a threat to the financial stability of India.
It is the President who determines whether the emergency exists or not. His judgement in this case
cannot be questioned. If the President issues a declaration of national emergency caused by war or
threat of war he may:-
 Suspend the autonomy of states and empower the Parliament to make laws on all
matters including matters in the state list.
 Extend the executive power of the union so as to give directions to any state regarding
the manner in which the executive power of the union is to be exercised;
 Suspend the fundamental rights including the right to constitutional remedies.
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 The President can modify the provisions relating to distribution of revenues between
the centre and the states in order to secure adequate revenue for the Government of
India to meet situation created by emergency.
The above is the assessment of various powers of the President of India. Looking to these powers one
may say that President is no less than a dictator and especially so when an emergency has been
declared.
However, whatever may be the Constitutional provisions regarding the powers of the President and
however vast these powers may be, yet it may be said that the President of India being the head of a
parliamentary Government cannot but exercise his powers on the advice of the Council of Ministers
which includes the elected representatives of the people.
Article 74 clearly provides that "there shall be a Council of Ministers to aid and advice the President in
the exercise of these functions. Article 74 is a mandatory provision.
The Constitution does not visualize the rule of the President at the centre. The powers of the President
are the powers of the Council of Ministers which is responsible to the Parliament. The President must
act according to their advice because disregard of their advice would kill the essence of the
parliamentary Government which requires that the head of the state should exercise his powers on the
advice of the cabinet responsible to the parliament.
VICE-PRESIDENT OF INDIA
The Vice-President is elected under Article 63 of the Constitution. His importance in the Constitution
is that whenever any vacancy occurs in the office of the President, he acts as President until a new
President is elected. The Vice-President like the President is elected indirectly.
The Vice-President is elected by the members of both Houses of Parliament at a joint session
by secret ballot in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of single
transferable vote.
The Vice-President of India shall be ex-officio Chairman of the Raba Sabha. His normal function
is to preside over meetings of the Rajya Sabha. But since he is not the member of the Rajya Sabha, he
has no right to vote.
QUALIFICATIONS
The qualifications of the Vice President are the same as those of the President except that he
must be eligible for election to the Rajya Sabha.
(i) He must be a citizen of India.
(ii) He must have completed the age of 35 years.
(iii) He must be eligible to be elected as a member of the Rajya Sabha.
(iv) He must not hold any office of profit under any government.
ELECTION OF THE VICE-PRESIDENT
The Vice-President of India is elected by the members of both Houses of Parliament in

accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote
system and the voting at such election shall be by secret ballot.
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TERM OF OFFICE OF VICE-PRESIDENT
The Vice-President is elected for the term five years. The period of five years starts from the
date on which he enters upon his office.
He is eligible for re-election. However, he may resign from his office before the expiry of
normal term, even before the completion of his tenure by writing to President or may be removed by a
resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed by a simple majority of all the then members of the House and
agreed to by a simple majority of the Lok Sabha.
FUNCTIONS OF THE VICE-PRESIDENT
The duties of the Vice-President are two-fold:-

1. He is the ex-officio chairman of the Rajya Sabha and
2. He acts for the President when the office of the President is vacant.
Even when the President is ill or otherwise unable to perform his duties, the Vice-
President acts for him.
POSITION OF VICE-PRESIDENT
There is no doubt that the office of the Vice-President of India is next to the office of the
President of India. But the Vice-President of India does not exercise any important and real powers.
Therefore, the office of the Vice-President of India is not of any great importance.
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UNION LEGISLATURE
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
The word 'Parliament' is derived from the French word 'Parler' which means 'to talk'.
The term connotes a place where people sit and discuss national and international problems
and enact legislation for their country.
THE UNION PARLIAMENT
THE PRESIDENT THE TWO HOUSES
THE HOUSE OF PEOPLE THE COUNCIL OF STATES

(LOK SABHA) (RAJYA SABHA)
The Union Parliament of India consists of the President and the two Houses known as the
House of people and the Council of states. The House of people is the Lower chamber where as the
council of states is the upper chamber of the house of parliament.
The Rajya Sabha is composed many of representatives of the states elected by the State
Assemblies. The Lok Sabha is composed of directly elected representatives on the basis of adult
franchise and territorial constituencies. The President is an integral part of the parliament.
Under the Constitution of India, the legislature of the Union is called Parliament is the pivot
on which the political system of the country revolves.
THE HOUSE OF PEOPLE (LOK SABHA)
The House of people is known as the 'Lower House' of Parliament or the ‘Lok Sabha’
Its members are elected directly by the people.
Composition of Lok Sabha
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530 MEMBERS CHOSEN NOT MORE TWO

BY DIRECT ELECTION THAN 20 MEMBERS
FROM TERRITORIAL MEMBERS TO OF THE 552
CONSTITUENCIES IN REPRESENT ANGLO- MEMBERS
THE STATES
UNION INDIAN,
TERRITORIES COMMUNITY
MAYBE
NOMINATED
BY THE
PRESIDENT
Under the Constitution, not more than 530 members are to be chosen by direct election from
territorial constituencies in the states, and not more than 20 members to represent the union
Territories.
In addition, two members of the Anglo-Indian, community maybe nominated by the
President, if he is of the opinion that the community is not adequately represented in the Lok Sabha.
Thus the maximum strength of the House envisaged in the constitution is thus 552.
The total elected strength of the Lok Sabha is distributed among the states in such a way that the ratio
between the number of seats and the population of any state is as far as possible the same for all
states. At present the Lok Sabha consists of 545 members.
Direct Election: The election to the Lok Sabha is conducted on the basis of adult franchise where
every man or woman who has completed the age of 18 years is eligible to vote. The Constitution
provides for secret ballot. According to the present system, a candidate who secures the largest
number of votes is declared elected.
Duration of the Lok Sabha:

Lok Sabha has been provided with a fixed term as in the case of the popularly elected House of
Representatives in the United States of America and the House of commons in the United Kingdom.
The term of the Lok Sabha in India is five years from the date appointed for its first meeting.
The expiration of the period of five years operates as its dissolution. The Lok Sabha may be
dissolved before the expiration of its full term under certain circumstances, when a proclamation of
Emergency is in force, the term of Lok Sabha can be extended by Parliament for a period not exceeding
one year at a time and not exceeding in any case a period of six months after the proclamation has
ceased to operate.
Qualifications for membership:
According to Article 84 of the Constitution, following are the qualifications for the
membership of Lok Sabha. A candidate must be-
(a) a citizen of India;
(b) have attained the age of twenty five years and
(c) must possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed by the parliament. A person
holding an office of profit is disqualified from becoming a member of the House.
Sessions:
The Lok Sabha shall meet at least twice a year and the interval between two consecutive
sessions shall be less than six months. The time and place of meeting will be decided by the President
who will summon the House to meet. He has also the power to prorogue the House.
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The Lok Sabha can also be summoned in a special session for disapproving the
proclamation under Article 352, if a notice in writing signed by not less than one-tenth of the
members of the Lok Sabha is given to the speaker. When such a notice is given the President must
summon the session within 14 days.
THE COUNCIL OF STATES (RAJYA SABHA)
The Rajya Sabha is the 'Upper House' of Parliament and is sometimes called the 'House of Elders'.
Composition of Rajya Sabha (Article 80):
TWELVE MEMBERS TO NOT MORE THAN

BE NOMINATED BY THE TWO HUNDRED
PRESIDENT HAYING AND THIRTY-EIGHT 250
SPECIAL KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATIVES MEMBERS
OR PRACTICAL OF THE STATES
EXPERIENCE IN RESPECT AND OF THE UNION
OF LITERATURE, TERRITORIES.
SCIENCE, ART AND
SOCIAL SERVICE
The present strength of the Rajya Sabha is 245 of these, 233 are elected by the various
State Legislative Assemblies, thus making the Rajya Sabha predominantly an indirectly elected
body.
Indirect Election:
Whereas the Lok Sabha is directly elected on the basis of adult suffrage for five years, the
Rajya Sabha is indirectly elected on a proportional representation basis by the state Legislatures.
For the purpose of this election to each State is allotted a certain number of seats in the Rajya Sabha.
The main basis of such allotment is the strength of the population in each State. The members
of each State Legislative Assembly from the electorate for the purpose of electing the requisite number
of members allotted to each state thus ensuring the principle of State representation in the 'upper
chamber' of parliament.
Another principle that is given recognition in the composition of the Rajya Sabha is
representation of talent, experience and service. The method of proportional representation helps
better representation of minorities.
Term of Upper House i.e. Rajya Sabha:

The Rajya Sabha enjoys a continuity of life. Under the Constitution, the Rajya Sabha cannot be
dissolved. The term of the members of the Rajya Sabha is six years and in this respect it resembles the
senate of the United States whose members are also chosen for six years.
In fact, the Rajya Sabha is a permanent body like the American Senate, one third of the
members of the Rajya Sabha retire after every two years.
Chairman and Deputy-Chairman of the Rajya Sabha-

The Vice-President of India is ex-officio chairman of the Rajya Sabha. He is elected by an
electoral college consisting of the members of both the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha.
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While the office of the chairman is vacant, or during any period when the Vice- President acts
as the President of India or discharges the functions of the President, the duties of the chairman of the
Rajya Sabha are performed in the Deputy Chairman.
The Rajya Sabha also has a panel of members called Vice-Chairman' nominated by the chairman for
the purpose of presiding over the Rajya Sabha in the absence of both the Chairman and Deputy
Chairman.
POWERS OF THE PARLIAMENT
LEGISLATIVE POWERS
The Parliament is mainly a law-making organ. It can make laws on all the matters specified in
the Union list and Concurrent list of the Seventh Schedule.
The State list is beyond the jurisdiction of the Union Parliament; but under certain
circumstances it can also make laws on the subjects enumerated under this list. When the President
has declared an emergency, the Parliament gets power to make law on the State list in normal times.
The Parliament can make laws on the State lists if:
(a) The Council of States has declared by a resolution supported by not less than two-third of its
members present and voting that it is necessary and expedient in the national interests that
the Parliament should make laws with respect to any particular matter specified in the State
list.
(b) Two or more States request the Parliament to make a law on a particular subject for them;
(c) Such a law is necessary for implementing any treaty, agreement or convention with any other
country or countries or any decision made at any international conference, association or such
other body.
EXECUTIVE POWERS
Under a Parliamentary Government, there being no strict separation of powers, the legislative
organ controls the executive organ. The Parliament exercises control over the executive through
numerous measures. It can move adjournment motions and can thereby bring to light the omissions
and commissions of the administration.
It can put questions to the executive to elicit any information regarding administration. It can
appoint investigation committees to go into any aspect of administration. In extreme cases, the
Parliament can get rid of by passing a motion of no-confidence against it.
FINANCIAL POWERS
The Parliament controls the union purse. No taxes can be levied and no expenditure can be
made by the Government without its approval. It determines the financial policy of the country.
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CONSTITUENT POWERS
The Parliament has the power to amend the Constitution. It is worthy of note that while
certain provisions of the Constitution may be amended without the consent of the States, none of the
provisions can be amended without the approval of the Parliament.
There are some provisions of the Constitution which the Parliament can amend by a simple
majority while certain others it can amend by a two-third majority. There are only a few matters
which require the consent of the units.
DELIBERATIVE POWERS
The Parliament is also a debating assembly. It is the place where national questions are
debated upon and policies are formulated. It is here that the actions of Government are reviewed and
criticised. The discussion in the Parliament attracts the attention of the entire country and compels the
Government to its intentions and policies.
MISCELLANEOUS POWERS
The Parliament constitutes a part of the electoral college to elect the President of India. It
alone elects the Vice-President. It has the power to impeach the President.
It can recommend to the President the removal of other high officers of the State including the
judges of the Supreme Court. Finally, the proclamation of Emergency by the President is subject to the
approval of the parliament.
DISQUALIFICATIONS
FOR THE MEMBERSHIP
OF PARLIAMENT
(a) No person shall be member of both the Houses of the Parliament.
(b) No person shall be member of the Parliament and a State Assembly. The disqualification for
the membership of Parliament is different thing from the disqualification for the membership.
A person shall be disqualified for being chosen as a member of either House of Parliament—
(c) If he holds an office of profit under the Govt. of India or the Government of any State.
(d) If he is of unsound mind and stands so declared by a competent court.
(e) If he is an undicharged insolvent.
(f) If he is not a citizen of India.
(g) If he acquires citizenship of any other State.
(h) he shows allegiance to any other State.
(i) If he is disqualified under any law made by the Parliament.
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If any question arises as to disqualification of a member, the decision of President shall be final.
Article 74 of the Constitution of India provides that there would be a Council of Ministers with the
Prime Minister as its head to aid and advise the President of the Indian Union in discharging his
duties.
The Prime Minister is appointed by the President who also appoints other ministers on the
advice of the Prime Minister.
The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. It is the duty of the
Prime Minister to communicate to the President all decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to
administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation and information relating to
them.
The Council of Ministers comprises of ministers who are in three categories-
 CABINET MEMBERS- Each member of the cabinet handles an independent charge of a
department.
 MINISTERS OF STATE- They are also the ministers of the cabinet rank and help in discharging
the duties of cabinet ministers.
 DEPUTY MINISTERS- They are the ministers of the lower rank and work under the state
ministers.
THE PRIME MINISTER
The Constitution of India provides that there shall be a Council of Ministers to assist the President
in discharging his duties. The Prime Minister of India heads the Council of Ministers.
He is the leader of the party that enjoys a majority in the Lok Sabha. While the President of
India is the head of the State, the Prime Minister is the head of the Government.
APPOINTMENT- The leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha is appointed as the Prime Minister
by the President. The President is the Constitutional head of the Union executive and the Prime
Minister is the real head.
FUNCTIONS-
(a) He selects other ministers, who are appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime
Minister.
(b) He presides over cabinet meetings.
(c) He is the link between the President and the Cabinet It is the Prime Minister who keeps the
President informed of the decisions of the Council of Ministers.
(d) He guides the ministers and coordinates the policies of various departments and ministries.
(e) He is the leader of the Lok Sabha in Parliament.
(f) He is the Chairman of the Planning Commission.
(g) He is the Chief confidential advisor to the President.
Term of the office-The term does not exceed five years. He may also be removed from his office when
his party loses majority in Lok Sabha.
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Resignation- If the government is defeated in the Lok Sabha, the Cabinet and the Prime Minister both
have to resign as they are responsible to the Lok Sabha.
MONEY BILL
Article 110 of the Constitution defines Money Bill. It provides that-
(1) For the purpose of this chapter, a Bill shall be deemed to be money bill if it contains only provisions
dealing with all or any of the following matters, namely:-
(a) the imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or regulation of any tax;
(b) the regulation of the borrowing of money or the giving of any guarantee by the Government of
India, or the amendment of the law with respect to any financial obligations undertaken or to
be undertaken by the Government of India;
(c) the custody of the Consolidated Fund or the Contingency Fund of India, the payment of
moneys into or the withdrawal of moneys from any such Fund;
(d) the appropriation of moneys out of the Consolidated Fund of India;
(e) the declaring of any expenditure to be expenditure charged on the Consolidated Fund of India
or the increasing of the amount of any such expenditure;
(f) the receipt of money on account of the Consolidated Fund of India or the public account of
India or the custody or issue of such money or the audit of the accounts of the Union or of a
State; or
(g) any matter incidental to any of the matters specified in sub-clauses (a) to (f).
(2) A Bill shall not be deemed to be a Money Bill by reason only that it provides for the imposition of
fines or other pecuniary penalties, or for the demand or payment of fees for licences or fees for
services rendered, or by reason that it provides for the imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or
regulation of any tax by any local authority or body for local purposes.
(3) If any question arises whether a Bill is a Money Bill or not, the decision of the Speaker of the House
of the People thereon shall be final.
(4) There shall be endorsed on every Money Bill when it is transmitted to the Council of States under
article 109, and when it is presented to the President for assent under article 111, the certificate of the
Speaker of the House of the People signed by him that it is a Money Bill.
Procedure in respect of Money Bill-

A Money Bill shall not be introduced in the Council of States except on the recommendation of the
President.
After a Money Bill has been passed by the house of the People it shall be transmitted to the
Council of States for its recommendation and the Council of States shall within a period of fourteen
days from the date of its receipt return the Bill to the House of the People with its recommendations
and the House of the People may thereupon either accept or reject all or any of the recommendations
of the Council of States. If the House of the People accepts any of the recommendations of the Council
of States, the Money Bill shall be deemed to have been passed by both Houses with the amendments
recommended by the Council of States and accepted by the House of the People
If the House of the People does not accept any of the recommendation, of the Council of States,
the Money Bill shall be deemed to have been passed by both the Houses in the form in which it was
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passed by the House of the People without any of the amendments recommended by the Council of
States.
If a Money Bill is passed by the House of the People and transmitted to the Council of States for
its recommendations is not returned to the House of the People within the said period of fourteen
days, it shall be deemed to have been passed by both Houses at the expiration of the said period in the
form in which it was passed by the House of the People. [Art. 109]
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORDINARY BILL AND MONEY BILL
ORDINARY BILL MONEY BILL
Articles 107 & 108 deal with Ordinary Bills. Articles 109 and 110 deal with Money Bills
An Ordinary Bill can be introduced any of the A Money Bill can only be introduced in the
Houses of Parliament. Lok Sabha.
An ordinary Bill can be introduced only with the The Money Bill can be introduced without
recommendation of b President. the recommendations of the President.
A dead-lock may occur. No deadlock occurs
A Joint session of Houses may be 'lied to resolve Joint session of the Houses is not necessary.
the dead-look.
When a Bill is passed in one House and it is sent A Money Bill is always passed by Lok Sabha.
to the other House for passing, the other House Thereafter it is sent to Rajya Sabha for
may keep that Bill for six months with it. recommendations. It can keep only for 14
days.
The House has to oblige the recommendations of Lok Sabha may consider or may not consider
the other House. the recommendations of the Rajya Sabha
pertaining to Money Bills.
Certificate from the Speaker’s not necessary. The Speaker has to give a certificate for the
Money Bill.
THE UNION JUDICIARY

THE SUPREME COURT
In a democratic set-up like India, judiciary is the supreme authority in the sense that it is the
guardian of the Constitution and the rights of the citizens. Also, it has been vested with the duty to
strike a balance between the central government and the governments of the federating units, other
pillars of the democracy. Therefore, existence of an independent and impartial judiciary is an essential
pre-requisite of a federal form of government. It acts as the custodian of democracy and the guardian
of the rights and liberties of the people.
Unlike other federal systems, we do not have separate hierarchies of federal and state courts.
For the entire Republic of India, there is one unified judicial system- one hierarchy of courts- with the
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Supreme Court as the highest or the apex court. Then there are High Courts at the state level and
subordinate courts below them.
The Supreme Court of India consists of the Chief Justice and 30 other judges, appointed by the
president. The Parliament has the power to prescribe the number of judges and no formal amendment
of the constitution is required for this purpose.
Article 124 provides for the establishment and constitution of Supreme Court-
(1) There shall be a Supreme Court of India consisting of a Chief Justice of India and, until Parliament
by law prescribes a larger number, of not more than 30 Judges.
(2) Every Judge of the Supreme Court shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand
and seal after consultation with such of the Judges of the Supreme Court and of the High Courts in the
States as the President may deem necessary for the purpose and shall hold office until he attains the
age of sixty five years:
Provided that in the case of appointment of a Judge other than the Chief Justice, the Chief Justice of
India shall always be consulted:
Provided further that—
(a) a Judge may, by writing under his hand addressed to the President, resign his office;
(b) a Judge may be removed from his office in the manner provided in clause (4).
QUALIFICATIONS AND SALARY
For appointment as a judge of the Supreme Court a person must be-

(a) Must be a citizen of India, and
(b) has been for at least five years a Judge of a High Court or of two or more such Courts in
succession; or
(c) has been for at least ten years an advocate of a High Court or of two or more such Courts in
succession; or
(d) is, in the opinion of the President, a distinguished jurist.
Thus, a non-practicing or an academic lawyer may also be appointed as a judge of the
Supreme Court if he is, in the opinion of the President, a distinguished jurist.
Provision has also been made for the appointment of a judge of a High Court as ad hoc judge of the
Supreme Court and retired judges of the Supreme Court or of High Court to sit and act as judge of the
Supreme Court. The Constitution debars a retired judge of Supreme Court from practicing in any court
of law or before any other authority in India. The salary of the judges is charged upon the Consolidated
Fund of India.
REMOVAL OF JUDGES
The judges of the Supreme Court can be removed from office by the President only after an
address by each house of Parliament supported by more than two thirds majority of members present
and voting has been presented to the President in the same session for removal of the judges on the
ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity.
Oath - Every person appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court before he enters upon his office, takes
an oath before the President or some person appointed in that behalf by him in the form prescribed in
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the Constitution. The Constitution prohibits a person who has hold office as a judge of the Supreme
Court from practicing law before any court in the territory of India (Art 124 (6) and (7)).
The Constitution prohibits a person who has held office as a Judge of the Supreme Court from
practicing or acting as a judge in any court or before any authority within the territory of India. But
under Article 128, the Chief Justice may appoint the retired judges to act as ad hoc judges in the
Supreme Court.
Appointment of ad hoc judges and his qualification-

Article 127 of the Constitution prescribes for the appointment and qualifications of the ad hoc
Judges.
It reads as under-
If at any time there should not be a quorum of the Judges of the Supreme Court available to
hold or continue any session of the Court, the Chief Justice of India may, with the previous consent of
the President and after consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned, request in
writing the attendance at the sittings of the Court, as an ad hoc Judge, for such period as may be
necessary, of a Judge of High Court duly qualified for appointment as a Judge of the Supreme Court to
be designated by the Chief Justice of India.
It shall be the duty of Judge who has been so designated, in priority to other duties of his
Office, to attend the sittings of the Supreme Court at the time and for the period for which his
attendance is required, and while so attending he shall have all the jurisdiction, powers and privileges,
and shall discharge the duties of a Judge of the Supreme Court.
JURISDICTION OF SUPREME COURT
A COURT ORIGINAL APPELLATE ADVISORY WRIT

OF JURISDICTION JURISDICTION JURISDICTION JURISDICTION
(Art. 131) (Art. 143)
RECORD (Art. 132, 133, (Art. 32)
(Art. 129) 134,134A, 136
APPEAL IN APPEAL IN APPEAL IN APPEAL BY

CONSTITUTIONAL CIVIL CASES CRIMINAL SPECIAL
MATTERS (ART. 133) CASES LEAVE (SLP)
(ART. 132) (ART. 134) (ART. 136)
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ORIGINAL JURISDICTION (ARTICLE 131)

This refers to the cases that directly originate in the Supreme Court.
It has original exclusive jurisdiction in any dispute between-
(a) the Government of India and one or more States; or
(b) the Government of India and any State or States on one side and one or more other States on
the other; or
(c) two or more States.
Such a dispute should, however, involve some question of law or fact on which the existence
or extent of a legal right depends. The treaties concluded between the Centre and the princely states
are excluded from the Court’s original jurisdiction
The President may, however, refer the above mentioned disputes to the Supreme Court
for opinion and the Supreme Court shall, after such hearing as it thinks fit, report to the President its
opinion thereon.
Article 32 empowers the Supreme Court to issue directions or orders in the nature of the writs of
habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari, or any of them, for the
enforcement of fundamental rights. It is to be noted that this jurisdiction is not exclusive. It is
concurrent. High Courts of States have also been granted similar powers.
Art 139 also empowers the Supreme Court with exactly similar powers. It says-
"Parliament, by law, may confer on the Supreme Court, power to issue directions, orders or
writs including writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and
certiorari or any of them.
Under the scheme of the Constitution, Article 131 confers original jurisdiction on the Supreme
Court in regard to a dispute between two States of the Union of India or between one or more States
and the Union of India.
APPELLATE JURISDICTION (ARTICLES 132 TO 136)

This refers to the power of reviewing and revising the orders of lower courts and tribunals. This
jurisdiction extends to both the civil and the criminal appeals from the High Courts under certification
from these courts or, in its absence, permitted by the Supreme Court itself. Normally, these appeals are
in cases involving substantial question of law of general importance or interpretation of the
Constitution or death penalty awarded by a High Court.
The Appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court extends to three branches :

(A) Civil,
(B) Criminal, and
(C) Constitutional.
CIVIL APPELLATE JURISDICTION (ART. 133)

(1) An appeal shall lie to the Supreme Court from any judgment, decree or final order in a civil
proceeding of a High Court in the territory of India if the High Court certifies under article 134A—
(a) that the case involves a substantial question of law of general importance; and
(b) that in the opinion of the High Court the said question needs to be decided by the Supreme
Court.
(2) Notwithstanding anything in article 132, any party appealing to the Supreme Court under clause
(1) may urge as one of the grounds in such appeal that a substantial question of law as to the
interpretation of this Constitution has been wrongly decided.
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(3) Notwithstanding anything in this article, no appeal shall, unless Parliament by law otherwise
provides, lie to the Supreme Court from the judgment, decree or final order of one Judge of a High
Court.
CRIMINAL APPELLATE JURISDICTION(SEC. 134)

According to Article 134 an appeal lies to the Supreme Court from any judgment, final order or
sentence in a criminal proceeding of a High Court in the following two ways-
(1) with a certificate of the High Court, or
(2) without a certificate of the High Court.
(1) With a certificate of the High Court— Under clause (e) an appeal lies to the Supreme Court if the
High Court certifies under Article 134-A (Added by 44th Amendment, 1978) that it is a fit case for
appeal to the Supreme Court. [Art 134(c)]
Under the new Art. 134-A the High Court can grant a certificate for appeal to the Supreme
Court tinder An. 132 either on its own motion or on 'oral' application of the aggrieved party
immediately after passing the judgment, decree, or final order. Prior to this, the High Court does so
only on the application of the aggrieved party. Under new Article (134-A); it can now grant a
certificate on its own motion if it deems fit.
(2) Without a certificate of the High Court— An appeal lies to the Supreme Court without the
certificate of the High Court if the High Court —
(a) has on appeal reversed an order of acquittal of an accused person and sentenced him to
death, or
(b) has withdrawn for trial before itself, any case from any Court subordinate to its authority
and has in such trial convicted the accused person and sentenced him to death. But if the High
Court has reversed the order of conviction and has ordered the acquittal of an accused, no
appeal would lie to the Supreme Court.
POWER OF PRESIDENT TO CONSULT SUPREME COURT

(ADVISORY JURISDICTION)(Art. 143)
(1) If at any time it appears to the President that a question of law or fact has arisen, or is likely to
arise, which is of such a nature and of such public importance that it is expedient to obtain the opinion
of the Supreme Court upon it, he may refer the question to that Court for consideration and the Court
may, after such hearing as it thinks fit, report to the President its opinion thereon.
(2) The President may, notwithstanding anything in the proviso to article 131, refer a dispute of the
kind mentioned in the said proviso to the Supreme Court for opinion and the Supreme Court shall,
after such hearing as it thinks fit, report to the President its opinion thereon.
The use of the word 'may' in Art.143(1) indicates that the Supreme Court is not bound to
answer a reference made to it by the President.
SUPREME COURT AS A COURT OF RECORD (ART. 129)

The Supreme Court shall be a Court of record and shall have all powers of such a Court, including the
power to punish for contempt of itself. As a Court of record it has the power to punish those who are
adjudged as guilty of contempt of court.
APPEAL BY SPECIAL LEAVE (SEC. 136)

This power has been conferred upon the Supreme Court by Article 136. It may, in its discretion, grant
special leave to appeal from any judgments, decree, determination, sentence or order in any cause or
matter passed or made by any court or tribunal in the territory of India.
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WRIT JURISDICTION (ART. 32)
The Supreme Court is the guardian of the individual liberties and fundamental rights. It has the
power to declare a law passed by any legislature null and void if it encroaches upon the fundamental
rights guaranteed to the people by the Constitution. For the enforcement of fundamental rights, it can
issue writs in the nature of Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Certiorari, Prohibition and Qua-Warranto.
Besides the above mentioned powers, the Supreme Court has the power of judicial review under
Art.13. It implies the power to review and determine validity of a law or an order. It refers to "the
power of a court to inquire whether a law, executive order or other official action conflicts with the
written Constitution, and if the court concludes that it does, to declare it unconstitutional and void".
However, the Indian Constitution does not in so many words assign the power of judicial
review to the court. There are several specific provisions in the Constitution, which guarantee judicial
review of legislation such as Articles 13, 32, 131-136, 143, 226, 145, 246, 251, 254 and 372.
Apart from these Articles, the power of judicial review is derived from the position of Supreme
Court as the guardian of the Constitution.
The court can challenge the constitutional validity of a law on the following grounds:
(a) the subject matter of the legislation is not within competence of the legislature which
has passed it;
(b) It is repugnant to the provisions of the Constitution; or
(c) It infringes one of the fundamental rights.
The power of judicial review, in general, flows from the powers of the courts to interpret the
Constitution. As such it has the final say in the interpretation of the Constitution and by such
interpretation; the Supreme Court has extended its power of judicial review to almost all the provi-
sions of the Constitution.
The limitations on the power of judicial review of the Supreme Court:

Under Article 137, the Supreme Court has expressly been given the power to review its
judgment. However, this is subject to any law passed by the Parliament. This power is exercisable
under rules made by the Court under Article 145, on grounds mentioned in Order 47, Rule 1 of C. P. C.,
a review will lie in the Supreme Court on-
(1) Discovery of new and important matter or evidence;
(2) Mistake or error apparent on the face of the record; and
(3) Any other sufficient reason.
Article 141 of the Constitution provides that the judgment of the Supreme Court will be binding on all
Courts in India.
MAINTENANCE OF INDEPENDENCE OF JUDICIARY

Only an impartial and independent judiciary can protect the rights of the individual and
provide equal justice without force and fear. It is very necessary that the Supreme -Court should be
allowed to function without fear and political pressure. There must be security of tenure of the judges,
no alteration in the salaries during the term of their office etc. to enable a judge to administer justice
freely.
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The Constitution has made the following provisions to ensure the independence of judiciary—
(a) Security of Tenure—The Judges of the Supreme Court have security of tenure. They cannot be
removed from their office except by an order of the President and that also on the ground of
proved misbehaviour or incapacity supported by a resolution adopted by a majority of total
membership of each House and also by a majority of not less than 2/3 of the members of the
House present and voting. Parliament may, however, regulate the procedure for presentation
of the address and for investigation and proof of misbehaviour or incapacity of a Judge. But
Parliament cannot misuse this power because the special procedure for their removal must be
followed.
(b) Salaries etc. are fixed—The salaries of the Judges of the Supreme Court and High Court are
fixed by the Constitution and charged on the Consolidated Fund of India. They are not subject
to vote of legislature. During the term of their office, their salaries and allowances cannot be
altered to their disadvantage except in grave financial emergency.
(c) Jurisdiction of Supreme Court not to be curtailed—In respect of its jurisdiction, Parliament
may change pecuniary limit for appeals to the Supreme Court, confer supplementary power to
enable it to work more effectively, confer power to issue directions, orders or writs including
all the prerogative writs for any purpose other than those mentioned in Art. 132. In this
respect, the Parliament can extend but cannot curtail die jurisdiction of Supreme Court.
(d) No discussion in Legislature—Neither in Parliament nor in a State Legislature a discussion

can take place with respect to the conduct of a Judge of the Supreme Court in discharge of his
duties.
(e) Appointment of Judges—The Constitution does not leave the appointment of the Judges of
the Supreme Court to the unguided discretion of the Executive. The Executive is required to
consult Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts in the appointment of the Judges of the
Supreme Court.
Thus the position of the Supreme Court is very strong and its independence is adequately guaranteed.
104
UNIT-V
STATE EXECUTIVE, LEGISLATURE AND JUDICIARY
8. STATE EXECUTIVE - GOVERNOR

9. STATE LEGISLATURE – VIDHAN SABHA – VIDHAN PARISHAD
10. STATE JUDICIARY – HIGH COURT
THE STATE EXECUTIVE: GOVERNOR

Government at the State is the same as that for the Union, that is, a Parliamentary system. The head of
the states is called the Governor, who is the constitutional head of the state as the President is for the
whole of India.
The Governor is usually a distinguished elder states man, who can discharge his rather
perfunctory duties with dignity and who is on a position to exercise what Gandhi called an "all
pervading moral influence”.
The Governor of a state has a dual role to play-
(a) as the constitutional head of the state and
(b) as the agent or representative of the centre.
As per Art. 157, no person shall be eligible for appointment as Governor unless-
 he is a citizen of India and
 has completed the age of 35 years
 The Governor of a State shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and
seal [Art.155].
 Subject to the pleasure of the President, he shall hold office for a term of 5 years and on the
expiry of such period continues to hold it until his successor enters upon his office.
 The appointment may terminate either upon dismissal by the President or on resignation
addressed to President by the Governor. [Art.156].
 The Governor shall not be a member of either House of Parliament or of the Legislature of any
State and if any such member is appointed as Governor, his seat as such member shall be
deemed to have been vacated on the date on which he enters upon his office as Governor.
 He shall not hold any other office of profit.
 He shall be entitled without payment of any rent to the use of his official residence and shall
also be entitled to such emoluments, allowances and privileges as may be determined by
Parliament by law, and, until provision in that behalf is so made, such emoluments, allowances
and privileges as are specified in the Second Schedule of the Constitution.
 The emoluments and allowances of the Governor shall not be diminished during his term of
office. [Art.158]
THE POWERS OF THE GOVERNOR OF A STATE

 It is the duty of the Governor that the Government should function according to Constitution.
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 He may recommend to the President for President's rule in the State and, according to Art.
356, "If the president, on receipt of a report from the Governor or otherwise is satisfied that a
situation has arisen in which the Government of the State cannot be carried on in accordance
with the provisions of this Constitution, he may issue a proclamation. By that proclamation the
President may assume to himself all or any of the powers vested in or exercisable by the
Governor or anybody or authority in the State”.
 The Governor is to report to the President that a situation has arisen in which the Government
of the State cannot be carried out in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. Such a
report may sometimes be against a Ministry in power, for example, if it attempts to misuse its
power to subvert the Constitution. It is clear that in such casa, the report cannot be made
according to ministerial advice. Moreover no such advice will be available where a ministry
has resigned and another alternative ministry cannot be formed. Thus, in making report to the
President under Art. 356, the Governor exercises his discretion.
 The Ministers of the State hold office during the pleasure of the Governor. The fact that each
holds his office at the Governor's pleasure indicates that his office is at all times at the Chief
Minister's disposal, for in these matters the Governor, like the King in England, acts on the
advice of the Chief-Minister. Moreover for the effective realisation of the rule of Collective
Responsibility of the Council of Ministers it is necessary that no person should be nominated to
the cabinet except on the advice of the Chief Minister. Secondly no person should be retained
as a member of the cabinet if the Chief-Minister says that he should be dismissed.
 The Governor in terms of Article 156 of the Constitution holds office during the pleasure of the
President.
Dissolution of the Legislative Assembly(Art. 174)

The Governor summons, prorogues and dissolves the Legislative Assembly. In normal
circumstances the Legislative Assembly is not dissolved by the Governor, till the expiry of its normal
tenure of five years. But where ministry has lost the majority and no alternate stable ministry is
possible, he may dissolve the House.
The Governor is not bound to accept the advice of the defeated Ministry to dissolve the house.
In this case he can act according to his discretion. He may or may not dissolve the House. Thus it is
clear that the Governor can dissolve the Legislative Assembly in his discretion. Therefore the Governor
has constitutional power in dismissing a Council of Ministers on his subjective satisfaction that the
Government has lost its majority in the Legislative Assembly and he can very well invite any person to
form the Government.
According to Article 164, the ministers shall hold office during the pleasure of the Governor.
This does not mean that the Governor can dismiss his ministers at any time at his sweet will. The
expression 'during the pleasure' under a Parliamentary form of Government means the confidence of
the majority in the Legislature. He is to exercise his pleasure in accordance with the advice of the
Council of Ministers. This follows from the provision in Article 164(2) which makes the Council of
Ministers collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly of the State. This means that till a
ministry enjoys the confidence of the majority in the Lower House, the Governor should not dismiss it.
THE POSITION OF THE GOVERNOR IN RELATION

TO HIS COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
In general, the relation between the Governor and his ministers is the same as that between
the President and his ministers, with this important difference that ,while the Constitution does not
106
empower the President to exercise any functions 'in his discretion' it authorises the Governor to
exercise some functions 'in his discretion'. [Article 163(1)].
In the exercise of his discretionary pourers the Governor is not required to act on the advice of
Chief Minister or even to seek his advice. The Constitution does not define as to what are the
discretionary powers of the Governor. This raises an important question whether the Governor like
the President is merely a constitutional head or whether he has some real powers. This suspicion is
however unfounded in view of the Parliamentary system of Government adopted in the Constitution.
When a Cabinet, collectively responsible to the Legislature, is to give advice to the Governor in the
discharge of his functions, occasions are almost non-existent from him to act contrary to the advice of
the Cabinet.
In the time of crisis, the Governor can effectively and constitutionally utilize the provision and
act in his discretion particularly in cases where there might be a conflict between the Governor and his
Council on any issue. In view of the responsibility of the Governor to the President, one of the act that
"the Governor's decision as to whether he should act in his discretion in any particular matter is final",
it would be possible for the Governor to act without the advice of his Cabinet even though they are not
specifically mentioned in the Constitution as discretionary functions.
Thus the Governor may exercise, in exceptional circumstances his own discretionary powers in—
(i) The appointment of the Chief Minister ;
(ii) the dismissal of Ministry ;
(iii) the dissolution, prorogation and suspension of the Legislative Assembly; and
(iv) advising the President for the proclamation of emergency.
POSITION OF THE GOVERNOR IN RELATION TO THE PRESIDENT
The powers of the Governor are analogous to those of the President with certain significant
differences. The President is elected to his office, while the Governors are appointed by the President
and hold office during his pleasure and may be dismissed from office by him whereas the President
may be removed from office only through impeachment.
The President addresses his resignation to the Vice-President. The term of office is the same
for the President as for a Governor. The oath of office is more or less alike, but not identical.
The Powers of the Governor can be discussed under the following four heads-
EXECUTIVE POWERS
 The executive power of the State is vested in the Governor to be exercised by him either
directly or through the officer’s sub-ordinate to him [Art. 154].
 All executive actions of a State shall be expressed to be taken in his name [Art.164]
 The executive power of a State shall extend to matters in respect to which the Legislature of
the State has power to make laws.
 In any matter with respect to which both the Legislature of a State and Parliament have power
to make laws & if it is a matter mentioned in the Concurrent List, the executive power of the
State shall be subject to and limited by the executive power conferred by the Constitution or by
any law made by Parliament upon the Union or authorities thereof. [Art. 162]
 The Government appoints the Chief Minister and other Ministers on his advice, and the Council
of Ministers hold office during his pleasure but the Council of Ministers is collectively
responsible to the State Legislature or to the Lower House of such Legislature where the
107
Legislature consists of two Chambers. This makes the Governor constitutional head like the
President and determines the character of' State Government of Executive as a Parliamentary
Government of Executive.
LEGISLATIVE POWERS
The most important Legislative power or the Governor is his ordinance making
power, This Ordinance making power is similar to that of the President. Under Article 123, whenever
the Legislature is not in session and if the Government is satisfied that circumstances exist which
require him to take immediate action, he may legislate by Ordinance, however the Governor cannot
issue an Ordinance without previous instruction from the President in case in which–
(a) Bill would have required his previous sanction, or
(b) required to be reserved under the Constitution for the assent of the President.
FINANCIAL POWERS
A money bill cannot be introduced in the Legislative Assembly of the State without the
recommendation of the Governor. No demand of grants can be made except on the recommendation of
the Governor. The Governor is required to cause to be laid before the House or Houses of the
Legislature the annual financial statement, known as Budget.
JUDICIAL POWERS
The Governor of a State is empowered to grant pardon, reprieve, respite, or remission, of

punishment or to suspend, remit or commute the sentence in respect of any offence against any law
relating to a matter to which the executive power of the State extends. [Art. 161].
The power of granting pardon under Article 161 is very wide and does not contain any
limitation as to the time on which and the occasion on which and the circumstances in which the said
power could be exercised. But the said power being a constitutional power is subject to judicial review
on certain limited grounds. The Court, therefore, would be justified in interfering with an order passed
by the Governor in exercise of power under Article 161 of the Constitution, if the Governor is found to
have exercised the power himself without being advised by the Government or if the Governor
transgresses the jurisdiction in exercising the same or it is established that the Governor has passed
the order without the application of mind or the order in question is a malafide one or the Governor
has passed the order on some extraneous consideration.
Governors do not have diplomatic, military and emergency powers which the President has.
The Governor of Assam has certain discretionary powers in tribal affairs in which he is not required to
act according to the advice of his Ministers.
The President also has certain discretionary powers. The executive powers of the Governor is
subject to and limited in some respects by the executive power of the President to whom the Governor
is required to report situation requiring the proclamation of emergency.
The President and the Governors have all got the power to veto legislation by withholding
their assent to it.
108
According to Article 163(1) there shall be a Council of Ministers with the Chief Minister at the
head to 'aid and advise' the Governor. The Council of Ministers in the State is constituted and functions
in the same way as the Union Cabinet.
The Chief Minister is appointed by the Governor. As a matter of a well established convention
it is the leader of the Legislative Assembly who should be appointed as the Chief Minister. Thus in
normal circumstances the choice of the Governor is limited to the leader of the majority party.
But there may be circumstances where the Governor would have to exercise his discretion in
selecting the Chief Minister. The other ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the
Chief Minister. In the appointment of other ministers the Chief Minister has the final say because it is
the Chief Minister who has to run the Government. This is, indeed, necessary in order to ensure the
successful operation of the rule of collective responsibility.
The Governor may appoint a person as a Chief Minister or a Minister who is not a member of
either House of the State Legislature. But he must be elected to the House of State Legislature within
the period of six months. If he does not become member of the Legislature within the six months of his
appointment as Chief Minister or Minister he will cease to be Chief Minister or Minister. Before a
Minister enters upon his office, the Governor is to administer to him the prescribed oath of office and
secrecy.
A person convicted of criminal offence and sentenced to more than two years of
imprisonment cannot be appointed as Chief Minister.'
According to Article 164(1), the ministers shall hold office during the 'pleasure' of the Governor. But
this pleasure is to be exercisable by the, Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. This follows
from Clause (2) of Article 164 which says that the Council of Ministers shall be collectively
responsible to the Legislative Assembly of the State.
Till the ministry enjoys the confidence of the Lower House of a State, the Governor is bound to
accept the advice of the Chief Minister. Indeed, it would be strange that a ministry responsible for its
acts and policies to the legislature can be dismissed by the Governor. This means that a minister holds
office during the pleasure of the Chief Minister. The Governor is bound to dismiss a Minister as and
when advised by the Chief Minister. It is only then that the smooth functioning of the principle of
collective responsibility can be maintained.
Article 167(a) says that it is the duty of Chief Minister of State to communicate all decisions of the
Council of Ministers relating to the administration of the State and proposals for legislation. If the
Governor asks him to furnish such information it is the duty of the Chief Minister to do so. The Chief
Minister, if required by the Governor, will also submit for consideration of the cabinet any matter on
which a decision has been taken by a Minister which has not been considered by the cabinet.
Article 167(c) further strengthens the rule of collective responsibility and gives power to the Chief
Minister to review the decision taken by any minister individually. When a decision is taken by any
minister without reference to the cabinet, Governor may require it to be considered by the cabinet.
The Governor cannot override a decision of Minister. If the cabinet stands behind him the
minister remains and the Governor is bound to accept his decision. If, however, the cabinet does not
uphold his decision he will have to quit the ministry. If he insists to remain he will be dismissed by the
Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. It is a safeguard which ensures the working of the
109
principle of collective responsibility and the power of the Chief Minister and not a power which
interferes with the Government.
STATE LEGISLATURE
The Legislative Assembly

1) For every State there shall be a Legislative Assembly which shall consist of the Governor; and
(a) in the State of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu and Uttar Pradesh, two Houses,
(b) in other States, one House.
2) Where there are two Houses of the Legislature of a State, one shall be known as the Legislative
Council and the other as the Legislative Assembly, and where there is only one House, it shall
be known as the Legislative Assembly. [Art. 168]
The Legislative Assembly shall consist of members elected by the major people of the State.
The territorial constituencies shall be so arranged that there shall be not more than one representative
for every 75000 of the population. The total number of members in the assembly shall be not more
than 500 & not less than 60 according to the population of the State. There shall be a proportionately
equal representation in respect of each territorial constituency within any particular State. The figures
published at the last census shall be the basis for allotting the number of members for any territorial
constituency. The number and ratio of members shall be readjusted by such authority, in such manner
and with effect from such date as Parliament may by law determine. The duration of the Legislative
Assembly is for a period of 5 years the expiry of which operates as a dissolution of the Assembly. The
Governor may dissolve it earlier.
Legislative Council-
In certain states, legislative council also exists. Generally states which are big in size and
population possess legislative council along with legislative assembly; the legislative council is upper
chamber in the state. It may control, guide or supervise functions of legislative assembly. Generally,
persons of wide experience are nominated to such councils so that those intelligent persons who could
not get them elected may become members of this council.
Composition of the Legislative Councils-

1) The total number of members of the Legislative Council of a State having such a Council shall
not exceed one-third of the total number of members in the Legislative Assembly of that
State:
Provided that the total number of members in the Legislative Council of a State shall in no
case be less than forty.
2) Until Parliament by law otherwise provides, the composition of the Legislative Council of a
State shall be as provided in clause (3).
3) Of the total number of Members of the Legislative Council of a State-

(a) as nearly as may be, one-third shall be elected by electorates consisting of members of
municipalities, district boards and such other local authorities in the State as Parliament may
by law specify.
110
(b) as nearly as may be, one twelfth shall be elected by electorates consisting of persons residing
in the State who have been for at least three years graduates of any university in the territory
of India or have been for at least three years in possession of qualifications prescribed by or
under any law made by Parliament as equivalent to that of a graduate of any such university;
(c) as nearly as may be, one-twelfth shall be elected by electorates consisting of persons who have
been for at least three years engaged in teaching in such educational institutions within the
State, not lower in standard than that of a secondary school, as may be prescribed by or under
any law made by Parliament;
(d) as nearly as may be. one-third shall be elected by the members of the Legislative Assembly of
the State from amongst persons who are not members of the Assembly;
(e) the remainder shall be nominated by the Governor, in accordance with the provisions of clause
(5) ;
4) The members to be elected under sub-clauses (a), (b) and (c) of clause (3) shall be chosen in such
territorial constituencies as may be prescribed by or under any law made by Parliament, and the
elections under the said sub-clauses and under sub-clause (d) of the said clause shall be held in
Accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote.
5) The members to be nominated by the Governor under sub-clause (e) of clause (3) shall consist of
persons having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as the following,
namely—Literature, science, art, co-operative movement and social service. [Art. 171]
DURATION AND RELATIONS BETWEEN

TWO HOUSES OF THE STATE LEGISLATURE
Every Legislative Assembly of every State, unless sooner dissolved, shall continue for five years from
the date appointed for its first meeting and no longer and the expiration of the said period of five years
shall operate as dissolution of the Assembly:
Provided that the said period may, while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation, be extended by
Parliament by law for a period not exceeding one year at a time and not extending in any case beyond
a period of six months after the Proclamation has ceased to operate.
The Legislative Council of a State shall not be subject to dissolution. As nearly as possible one-
third of the members thereof shall retire as soon as limy be on the expiration of every second year in
accordance with the provisions made in that behalf by Parliament by law.
Qualifications for membership[Art. 173]
A person shall not be qualified to be chosen to fill a seat in the Legislature of State unless he:
1) is a citizen of India and makes and subscribes before some person authorized in that behalf by
the Election Commission on an oath or affirmation according to the form set out for the
purpose in the Third Schedule;
2) is in the case of seat in the Legislative Assembly, not less than twenty-five years of age and, is
in the case of seat in the Legislative Council, not less than thirty years of age; and
3) Possesses such other qualifications as may be prescribed in that behalf by or under any law
made by Parliament.
Disqualifications for membership[Art. 191]

1) A person shall not be disqualified for being chosen as, and for being, a member of the
Legislative Council of a State—
111
(a) if he holds any such office of profit under the Government of India or the Government of
any State specified in the First Schedule, as is declared by Parliament by law to disqualify
its holder ;
(b) if Ile is of unsound mind and stands so declared by a competent court;
(c) if he is an undischarged insolvent ;
(d) if he is not a citizen of India or has voluntarily acquired the citizenship of a foreign State or
is under any acknowledgement or allegiance or adherence to a foreign State;
(e) if he is disqualified by or under any law made by Parliament. The necessary qualifications
and disqualifications are prescribed by Parliament in the Representation of the Peoples
Act, 1951.
2) For the purposes of this Article a person shall not be deemed to hold an office of profit under
the Government of India or the Government of any State specified in the first Schedule by
reason only that he is a Minister either for the Union or for such State.
Decision on questions as to disqualifications of members-

The Constitution (44th Amendment) Act, 1978 substituted the old Article 192 as it was prior
to 42nd Amendment Act. 1976. According to the new Article 192(1) if any question arises as to
whether a member of House of the Legislature or a State has become subject to any of the
disqualifications mentioned in clause (I) of Article 191, the question shall be referred for the decision
of Governor and his decision shall be final. (2) Before giving any decision on any such question the
Governor shall consult the Election Commission and the Election Commission may, for this purpose,
made such enquiry as if thinks fit.
STATE JUDICIARY
The High Courts of India: Composition, Appointment of Judges
Article 214 provides that every State has a High Court operating within its territorial
jurisdiction. But the Parliament has the power to establish a common High Court for two or more
States (Article 231).
In India, neither the State executive nor the State Legislature has any power to control the
High Courts or two after its Constitution or organisation. It is only Parliament which can do it. In case
of Union Territories the Parliament may by law extend the jurisdiction of a High Court to or exclude
the jurisdiction of a High Court from any Union Territory, or create a High Court for a Union Territory.
Thus Delhi, a Union Territory, has a separate High Court of its own while the Madras High
Court has jurisdiction over Pondicherry, the Kerala High Court over Lakshadweep and Mumbai High
Court over Dadra and Nagar Haveli, the Kolkata High Court over Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the
Punjab High court over Chandigarh.
Composition of High Courts:
i. Every High Court shall consists of a Chief Justice and such other judges as the President of
India may from time to time appoint.
ii. Besides, the President has the power to appoint
(a) Additional Judges for a temporary period not exceeding two years, for the clearance of
areas of work in a High Court;
(b) an acting judge, when a permanent judge of a High Court (other than Chief Justice) is
temporarily absent or unable to perform his duties or is appointed to act temporarily as
Chief Justice.
112
But neither an additional nor an acting Judge can hold office beyond the age of 62 years age of
retirement raised from 60 to 62.
Appointment and Conditions of Office of a Judge of a High Court:
Every Judge of a High Court shall be appointed by the President. In making the appointment,
the President shall consult the Chief Justice of India, the Governor of the State (and also the Chief
Justice of that High Court in the matter of appointment of a Judge other than the Chief Justice).
Tenure: A Judge of the High Court shall hold office until the age of 62 years. Every Judge, permanent,
additional or acting, may vacate his office earlier in any of the following ways-
(i) by resignation in writing addressed to the President;
(ii) by being appointed a Judge of the Supreme Court or being transferred to any other High
Court, by the President;
(iii) by removal by the President on an address of both Houses of Parliament (supported by the
vote of 2/3 of the members present) on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity,.
The mode of removal of a Judge of the High Court shall thus be the same as that of a judge
of the Supreme Court.
Salary and Allowances of the Judges:

It is provided that the judges of the High Court shall draw such salaries and allowances, as the
Parliament may by law fix from time to time. In addition they will also be entitled to receive other
prescribed allowances.
By providing the expenditure salaries and allowances the judges shall be charged on the
consolidated fund of State. These cannot be reduced except in financial emergency. Nor can the
allowances and rights be varied by Parliament to the disadvantage of a judge during his/her term of
office.
INDEPENDENCE OF JUDGES ENSURED
As in the case of the Judges of the Supreme Court, the Constitution seeks to maintain the indepen-
dence of the Judges of the High Court’s by a number of provisions:-
(i) By laying down that a Judge of the High Court shall not be removed, except in the manner
provided for the removal of a Judge of the Supreme Court (Article 218);
(ii) by providing that the expenditure in respect of the salaries and allowances of the Judges
shall be charged on the Consolidated Fund of the State [Article 202 (3)(d)];
(iii) by specifying in the Constitution the salaries payable to the Judges and providing that the
allowances of a Judge or his rights in respect of absence or pension shall not be varied by
Parliament to his disadvantage after his appointment (Article 221) except under a
Proclamation of Financial Emergency [Article 360 (4)(b)].
(iv) by laying down that after retirement a permanent Judge of High Court shall not plead or act
in a Court or before any authority in India, except the Supreme Court and a High Court
other than the -High Court in which he had held his office (Article 220).
Control of the Union over High Court:
The control of the Union over a High Court in India is exercised in the following matters:
(i) Appointment, (Article 217), transfer from one High Court to another (Article 222) and
removal [Article 217(1)] and determination of dispute as to age of Judges of High Courts
[Article 217 (3)];
(ii) the Constitution and organisation of High Courts and the power to establish a common
High Court for two or more States (Article 231); and
(iii) to extend the jurisdiction of a High Court to, or to exclude it jurisdiction from, a Union
Territory, are all exclusive powers of the Union Parliament (Article 231).
113
Jurisdiction of High Courts:

The constitution does not attempt detailed definitions or classification of the different types of
jurisdiction of the High Courts. It was presumed that the High Court’s which were functioning with
well- defined jurisdiction at the time of the framing of the Constitution would continue with it and
maintain their position as the highest courts in the States. The Constitution, accordingly, provided that
the High Courts would retain their existing jurisdiction and any future law that was to be made by the
Legislatures.
Besides, the original and appellate jurisdiction, the Constitution vested in the High Court’s four
additional powers:
i. The power to issue writs or orders for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights or for any
other purpose;
ii. the power of superintendence over subordinate courts;
iii. the power to transfer cases to themselves pending in the subordinate courts involving
interpretation of the Constitution; and
iv. the power to appoint officers.
(a) Original and Appellate Jurisdiction:
The High Courts are primarily courts of appeal. Only in matters of admiralty, probate,
matrimonial, contempt of Court, enforcement of Fundamental Rights and cases ordered to be
transferred from a lower court involving the interpretation of the Constitution to their own file, they
have original jurisdiction. The High Courts of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras exercise original civil
jurisdiction when the amount involved exceeds specified limit. In criminal cases it extends to case
committed to them by Presidency Magistrates.
On the appeal side they entertain appeals in civil and criminal cases from their subordinate
courts as well as from their original side. For historical reasons and as a result of the specific
provisions in the Government of India Act, 1935, no High Court has any original jurisdiction in any
matter concerning revenue. In 1950 Constitution removed this restriction.
(b) Power of Superintendence and Transfer:
Every High Court has a power of superintendence over all courts and tribunals throughout the
territory in relation to which it exercises jurisdiction, excepting military tribunals [Art. 227]. This
power of superintendence is a very wide power in as much as it extends to all courts as well as
tribunals within the State, whether such court or tribunal is subject to the appellate jurisdiction of the
High Court or not.
Further, this power of superintendence would include a revisional jurisdiction to intervene in
case of gross injustice or non-exercise of abuse of jurisdiction, even though no appeal or revision
against the orders of such tribunal was otherwise available.
However, this jurisdiction of High Court has been taken away in respect of Administrative
Tribunals set up under Article 323A, by the administrative Tribunals Act. 1985. If the High Court is
satisfied that a case pending in a court subordinate to it involves a substantial question of law as to the
interpretation of the Constitution, it may transfer the case of itself.
After the case has come to the file of the High Court, it may dispose of the whole case itself, or
may determine the constitutional questions involved and return the case to the court from which it
has been withdrawn together with a copy of its judgement on such question and direct it to dispose of
the case in conformity with such judgement.
The Constitution, thus, denies to subordinate courts the right to interpret the Constitution so
that there may be the maximum possible uniformity as regards constitutional decisions. It is
accordingly, the duty of the subordinate courts to refer to the High Court a case which involves a
substantial question of law as to the interpretation of the Constitution and the case cannot be disposed
of without the determination of such question. The High Court may also transfer the case to itself upon
the application of the party in the case.
114
(c) Writ Jurisdiction:

Article 226 of the Constitution empowers every High Court, throughout the territories in
relation to its which exercises jurisdiction to issue to any person or authority, including in appropriate
cases, any Government, within those territories, directions, orders or writs, including writs in the
nature of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warrantor and certiorari, or any of them, for the
enforcement of any of the Fundamental Rights and for any other purpose.
The Constitution by Forty-second amendment omitted the provision “for any other purpose”,
but the Forty-fourth amendment has restored it. The peculiarity of this jurisdiction is that being
conferred by the Constitution, it cannot be taken away or abridged by anything short of an amendment
of the Constitution itself.
Although the Supreme Court and the High Courts have concurrent jurisdiction in the
enforcement of Fundamental Rights, the Constitution does not confer to the High Court’s the special
responsibility of protecting Fundamental Rights as the Supreme Court is vested with such a power.
Under Article 32 the Supreme Court is made the guarantor and protector, of Fundamental Rights
whereas in the case of High court the power to enforce Fundamental Rights is part of their general
jurisdiction.
The jurisdiction to issue writs under these Articles is larger in the case of High Court in as
much as while the Supreme Court can issue them only where a fundamental right has been infringed, a
High Court can issue them not only in such cases but also where an ordinary legal right has been
infringed, provided a writ is a proper remedy in such cases, according to well-established principles.
(d) Court of Record:
The High Court is a court of record and has all the powers of such a court including the power to
punish for contempt of itself. The two characteristics of a court of record are that the records of such a
Court are admitted to be of evidentiary value and that they cannot be questioned when produced
before any court and that it has the power to punish for contempt of itself. Neither the Supreme Court
nor the Legislature can deprive a High Court of its power of punishing contempt of itself.
OFFICERS AND SERVANTS AND THE EXPENSES OF HIGH COURTS
Article 229 of the Constitution says:

(a) Appointments of officers and servants of a High Court are made by the Chief Justice of the High
Court.
(b) Subject to the provisions of any law made by the Legislature of the State, the conditions of
service of Officers and servants of a High Court shall be such as may be prescribed by the rules
made by the Chief Justice of the High Court.
(c) The administrative expenses of the High Court including all salaries, allowances, etc. are
charged upon the Consolidated Fund of the State.
115
Class –LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution Law-II
.The Framing of Constitution of India.

Borrowed features of constitution of India
1.From U.K. - Nominal Head – President, Cabinet System of Ministers, Post of PM, Parliamentary Type of Govt.,
Bicameral Parliament, Lower House more powerful, Council of Ministers responsible to Lower House, Provision of
Speaker in Lok Sabha.
2.From U.S.A- W ritten constitution, Appointment of Vice President, Fundamental Rights, Supreme court,
Head of the state known as president, Provision of states, Judicial review
3.From Australia- Concurrent List, Centre-State relationship, Language of the Preamble
4.From USSR- Fundamental Duties, Five year plan
5.From Germ any- Emergency provisions
6.From Japan- Law on which the Supreme Court functions
7.From Canada- Federal System and Residuary powers
8.From South Africa- Procedure of constitutional amendment
9.From Ireland- Concept of Directive Principles of state policy.

29
UNIT-1 ADMINISTRATION OF FRINZ AREA
1 Administration Of Union Territories

2 The Panchayat And Municipalities
3 The Schedule And Tribal Areas
Contains 444 Amendments Article & divided into XV Parts

12 Schedules
2 Appendix
99th amendment 2014.
Part / Chapter Amendments Subject matter

Schedule Article s
I 1-4 The Union and its Territory
II 5-11 Citizenship
III 12-35 Fundamental Rights
IV 36-51 Directive Principles of State Policy
IVA 51A Fundamental Duties
V 52-151 The Union
I 52-78 The Executive – The President and Vice President,
Council of Ministers, The Attorney-General for India,
Conduct of Government Business, Duties of Prime
Minister as respects the furnishing of information to the
President etc.,
II 79-122 Parliament, Conduct of business, Disqualifications of
Members, Legislative procedure etc.
1
III 123 Legislative powers of the President

IV 124-147 The Union Judiciary
V 148-151 Comptroller and Auditor-General of India
VI 152-237 The States
I 152 Definition
II 153-167 The Executive - The Governor, Council of Ministers, The
Advocate-General for the State, Conduct of Government
business, Duties of Chief Minister as respects the
furnishing of information to Governor, etc.
III 168-212 The State Legislature, Disqualification of Members,
Legislative Procedure, etc.
IV 213 Legislative power of the Governor
V 214-232 The High Courts in the States
VI 233-237 Subordinate Courts
VII 238 Repealed
VIII 239-242 The Union Territories – administration, High Courts for
Union Territories etc.
IX 243-243O The Panchayats
IXA 243P-243ZG The Municipalities
X 244-244A The Scheduled and Tribal Areas
XI 245-263 Relations between the Union and the States
I 245-255 Legislative Relations – distribution of legislative powers,
residuary powers of legislation, etc.
II 256-263 Administrative Relations
XII 264-300A Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits
I 264-291 Finance – taxes, grants, finance commission,
recommendations of finance commission, exemption
from taxes etc.
II 292-293 Borrowing – by the Government of India and by States.
III 294-300 Property, Contracts, Rights, Liabilities, Obligations and
Suits and proceedings
IV 300A Right to Property
XIII 301-307 Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within
theterritory of India
XIV 308-323 Services under the Union and the States
I 308-314 Services – recruitment and conditions of service of
persons serving the Union or State,
II 315-323 Public Service Commissions
XIVA 323A-323B Tribunals
XV 324-329A Elections
XVI 330-342 Special Provisions relating to certain Classes- Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes in House of the People etc.,
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
XVII 343-351 Official Language
I 343-344 Language of the Union
II 345-347 Regional Languages
III 348-349 Language of the Supreme Court, High Court etc.
IV 350-351 Special Directives
2
XVIII 352-360 Emergency Provisions

XIX 361-367 Miscellaneous – protection of President, Governors and
Rajpramukhs, abolition of privy purses, special
provisions as to major ports and aerodromes etc.
XX 368 Amendment of the Constitution - Power of Parliament
and procedure therefore
XXI 369-392 Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions
XXII 393-395 Short Title, Commencement, Authoritative text in Hindi
and Repeals
SCHEDULES TO THE CONSTITUTION
No. of Subject matter
Schedule
First I. The States
II. The Union Territories
Second Part A: Provisions as to the President and the Governors
Part B: Omitted
Part C: Provisions as to Speaker, Deputy Speaker etc.
Part D: Provisions as to the Judges of SC and HC
Part E: Provisions as to Comptroller and Auditor-General of India
Third Forms of Oaths or Affirmations
Fourth Allocation of seats in the Council of States
Fifth Provisions as to the Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled
Tribes (contains Parts A, B, C and D)
Sixth Provisions as to Administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya,
Tripura and Mizoram
Seventh List I : Union List (97 subjects)
List II : State List (66 subjects)
List III : Concurrent List (47 subjects)
Eighth Languages (18 languages
Ninth Validation of Acts and Regulations though inconsistent with Part III of the
Constitution.
Tenth Provisions as to Disqualification on Ground of Defection.
Eleventh Powers, Authority and Responsibilities of Panchayat
Twelfth Powers, Authority and Responsibilities of Municipality
APPENDIX
I The Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 1954
II Re-statement, with reference to the present text of the Constitution, of the
exceptions and modifications subject to which the Constitution applies to the State
of Jammu and Kashmir
1. Introduction
The part II of Constitution of India has 395 articles, 98 th amendment and 12 schedules. This part of
Constitution giving an explanation about the federal structure, 3 rd form of government, 42nd
amendment 1976 (Art 300-A Right to Property) election process and adult suffrage, emergencies
provision, employment, trade, commerce and intercourse and amendment. This note is divided into 5
units from Administration of union territories to amendment.
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Part VIII of India Constitution dealing with the union territories Amendments Article 239-242
239. Administration of Union territories.-
(1) Save as otherwise provided by Parliament by law, every Union territory shall be administered by
the President acting, to such extent as he thinks fit, through an administrator to be appointed by him
with such designation as he may specify.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in Part VI, the President may appoint the Governor of a State
as the administrator of an adjoining Union territory, and where a Governor is so appointed, he shall
exercise his functions as such administrator independently of his Council of Ministers.
239A. Creation of local Legislatures or Council of Ministers or both for certain Union
territories.—(1) Parliament may by law create for the Union territory of Pondicherry—
(a) a body, whether elected or partly nominated and partly elected, to function as a Legislature for the
Union territory, or
(b) a Council of Ministers, or both with such Constitution, powers and functions, in each case, as may
be specified in the law.
(2) Any such law as is referred to in clause (1) shall not be deemed to be an amendment of this
Constitution for the purposes of Amendments Article 368 notwithstanding that it contains any
provision which amends or has the effect of amending this Constitution.
239AA. Special provisions with respect to Delhi.—(1) As from the date of commencement of
the Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991, the Union territory of Delhi shall be
called the National Capital Territory of Delhi (hereafter in this Part referred to as the National
Capital Territory) and the administrator thereof appointed under Amendments Article 239
shall be designated as the Lieutenant Governor.
(2)(a) There shall be a Legislative Assembly for the National Capital Territory and the seats in such
Assembly shall be filled by members chosen by direct election from territorial constituencies in the
National Capital Territory.
(b) The total number of seats in the Legislative Assembly, the number of seats reserved for Scheduled
Castes, the division of the National Capital Territory into territorial constituencies (including the basis
for such division) and all other matters relating to the functioning of the Legislative Assembly shall be
regulated by law made by Parliament. The National Capital Territory, the Legislative Assembly of the
National Capital Territory and the members thereof as they apply, in relation to a State, the Legislative
Assembly of a State and the members thereof respectively; and any reference in Amendments Article s
326 and 329 to “appropriate Legislature” shall be deemed to be a reference to Parliament.
(3) (a) Subject to the provisions of this Constitution, the Legislative Assembly shall have power to
make laws for the whole or any part of the National Capital Territory with respect to any of the
matters enumerated in the State List or in the Concurrent List in so far as any such matter is applicable
to Union territories except matters with respect to Entries 1, 2 and 18 of the State List and Entries 64,
65 and 66 of that List in so far as they relate to the said Entries 1, 2 and 18.
(b) Nothing in sub-clause (a) shall derogate from the powers of Parliament under this Constitution to
make laws with respect to any matter for a Union territory or any part thereof.
(c) If any provision of a law made by the Legislative Assembly with respect to any matter is repugnant
to any provision of a law made by Parliament with respect to that matter, whether passed before or
after the law made by the Legislative Assembly, or of an earlier law, other than a law made by the
Legislative Assembly, then, in either case, the law made by Parliament, or, as the case may be, such
earlier law, shall prevail and the law made by the Legislative Assembly shall, to the extent of the
repugnancy, be void:
Provided that if any such law made by the Legislative Assembly has been reserved for the
consideration of the President and has received his assent, such law shall prevail in the National
Capital Territory:
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Provided further that nothing in this sub-clause shall prevent Parliament from enacting at any time
any law with respect to the same matter including a law adding to, amending, varying or repealing the
law so made by the Legislative Assembly.
(4) There shall be a Council of Ministers consisting of not more than ten per cent. of the total number
of members in the Legislative Assembly, with the Chief Minister at the head to aid and advise the
Lieutenant Governor in the exercise of his functions in relation to matters with respect to which the
Legislative Assembly has power to make laws, except in so far as he is, by or under any law, required
to act in his discretion: Provided that in the case of difference of opinion between the Lieutenant
Governor and his Ministers on any matter, the Lieutenant Governor shall refer it to the President for
decision and act according to the decision given thereon by the President and pending such decision it
shall be competent for the Lieutenant Governor in any case where the matter, in his opinion, is so
urgent that it is necessary for him to take immediate action, to take such action or to give such
direction in the matter as he deems necessary.
(5) The Chief Minister shall be appointed by the President and other Ministers shall be appointed by
the President on the advice of the Chief Minister and the Ministers shall hold office during the pleasure
of the President.
(6) The Council of Ministers shall be collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly.
(7) (a) Parliament may, by law, make provisions for giving effect to, or supplementing the provisions
contained in the foregoing clauses and for all matters incidental or consequential thereto.
(b) Any such law as is referred to in sub-clause (a) shall not be deemed to be an amendment of this
Constitution for the purposes of Amendments Article 36 notwithstanding that it contains any
provision which amends or has the effect of amending, this Constitution.
(8) The provisions of Amendments Article 239B shall, so far as may be, apply in relation to the
National Capital Territory, the Lieutenant Governor and the Legislative Assembly, as they apply in
relation to the Union territory of Pondicherry, the administrator and its Legislature, respectively; and
any reference in that Amendments Article to “clause (1) of Amendments Article 239A” shall be
deemed to be a reference to this Amendments Article or Amendments Article 239AB, as the case may
be. 239AB. Provision in case of failure of Constitutional machinery.—If the President, on receipt of a
report from the Lieutenant Governor or otherwise, is satisfied—
(a) that a situation has arisen in which the administration of the National Capital Territory cannot be
carried on in accordance with the provisions of Amendments Article 239AA or of any law made in
pursuance of that Amendments Article ; or
(b) that for the proper administration of the National Capital Territory it is necessary or expedient so
to do, the President may by order suspend the operation of any provision of Amendments Article
239AA or of all or any of the provisions of any law made in pursuance of that
Amendments Article for such period and subject to such conditions as may be specified in such law
and make such incidental and consequential provisions as may appear to him to be necessary or
expedient for administering the National Capital Territory in accordance with the provisions of
Amendments Article 239 and Amendments Article 239AA.
239-AB provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery
239B. Power of administrator to promulgate Ordinances during
recess of Legislature.—(1) If at any time, except when the Legislature of the Union territory of
Pondicherry is in session, the administrator thereof is satisfied that circumstances exist which render
it necessary for him to take immediate action, he may promulgate such Ordinances as the
circumstances appear to him to require:
Provided that no such Ordinance shall be promulgated by the administrator except after obtaining
instructions from the President in that behalf:
Provided further that whenever the said Legislature is dissolved, or its functioning remains suspended
on account of any action taken under any such law as is referred to in clause (1) of Amendments
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Article 239A, the administrator shall not promulgate any Ordinance during the period of such
dissolution or suspension.
(2) An Ordinance promulgated under this Amendments Article in pursuance of instructions from the
President shall be deemed to be an Act of the Legislature of the Union territory which has been duly
enacted after complying with the provisions in that behalf contained in any such law as is referred to
in clause (1) of Amendments Article 239A, but every such Ordinance—
(a) shall be laid before the Legislature of the Union territory and shall cease to operate at the
expiration of six weeks from the reassembly of the Legislature or if, before the expiration of that
period, a resolution disapproving it is passed by the Legislature, upon the passing of the resolution;
and
(b) may be withdrawn at any time by the administrator after obtaining instructions from the President
in that behalf.
(3) If and so far as an Ordinance under this Amendments Article makes any provision which would not
be valid if enacted in an Act of the Legislature of the Union territory made after complying with the
provisions in that behalf contained in any such law as is referred to in clause (1) of Amendments
Article 239A, it shall be void.
240. Power of President to make regulations for certain Union territories.—(1) The President
may make regulations for the peace, progress and good government of the Union territory of—
(a) the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; (b) Lakshadweep;
(c) Dadra and Nagar Haveli;
(d) Daman and Diu;
(e) Pondicherry:
Provided that when anybody is created under Amendments Article 239A to function as a Legislature
for the Union territory of Pondicherry, the President shall not make any regulation for the peace,
progress and good government of that Union territory with effect from the date appointed for the first
meeting of the Legislature:
Provided further that whenever the body functioning as a Legislature for the Union territory of
Pondicherry is dissolved, or the functioning of that body as such Legislature remains suspended on
account of any action taken under any such law as is referred to in clause (1) of Amendments Article
239A, the President may, during the period of such dissolution or suspension, make regulations for the
peace, progress and good government of that Union territory.
(2) Any regulation so made may repeal or amend any Act made by Parliament or any other law, which
is for the time being applicable to the Union territory and, when promulgated by the President, shall
have the same force and effect as an Act of Parliament which applies to that territory.
241. High Courts for Union territories—(1) Parliament may by law constitute a High Court for
a Union territory or declare any court in any such territory to be a High Court for all or any of
the purposes of this Constitution.
(2) The provisions of Chapter V of Part VI shall apply in relation to every High Court referred to in
clause (1) as they apply in relation to a High Court referred to in Amendments Article 214 subject to
such modifications or exceptions as Parliament may by law provide.
(3) Subject to the provisions of this Constitution and to the provisions of any law of the appropriate
Legislature made by virtue of powers conferred on that Legislature by or under this Constitution,
every High Court exercising jurisdiction immediately before the commencement of the Constitution
(Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956, in relation to any Union territory shall continue to exercise such
jurisdiction in relation to that territory after such commencement. (4) Nothing in this Amendments
Article derogates from the power of Parliament to extend or exclude the jurisdiction of a High Court
for a State to, or from, any Union territory or part thereof.
242 Repealed (7th Amendment 1956 )
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Panchayats and Municipal Part IX and IX a part for municipal

PART IX THE PANCHAYATS
243 Definitions
243A Gram Sabha
243B Constitution of Panchayats
243C Composition of Panchayats
243D Reservation of seats
243E Duration of Panchayats, etc
243F Disqualifications for membership
243G Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats
243H Powers to impose taxes by, and funds of, the Panchayats
243I Constitution of finance Commissions to review financial position
243J Audit of accounts of Panchayats
243K Elections to the Panchayats
243L Application to Union territories
243M Part not to apply to certain areas
243N Continuance of existing laws and Panchayats
243O Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters
Election process (Gram Panchayats)
PART IX A THE MUNICIPALITIES
243P Definitions
243Q Constitution of Municipalities
243R Composition of Municipalities
243S Constitution and composition of wards Committees, etc
243T Reservation of seats
243U Duration of Municipalities, etc
243V Disqualifications for membership
243W Powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities, etc
243X Power to impose taxes by, and funds, of, the Municipalities
243Y Finance Commission
243Z Audit of accounts of Municipalities
243ZA Elections to the Municipalities
243ZB Application to Union territories
243ZC Part not to apply to certain areas
243ZD Committee for district planning
243ZE Committee for Metropolitan Planning
243ZF Continuance of existing laws and Municipalities
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243ZG Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters
This part IX and IX-A added in 73rd & 74th, 1993 Constitutional Amendments which known as
Panchayati Raj and Nagarpalika Constitutional Amendments Acts. The passing of these Amendments is
accordance with Amendments Article 40 of COI.
243. Definitions.—
In this Part, unless the context otherwise requires,—
(a) ‘district’ means a district in a State;
(b) ‘Gram Sabha’ means a body consisting of persons registered in the electoral rolls relating to a
village comprised within the area of Panchayat at the village level;
(c) ‘Intermediate level’ means a level between the village and district levels specified by the Governor
of a State by public notification to be the intermediate level for the purposes of this Part;
(d) ‘Panchayat’ means an institution (by whatever name called) of self-government constituted under
Amendments Article 243B, for the rural areas;
(e) ‘Panchayat area’ means the territorial area of a Panchayat;
(f) ‘population’ means the population as ascertained at the last preceding census of which the relevant
figures have been published;
(g) ‘village’ means a village specified by the Governor by public notification to be a village for the
purposes of this Part and includes a group of villages so specified.
243A. Gram Sabha.—
A Gram Sabha may exercise such powers and perform such functions at the village level as the
Legislature of a State may by law, provide.
243B. Constitution of Panchayats.—
(1) There shall be constituted in every State, Panchayats at the village, intermediate and district levels
in accordance with the provisions of this Part.
(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), Panchayats at the intermediate level may not be
constituted in a State having a population not exceeding twenty lakhs.
243C. Composition of Panchayats.—

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Part, the Legislature of a State may, by law, make provisions with
respect to the composition of Panchayats:
Provided that the ratio between the population of the territorial area of a Panchayat at any level and
the number of seats in such Panchayat to be filled by election shall, so far as practicable, be the same
throughout the State,
(2) All the seats in a Panchayat shall be filled by persons chosen by direct election from territorial
constituencies in the Panchayat area and, for this purpose, each Panchayat area shall be divided into
territorial constituencies in such manner that the ratio between the population of each constituency
and the number of seats allotted to it shall, so far as practicable, be the same throughout the Panchayat
area.
(3) The Legislature of a State may, by law, provide for the representation—
(a) of the Chairpersons of the Panchayats at the village level, in the Panchayats at the intermediate
level or, in the case of a State not having Panchayats at the intermediate level, in the Panchayats at the
district level;
(b) if the Chairpersons of the Panchayats at the intermediate level, in the Panchayats at the district
level;
(c) of the members of the House of the People and the members of the Legislative Assembly of the
State representing constituencies which comprise wholly or partly a Panchayat area at a level other
than the village level, in such Panchayat;
(d) of the members of the Council of States and the members of the Legislative Council of the State,
where they are registered as electors within—
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(i) a Panchayat area at the intermediate level, in Panchayat at the intermediate level;
(ii) a Panchayat area at the district level, in Panchayat at the district level.
(4) The Chairperson of a Panchayat and other members of a Panchayat whether or not chosen by
direct election from territorial constituencies in the Panchayat area shall have the right to vote in the
meetings of the Panchayats.
(5) The Chairperson of—
(a) Panchayat at the village level shall be elected in such manner as the Legislature of a State may, by
law, provide; and
(b) a Panchayat at the intermediate level or district level, shall be elected by, and from amongst, the
elected members thereof.
243D. Reservation of seats.—

(1) Seats shall be reserved for—
(a) the Scheduled Castes; and
(b) the Scheduled Tribes,
in every Panchayat and the number of seats so reserved shall bear, as nearly as may be, the same
proportion to the, total number of seats to be filled by direct election in that Panchayat as the
population of the Scheduled Castes in that Panchayat area or of the Scheduled Tribes in that Panchayat
area bears to the total population of that area and such sea
243E. Duration of Panchayats, etc.—

(1) Every Panchayat, unless sooner dissolved under any law for the time being in force, shall continue
for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting and no longer.
(2) No amendment of any law for the time being in force shall have the effect of causing dissolution of
a Panchayat at any level, which is functioning immediately before such amendment, till the expiration
of its duration specified in clause (1).
(3) An election to constitute a Panchayat shall be completed—
(a) before the expiry of its duration specified in clause (1);
(b) before the expiration of a period of six months from the date of its dissolution:
Provided that where the remainder of the period for which the dissolved Panchayat would have
continued is less than six months, it shall not be necessary to hold any election under this clause for
constituting the Panchayat.
(4) A Panchayat constituted upon the dissolution of a Panchayat before the expiration of its duration
shall continue only for the remainder of the period for which the dissolved Panchayat would have
continued under clause (1) had it not been so dissolved.
243F. Disqualifications for membership.—

(1) A person shall be disqualified for being chosen as, and for being, a member of a Panchayat—
(a) if he is so disqualified by or under any law for the time being in force for the purposes of elections
to the Legislature of the State concerned:
Provided that no person shall be disqualified on the ground that be is less than twenty-five years of
age, if he has attained the age of twenty-one years;
(b) if he is so disqualified by or under any law made by the Legislature of the State.
(2) If any question arises as to whether a member of a Panchayat has become subject to any of the
disqualifications mentioned in clause (1), the question shall be referred for the decision of such
authority and in such manner as the Legislature of a State may, by law, provide.
Bhanumati v. State of UP
243G. Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats.—
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Subject to the provisions of this Constitution the Legislature of a State may, by law, endow the
Panchayats with such powers and authority and may be necessary to enable them to function as
institutions of self-government and such law may contain provisions for the devolution of powers and
responsibilities upon Panchayats, at the appropriate level, subject to such conditions as may be
specified therein, with respect to—
(a) the preparation of plans for economic development and social justice;
(b) the implementation of schemes for economic development and social justice as may be entrusted
to them including those in relation to the matters listed in the Eleventh Schedule.
243H. Powers to impose taxes by, and funds of, the Panchayats.—
The Legislature of a State may, by law,—
(a) authorize a Panchayat to levy, collect and appropriate such taxes, duties, tolls and fees in
accordance with such procedure and subject to such limits;
(b) assign to a Panchayat such taxes, duties, tolls and fees levied and collected by the State
Government for such purposes and subject to such conditions and limits;
(c) provide for making such grants-in-aid to the Panchayats from the Consolidated Fund of the State;
and
(d) provide for Constitution of such Funds for crediting all moneys received, respectively, by or on
behalf of the Panchayats and also for the withdrawal of such moneys therefrom, as may be specified in
the law.
243I. Constitution of finance Commissions to review financial position.—

(1) The Governor of a State shall, as soon as may be within one year from the commencement of the
Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992, and thereafter at the expiration of every fifth year,
constitute a Finance Commission to review the financial position of the Panchayats and to make
recommendations to the Governor as to—
(a) the principles which should govern—
(i) the distribution between the State and the Panchayats of the net proceeds of the taxes, duties, tolls
and fees leviable by the State, which may be divided between them under this Part and the allocation
between the Panchayats at all levels of their respective shares of such proceeds;
243J. Audit of accounts of Panchayats.—

The Legislature of a State may, by law, make provisions with respect to the maintenance of accounts
by the Panchayats and the auditing of such accounts.
243K. Elections to the Panchayats.—

The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls for, and the conduct of,
all elections to the Panchayats shall be vested in a State Election Commission consisting of a State
Election Commissioner to be appointed by the Governor.
(2) Subject to the provisions of any law made by the Legislature of a State the conditions of service and
tenure of office of the State Election Commissioner shall be such as the Governor may by rule
determine:
Provided that the State Election Commissioner shall not be removed from his office except in like
manner and on the like ground as a Judge of a High Court and the conditions of service of the State
Election Commissioner shall not be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment.
(3) The Governor of a State shall, when so requested by the State Election Commission, make available
to the State Election Commission such staff as may be necessary for the discharge of the functions
conferred on the State Election Commission by clause (1).
(4) Subject to the provisions of this Constitution, the Legislature of a State may, by law, make provision
with respect to all matters relating to, or in connection with, elections to the Panchayats.
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243L. Application to Union territories.—

The provisions of this Part shall apply to the Union territories and shall, in their application to a Union
territory, have effect as if the references to the Governor of a State were references to the
Administrator of the Union territory appointed under 239 and references to the Legislature or the
Legislative Assembly of a State were references, in relation to a Union territory having a Legislative
Assembly, to that Legislative Assembly:
Provided that the President may, by public notification, direct that the provisions of this Part shall
apply to any Union territory or part thereof subject to such exceptions and modifications as he may
specify in the notification.
243M. Part not to apply to certain areas.—

(1) Nothing in this Part shall apply to the Scheduled Areas referred to in clause (1), and the tribal areas
referred to in clause (2), of Amendments Article 244.
(2) Nothing in this Part shall apply to—
(a) the States of Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram;
(b) the Hill areas in the State of Manipur for which District Councils exist under any law for the time
being in force.
(3) Nothing in this Part—
(a) relating to Panchayats at the district level shall apply to the Hill areas of the District of Darjeeling in
the State of West Bengal for which Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council exists under any law for the time
being in force;
(b) shall be construed to affect the functions and powers of the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council
constituted under such law.
(4) Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution—
(a) the Legislature of a State referred to in sub-clause (a) of clause (2) may, by law, extend this Part to
that State, except the areas, if any, referred to in clause (1), if the Legislative Assembly of that State
passes a resolution to that effect by a majority of the total membership of that House and by a majority
of not less than two-thirds of the members of that house present and voting;
(b) Parliament may, by law, extend the provisions of this Part to the Scheduled Areas and the tribal
areas referred to in clause (1) subject to such exceptions and modifications as may be specified in such
law and no such law shall be deemed to be an amendment of this Constitution for the purposes of
Amendments Article 368.
Indra Sawhney v. UOI
MR Balaji v State of Mysore.
243N. Continuance of existing laws and Panchayats.—

Notwithstanding anything in this Part, any provision of any law relating to Panchayats in force in a
State immediately before commencement of the Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992,
which is inconsistent with the provisions of this part, shall continue to be in force until amended or
repealed by a competent Legislature other competent authority or until the expiration of one year
from such commencement whichever is earlier:
Provided that all the Panchayats existing immediately before such commencement shall continue till
the expiration of their duration, unless sooner dissolved by a resolution passed to that effect by the
Legislative Assembly of that State or, in the case of a State having a Legislative Council, by each house
of the Legislature of that State.
243O. Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.—
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Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution—

(a) the validity of any law relating to the delimitation of constituencies or the allotment of seats to
such constituencies made or purporting to be made under Amendments Article 243K, shall not be
called in question in any court;
(b) no election to any Panchayat shall be called in question except by an election petition presented to
such authority and in such manner as is provided for by or under any Law made by the legislature of a
State.
PART IX A
243P. Definitions.—
In this Part, unless the context otherwise requires,—
(a) ‘Committee’ means a Committee constituted under Amendments Article 243S;
(b) ‘district’ means a district in a State;
(c) ‘Metropolitan area’ means an area having a population of ten lakhs or more, comprised in one or
more districts and consisting of two or more Municipalities or Panchayats or other contiguous areas,
specified by the Governor by public notification to be Metropolitan area for the purposes of this Part;
(d) ‘Municipal area’ means the territorial area of a Municipality as is notified by the Governor;
(e) ‘Municipality’ means an institution of self-government constituted under Amendments Article
243Q;
(f) ‘Panchayat’ means a Panchayat constituted under Amendments Article 243B;
(g) ‘Population’ means the population as ascertained at the last preceding census of which the relevant
figures have been published.
243Q. Constitution of Municipalities.—

(1) There shall be constituted in every State,—
(a) a Nagar Panchayat (by whatever name called) for a transitional area, that is to say, an area in
transition from a rural area to an urban area.
(b) a Municipal Council for a smaller urban area; and
(c) a Municipal Corporation for a larger urban area,
in accordance with the provisions of this Part:
Provided that a Municipality under this clause may not be constituted in such urban area or part
thereof as the Governor may, having regard to the size of tile area and the municipal services being
provided or proposed to be provided by an industrial establishment in that area and such other factors
as he may deem fit, by public notification, specify to be an industrial township.
(2) In this Amendments Article , ‘a transitional area’, ‘a smaller urban area’ or ‘a larger urban area’
means such area as the Governor may, having regard to the population of the area, the density of the
population therein, the revenue generated for local administration, the percentage of employment in
non-agricultural activities, the economic importance or such other factors as he may deem fit, specify
by public notification for the purposes of this Part.
243R. Composition of Municipalities.—

(1) Save as provided in clause (2), all the seats in a Municipality shall be filled by persons chosen by
direct election from the territorial constituencies in the Municipal area and for this purpose each
Municipal area shall be divided into territorial constituencies to be known as wards.
(2) The Legislature of a State may, by law, provide—
(a) for the representation in a Municipality of—
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(i) persons having special knowledge or experience in Municipal administration;

(ii) the members of the House of the People and the members of the Legislative Assembly of the State
representing constituencies which comprise wholly or partly the Municipal area;
(iii) the members of the Council of States and the members of the Legislative Council of the State
registered electors within tile Municipal area;
(iv) the Chairpersons of the Committees constituted under clause (5) of Amendments Article 243S:
Provided that the persons referred to in paragraph (i) shall not have the right to vote in the meetings
of the Municipality;
(b) the manner of election of the Chairperson of a Municipality.
243S. Constitution and composition of wards Committees, etc.—

(1) There shall be constituted Wards Committees, consisting of one or more Wards, within the
territorial area of a Municipality having a population of three lakhs or more.
(2) The Legislature of a State may, by law, make provision with respect to—
(a) the composition and the territorial area of a Wards Committee;
(b) the manner in which the seats in a Wards Committee shall be filled.
(3) A member of a Municipality representing a ward within the territorial area of the Wards
Committee shall be a member of that Committee.
(4) Where a Wards Committee consists of—
(a) one ward, the member representing that ward in the Municipality; or
(b) two or more wards, one of the members representing such wards in the Municipality elected by
the members of the Wards Committee, shall be the Chairperson of that Committee.
(5) Nothing in this Amendments Article shall be deemed to prevent the Legislature of a State from
making any provision for the Constitution of Committees in addition to the Wards Committees.
243T. Reservation of seats.—

(1) Seats shall be reserved for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in every Municipality
and the number of seats so reserved shall bear, as nearly as may be, the same proportion to the total
number of seats to be filled by direct election in that Municipality as the population of the Scheduled
Castes in the Municipal area or of the Scheduled Tribes in the Municipal area bears to the total
population of that area and such seats may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a
Municipality.
(2) Not less than one-third of the total number of seats reserved under clause (1) shall be reserved for
women belonging to the Scheduled Castes or, as the case may be, the Scheduled Tribes.
(3) Not less than one-third (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election
in every Municipality shall be reserved for women and such seats may be allotted by rotation to
different constituencies in a Municipality.
(4) The offices of Chairpersons in the Municipalities shall be reserved for the Scheduled Castes, the
Scheduled Tribes and women in such manner as the Legislature of a State may, by law, provide.
(5) The reservation of seats under clauses (1) and (2) and the reservation of offices of Chairpersons
(other than the reservation for women) under clause (4) shall cease to have effect on the expiration of
the period specified in Amendments Article 334.
(6) Nothing in this Part shall prevent the Legislature of a State from making any provision for
reservation of seats in any Municipality or offices of Chairpersons in the Municipalities in favour of
backward class of citizens.
243U. Duration of Municipalities, etc.—

(1) Every Municipality, unless sooner dissolved under any law for the time being in force, shall
continue for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting and no longer:
13
Provided that a Municipality shall be given a reasonable opportunity of being heard before its
dissolution.
(2) No amendment of any law for the time being in force shall have the effect of causing dissolution of
a Municipality at any level, which is functioning immediately before such amendment, till the
expiration of its duration specified in clause (1).
(3) An election to Constitute a Municipality shall be completed,—
(a) before the expiry of its duration specified in clause (1);
(b) before the expiration of a period of six months from the date of its dissolution:
Provided that where the remainder of the period for which the dissolved Municipality would have
continued is less than six months, it shall not be necessary to hold any election under this clause for
constituting the Municipality for such period.
(4) A Municipality constituted upon the dissolution of a Municipality before the expiration of its
duration shall continue only for the remainder of the period for which the dissolved Municipality
would leave continued. under, clause (1) had it not been so dissolved.
243V. Disqualifications for membership.—

(1) A person shall be disqualified for being chosen as, and for being a member of a Municipality—
(a) if he is so disqualified by or under any law for the time being in force for the purposes of elections
to the Legislature of the State concerned:
Provided that no person shall be disqualified on the ground that he is less than twenty-five years of
age, if he has attained the age, of twenty-one years;
(b) if he is so disqualified by or under any law made by the Legislature of the State.
(2) If any question arises as to whether a member of a Municipality has become subject to any of the
disqualifications mentioned in clause (1), the question shall be referred for the decision of such
authority and in such manner as the Legislature of a State may, by law, provide.
243W. Powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities, etc.—

Subject to the provisions of this Constitution, the Legislature of a State may, by law, endow—
(a) the Municipalities with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function
as institutions of self-government and such law may contain provisions for the devolution of powers
and responsibilities upon Municipalities, subject to such conditions as may be specified therein, with
respect to—
(i) the preparation of plans for economic development and social justice;
(ii) the performance of functions and the implementation of schemes as may be entrusted to them
including those in relation to the matters listed in the Twelfth Schedule;
(b) the Committees with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to carry out
the responsibilities conferred upon them including those in relation to the matters listed in the
Twelfth Schedule.
243X. Power to impose taxes by, and funds, of, the Municipalities.—
The Legislature of a State may, by law—
(a) authorize a Municipality to levy, collect and appropriate such taxes, duties, tolls and fees in
accordance with such procedure and subject to such limits;
(b) assign to a Municipality such taxes, duties, tolls and fees levied and collected by the State-
Government for such purposes and subject to such conditions and limits;
(c) provide for making, such grants-in-aid to the Municipalities from the Consolidated Fund of the
State; and
(d) provide for Constitution of such Funds for crediting all moneys received. respectively, by or on
behalf of the Municipalities and also for the withdrawal of such moneys therefrom, as may be specified
in the law.
14
243Y. Finance Commission.—

(1) The Finance Commission constituted under Amendments Article 243-I shall also review the
financial position of the Municipalities and make recommendations to the Governor as to—
(a) the principles which should govern—
(i) the distribution between the State and the Municipalities of the net proceeds of the taxes, duties,
tolls and fees leviable by the State, which may be divided between them under this Part and the
allocation between the Municipalities at all levels of their respective shares of such proceeds;
(ii) the determination of the taxes, duties, tolls and fees which may be assigned to, or appropriated by,
the Municipalities;
(iii) the grants-in-aid to the Municipalities from the Consolidated Fund of the State;
(b) the measures needed to improve the financial position of the Municipalities;
(c) any other matter referred to the Finance Commission by the Governor in the interests of sound
finance of the Municipalities.
(2) The Governor shall cause every recommendation made by the Commission under this
Amendments Article together with an explanatory memorandum as to the action taken thereon to be
laid before the Legislature of the State.
243Z. Audit of accounts of Municipalities.—

The Legislature of a State may, by law, make provisions with respect to the maintenance of accounts
by the Municipalities and the auditing of such accounts.
243ZA. Elections to the Municipalities.—

(1) The superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls for, and the
conduct of, all elections to the Municipalities shall be vested in the State Election Commission referred
to in Amendments Article 243K.
(2) Subject to provisions of this Constitution, the Legislature of a State may, by law, make provision
with respect to all matters relating to, or in connection with, elections to the Municipalities.
243ZB. Application to Union territories.—

The Provisions of this Part shall apply to the Union territories and shall, in their application to a Union
territory, have effect as if the references to the Governor of a State were references to the
Administrator of the Union territory appointed under Amendments Article 239 and references to the
Legislature or the Legislative Assembly of a State were references in relation to a Union territory
having a Legislative Assembly, to that Legislative Assembly:
Provided that the President may, by public notification, direct that the provisions of this Part shall
apply to any Union territory or part thereof subject to such exceptions and modifications as he may
specify in the notification.
243ZC. Part not to apply to certain areas.—

(1) Nothing in this Part shall apply to the Scheduled Areas referred to in Clause (1), and the tribal
areas referred to in Clause (2), of Amendments Article 244.
(2) Nothing in this part shall be construed to affect the functions and powers of the Darjeeling Gorkha
Hill Council constituted under any law for the time being in force for the hill areas of the district of
Darjeeling in the State of West Bengal.
(3) Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, Parliament may, by law, extend the provisions of
this Part to the Scheduled Areas and the Tribal Areas referred to in clause (1) subject to such
exceptions and modifications as may be specified in such law, and no such law shall be deemed to be
an amendment of this Constitution for the purposes of Amendments Article 368.
15
243ZD. Committee for district planning.—

(1) There shall be constituted in every State at the district level a District Planning Committee to
consolidate the plans prepared by the Panchayats and the Municipalities in the district and to prepare
a draft development plan for the district as a whole.
(2) The Legislative of a State may, by law, make provision with respect to—
(a) the composition of the District Planning Committees;
(b) the manner in which the seats in such Committees shall be filled:
Provided that not less than four-fifths of the total number of members of such Committee shall be
elected by, and from amongst, the elected members of the Panchayat at the district level and of the
Municipalities in the district in proportion to the ratio between the population of the rural areas and of
the urban areas in the district;
(c) the functions relating to district planning which may be assigned to such Committees;
(d) the manner in which the Chairpersons of such Committees be chosen.
(3) Every District Planning Committee shall, in preparing the draft development plan,—
(a) have regard to—
(i) matters of common interest between the Panchayats and the Municipalities including spatial
planning, sharing of water and other physical and natural resources, the integrate development of
infrastructure and environmental conservation;
(ii) the extent and type of available resources whether financial or otherwise;
(b) consult such institutions and organizations as the Governor may, by order, specify.
(4) The Chairperson of every District Planning Committee shall forward the development plan, as
recommended by such Committee, to the Government of the State.
243ZE. Committee for Metropolitan Planning.—

(1) There shall be constituted in every metropolitan, area a Metropolitan Planning Committee to
prepare a draft development plan for the Metropolitan area as a whole.
(2) The Legislature of a State may, by law, make with respect to—
(a) the composition of the Metropolitan Planning Committees;
(b) the manner in which the seats in such Committees shall be filled:
Provided that not less than two-thirds of the members of such Committee shall be elected by, and from
amongst, the elected members of the Municipalities and Chairpersons of the Panchayats in the,
Metropolitan area in proportion to the ratio between the population of the Municipalities and of the
Panchayats in that area;
(c) the representation, in such Committees of the Government of India and the Government of the
State and of such organizations and institutions as may be deemed necessary for carrying out the
functions assigned to such Committees;
(d) the functions relating to planning and coordination for the Metropolitan area which may be
assigned to such Committees;
(e) the manner in which the Chairpersons of such Committees shall be chosen.
(3) Every Metropolitan Planning Committee shall, in preparing the draft development plan,—
(a) have regard to—
(i) the plans prepared by the Municipalities and the Panchayats in the Metropolitan area;
(ii) matters of common interest between the Municipalities and the Panchayats, including co-ordinate
spatial planning of the area, sharing of water and other physical and natural resources, the integrated
development of infrastructure and environmental conservation;
(iii) the overall objectives and priorities set by the Government of India and the Government of the
State;
(iv) the extent and nature of investments likely to be made in the Metropolitan area by agencies of the
Government of India and of the Government of the State and other available resources whether
financial or otherwise;
16
(b) consult such institutions and organizations as the Governor may, by order, specify.
(4) The Chairperson of every Metropolitan Planning Committee shall forward the development plan,
as recommended by such Committee, to the Government of the State.
243ZF. Continuance of existing laws and Municipalities.—

Notwithstanding anything in this Part, any provision of any law relating to Municipalities in force in a
State immediately before the commencement of the Constitution (Seventy-fourth Amendment) Act,
1992, which is inconsistent with the provisions of this Part, shall continue to be in force until amended
or repealed by a competent Legislature or other competent authority or until the expiration of one
year from such commencement, whichever is earlier:
Provided that all the Municipalities existing immediately before such commencement shall continue
till the expiration of their duration, unless sooner dissolved by a resolution passed to that effect by the
Legislative Assembly of that State or, in the case of a State having a Legislative Council, by each House
of the Legislature of that State.
243ZG. Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.—

Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution,—
(a) the validity of any law relating to the delimitation of constituencies or the allotment of seats to
such constituencies, made or purporting to be made under Amendments Article 243ZA shall not be
called in question in any court;
(b) no election to any Municipality shall be called in question expect by an election petition presented
to such authority and in such manner as is provided for by or under any law made by the Legislature
of a State.
Kishansing Tomar v. municipal Corp of the city Ahmadabad
PART X
THE SCHEDULED AND TRIBAL AREAS

PART X
244 Administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas

244A Formation of an autonomous State comprising certain tribal areas in Assam
and creation of local Legislature or Council of Ministers or both therefor
244. Administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas.—

(1) The provisions of the Fifth Schedule shall apply to the administration and control of the Scheduled
Areas and Scheduled Tribes in any State *** other than the States of Assam Meghalaya, Tripura and
Mizoram.
(2) The provisions of the Sixth Schedule shall apply to the administration of the tribal areas in the
State of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
244A. Formation of an autonomous State comprising certain tribal areas in Assam and creation
of local Legislature or Council of Ministers or both therefor.—
(1) Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, Parliament may, by law, form within the State of
Assam an autonomous State comprising (whether wholly or in part) all or any of the tribal areas
specified in Part I of the table appended to paragraph 20 of the Sixth Schedule and create therefor—
(a) a body, whether elected or partly nominated and partly elected, to function as a Legislature for the
autonomous State, or
17
(b) a Council of Ministers, or both with such Constitution, powers and functions, in each case, as may
be specified in the law.
(2) Any such law as is referred to in clause (1) may, in particular,—
(a) specify the matters enumerated in the State List or the Concurrent List with respect to which the
Legislature of the autonomous State shall have power to make laws for the whole or any part thereof,
whether to the exclusion of the Legislature of the State of Assam or otherwise;
(b) define the matters with respect to which the executive power of the autonomous State shall
extend; (c) provide that any tax levied by the State of Assam shall be assigned to the autonomous State
in so far as the proceeds thereof are attributable to the autonomous State;
(d) provide that any reference to a State in any Amendments Article of this Constitution shall be
construed as including a reference to the autonomous State; and (e) make such supplemental,
incidental and consequential provisions as may be deemed necessary.
(3) An amendment of any such law as aforesaid in so far as such amendment relates to any of the
matters specified in sub-clause (a) or sub-clause (b) of clause (2) shall have no effect unless the
amendment is passed in each House of Parliament by not less than two-thirds of the members present
and voting.
(4) Any such law as is referred to in this Amendments Article shall not be deemed to be an amendment
of this Constitution for the purposes of Amendments Article 368 notwithstanding that it contains any
provision which amends or has the effect of amending this Constitution.
Case law
Ram kripal bhagat
State of Meghalaya v. Kurkalang
UNIT-II Legislative and Administrative Relations
1 Relation between the Union and the State

2 Distribution of legislative power
3 Administrative relations
4 Disputes relating to water
5 Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse within territory of India
245. Extent of laws made by Parliament and by the Legislatures of States.

246. Subject-matter of laws made by Parliament and by the Legislatures of States.
247. Power of Parliament to provide for the establishment of certain additional courts.
248. Residuary powers of legislation.
249. Power of parliament to legislate with respect to a matter in the State List in the national
interest.
250. Power of Parliament with respect to any matter in the State List if a Proclamation of
Emergency is in operation.
251. Inconsistency between laws made by parliament under Amendments Article s 249 and
250 and laws made by the Legislatures of States.
252. Power of Parliament to legislate for two or more States by consent and adoption of such
legislation by any other State.
253. Legislation for giving effect to international agreements.
254. Inconsistency between laws made by Parliament and laws made by the Legislatures of
States.
18
255. Requirements as to recommendations and previous sanctions to be regarded as matters

of procedure only.
256. Obligation of States and the Union.
257. Control of the Union over States in certain cases.
257A. [Repealed.]
258. Power of the Union to confer powers, etc., on States in certain cases
258A. Power of the States to entrust functions to the Union
259. [Repealed.]
260. Jurisdiction of the Union in relation to territories outside India.
261. Public acts records and judicial proceedings.
262. Adjudication of disputes relating to waters of inter-State rivers or river valleys.
263. Provisions with respect to an inter-State Council.
Union and federal

Both features are listed below:-
Federal Features-
1. Supremacy of the Constitution,
2. Division of power between the Union (central Governments) and State, and
3. The existence of an independent judiciary in the Indian Constitution.
Unitary Features-
1. Single Citizenship
2. Single Constitution
3. Power of union to override on the state matters
4. During emergency the system became virtually unitary
5. Changes in the names and boundaries of the states by the Parliament
6. Integrated Judiciary System
7. Centre appoints the Governors
8. Dependence of states on the centre for economic assistance and grants.
39
CHAPTER I FINANCE
General
264 Interpretation
265 Taxes not to be imposed save by authority of law
Fee
266 Consolidated Funds and public accounts of India and of the States
267 Contingency Fund
Distribution of Revenues between the Union and the States
268 Duties levied by the Union but collected and appropriated by the States
269 Taxes levied and collected by the Union but assigned to the States
270 Taxes levied and distributed between the Union and the States
271 Surcharge on certain duties and taxes for purposes of the Union
272 Taxes which are levied and collected by the Union and may be distributed
between the Union and the States
273 Grants in lieu of export duty on jute and jute products
274 Prior recommendation of President required to Bills affecting taxation in
which States are interested
275 Grants from the Union to certain States
19
276 Taxes on professions, trades, callings and employments

277 Savings
278 Repealed
279 Calculation of "net proceeds", etc
280 Finance Commission
281 Recommendations of the Finance Commission
PART XIII TRADE, COMMERCE AND INTERCOURSE WITHIN THE TERRITORY OF
INDIA
301 Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse
302 Power of Parliament to impose restrictions on trade, commerce and
intercourse
303 Restrictions on the legislative powers of the Union and of the States with
regard to trade and commerce
304 Restrictions on trade, commerce and intercourse among States
Regulation and Prohibition must be distinguished from each other
305 Saving of existing laws and laws providing for State monopolies
306 Repealed
307 Appointment of authority for carrying out the purposes of Amendments
Article s 301 to 304
Introduction
 K.C. Wheare “federal government as an association of states, which has been formed for certain
common purposes, but in which the member states retain a large measure of their original
independence. A federal government exists when the powers of the government for a
community are divided substantially according to a principle that there is a single independent
authority for the whole area in respect of some matters and there are independent regional
authorities for other matters, each set of authorities being co-ordinate to and subordinate to
the others within its own sphere. The framers of the Indian Constitution attempted to avoid
the difficulties faced by the federal Constitutions of U.S.A, Canada and Australia and
incorporate certain unique features in the working of the Indian Constitution. Thus, our
Constitution contains certain novel provisions suited to the Indian conditions. The doubt
which emerges about the federal nature of the Indian Constitution is the power of intervention
in the affairs of the states given to the Central Government by the Constitution According to
Wheare, in practice the Constitution of India is quasi-federal in nature and not strictly federal.”
 Sir Ivor Jennings was of the view that “India has a federation with a strong centralizing policy.”
Amendments Article 253

Legislation for giving effect to international agreements notwithstanding anything in the foregoing
provisions of this Chapter, Parliament has power to make any law for the whole or any part of the
territory of India for implementing any treaty, agreement or convention with any other country or
countries or any decision made at any international conference, association or other body
51. Promotion of international peace and security The State shall Endeavour to
(a) promote international peace and security;
(b) maintain just and honorable relations between nations;
(c) foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the dealings of organized peoples with
one another; and encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration
PART IVA FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES.
20
Both section is inter linked that the on the basis of international treaty or any agreement which take
place between India and any other country that should be resolve by way mention under Amendments
Article 51.
Today Indian Union comprises of twenty nine states and seven union territories. Student of
Constitution should know nature of Indian federal system.
To study about center–state relations.
To study about conflicts between the state and resolution mechanism on that.
To study about actual working of Indian federal system.
The Constitution in its very first Amendments Article describes India as a Union of States. When the
British power was established in India it was highly centralized and unitary. To hold India under its
imperial authority, the British had to control it from the Centre and ensure that power remained
centralized in their hands. A strong central authority was for the British both an imperial and an
administrative necessity. The country continued to be ruled under the 1919 Act by a central authority
until 1947. And, since under the 1919 Act, there was a central government, a central legislature, a
system of central laws etc., the use of these terms continued under the colonial hangover.
Three List of Legislative Items:

Union List (97)
State list (66) Concurrent list. (47) {Both can make the legislature}
Union List consists of 97 subjects of all India importance. The most important subjects in the union
list are – Defense of India,
Naval, Military and Air forces, Atomic energy, foreign affairs, Railways etc. The subjects of the Union
List are placed under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Union government.
State list consists of 66 subject, which are primarily of regional interest .The state governments have
full authority to make laws on any of the subjects mentioned in the state list, e.g. public order, police
,prisons, local government ,public health etc
Concurrent list consist of 47 subjects. The subjects included in the concurrent list have varying
degrees of local and national interest. Hence both the union and states have powers to make laws on
any of the subject included in the concurrent list. In case of a conflict between the union law and the
state law over the same subject, the union law would prevail over the state law.
(B) Residuary power with the union:

All the subject and power are divided into three lists. But there may be some subjects who
might not have been included in any of the above three list. Such subjects are known as residuary
powers .In U.S.A. and AUSTRILA the residuary powers are left to the states and not to the Union.
Hence, there the states are stronger than the center. But in India the residuary powers are left to the
union. It made the union stronger than the states.
(C) Power of parliament to legislate on state list in the National Interest:

The union can pass a law on any of the subjects of the state list, if Rajyasabha passes a resolution,
supported by a majority of 2/3 rd members present and voting, to the effect that, in the national
21
interest, the Parliament should make a law on a subject included in the state list.
(D) National Emergency:

When proclamation of a national emergency is issued by the President the scheme of division of
powers is set aside. Union Parliament has authority to pass a law even on those subjects, which are
included in the state list. Thus in case of emergency the Indian Constitution becomes unitary.
(E) State Emergency:

The union can pass law on the state list, if two or more state legislatures so desire and pass a
resolution to that effect. Such a law passed by the parliament, will be applicable only to those states,
which have asked for it. Such a law is valid for a period of one year.
(F) International Treaties and Agreements:

The parliament has power to make laws on any of the subjects included in the state list to implement
any international treaty. It should be noted that no other federal Constitution has such a provision.
(G) During president's rule:

When the president issues a proclamation of the failure of Constitutional machinery in the state, he
may declare that the power of the legislature of the state shall be exercisable under the authority of
the parliament.
(H) Power of parliament to legislate for union Territories:

The distribution of legislative and executive power does not apply to the union Territories, for which,
the parliament is empowered to legislate on any subject included in all the three list.
Summary Table On Legislative Relations

between the center and States
1) Three lists of legislative subjects

2) Residuary powers with the union
3) Power of Parliament to legislative
on state list in the national interest
4) National emergency
5) On request from state
6) International treaties
7) During President’s rule
8) Power of parliament to legislative for
union territory
22
Federal Structure of Indian Constitution

Central state Panchayat
On Legislative Relations between the center and States
a. Three lists of legislative subjects

b. Residuary powers with the union
c. Power of Parliament to legislative on state list in the
national interest
d. National emergency
e. On request from state
f. International treaties
g. During President’s rule
h. Power of parliament to legislative for union territories
Interpretation of the Legislative Lists

(a) Plenary Powers: The first and foremost rule is that if legislative power is granted with respect to a
subject and there are no limitations imposed on the power, then it is to be given the widest scope that
its words are capable of, without, rendering another item nugatory. In the words of Gajenderagadkar,
C.J. “It is an elementary cardinal rule of interpretation that the words used in the Constitution which
confer legislative power must receive the most liberal construction and if they are words of wide
amplitude, they must be interpreted so as to give effect to that amplitude. A general word used in an
entry ... must be construed to extend to all ancillary or subsidiary matters which can fairly and
reasonably be held to be included in it (Jagannath Baksh Singh v. State of U.P., AIR 1962 SC 1563).Thus,
a legislature to which a power is granted over a particular subject may make law on any aspect or
on all aspects of it; it can make a retrospective law or a prospective law and it can also make law on all
matters ancillary to that matter. For example, if power to collect taxes is granted to a legislature, the
power not to collect taxes or the power to remit taxes shall be presumed to be included within the
power to collect taxes.
(b) Harmonious Construction: Different entries in the different lists are to be interpreted in such a
way that a conflict between them is avoided and each of them is given effect. It must be accepted that
the Constitution does not want to create conflict and make any entry nugatory. Therefore, when there
appears a conflict between two entries in the two different lists the two entries should be so
interpreted, that each of them is given effect and, for that purpose the scope and meaning of one may
be restricted so as to give meaning to the other also.
(c) Pith and Substance Rule: The rule of pith and substance means that where a law in reality and
substance falls within an item on which the legislature which enacted that law is competent to
legislate, then such law shall not become invalid merely because it incidentally touches a matter
outside the competence of legislature. In a federal Constitution, as was observed by Gwyer C.J. “it must
inevitably happen from time to time that legislation though purporting to deal with a subject in one list
touches also upon a subject in another list, and the different provisions of the enactment may be so
closely intertwined that blind adherence to a strictly verbal interpretation would result in a large
23
number of statutes being declared invalid because the legislature enacting them may appear to have
legislated in a forbidden sphere” (Prafulla Kumar v. Bank of Khulna, AIR 1947 PC 60). Therefore, where
such overlapping occurs, the question must be asked, what is, “pith and substance” of the enactment in
question and in which list its true nature and character is to be found. For this purpose the enactment
as a whole with its object and effect must be considered. By way of illustration, acting on entry 6 of List
II which reads “Public Health and Sanitation”. Rajasthan Legislature passed a law restricting the use of
sound amplifiers. The law was challenged on the ground that it dealt with a matter which fell in entry
81 of List I which reads: “Post and telegraphs, telephones, wireless broadcasting and other like forms
of communication”, and, therefore, the State Legislature was not competent to pass it. The Supreme
Court rejected this argument on the ground that the object of the law was to prohibit unnecessary
noise affecting the health of public and not to make a law on broadcasting, etc. Therefore, the pith and
substance of the law was “public health” and not “broadcasting” (G. Chawla v. State of Rajasthan, AIR
1959 SC 544).
Cases: State of Bombay v. FN Balsara
(d) Colorable Legislation: It is, in a way, a rule of interpretation almost opposite to the one discussed
above. The Constitution does not allow any transgression of power by any legislature, either directly
or indirectly. However, a legislature may pass a law in such a way that it gives it a color of
Constitutionality while, in reality, that law aims at achieving something which the legislature could not
do. Such legislation is called colorable piece of legislation and is invalid. To take an example in
Kameshwar Singh v. State of Bihar, A.I.R. 1952 S.C. 252, the Bihar Land Reforms Act, 1950 provided
that the unpaid rents by the tenants shall vest in the state and one half of them shall be paid back by
the State to the landlord or zamindar as compensation for acquisition of unpaid rents. According to the
provision in the State List under which the above law was passed, no property should be acquired
without payment of compensation. The question was whether the taking of the whole unpaid rents
and then returning half of them back to them who were entitled to claim, (i.e., the landlords) is a law
which provides for compensation. The Supreme Court found that this was a colorable exercise of
power of acquisition by the State legislature, because “the taking of the whole and returning a half
means nothing more or less than taking off without any return and this is naked confiscation, no
matter in whatever specious form it may be clothed or disguised”. The motive of the legislature is,
however, irrelevant for the application of this doctrine. Therefore, if a legislature is authorized to do a
particular thing directly or indirectly, then it is totally irrelevant as to with what motives – good or bad
– it did that. These are just few guiding principles which the Courts have evolved, to resolve the
disputes which may arise about the competence of law passed by Parliament or by any State
Legislature.
(E) Territorial nexus: Article 254

 Wallace v. ITC, Bombay
 State of Bombay v. RMDC
(F)Delegated legislation
Pressure on parliamentary time
Technicality of subject matter
Opportunity for experimentation
Unforeseen contingencies
Emergency power
Control of delegated legislation

Judicial Control Art 246
Parliamentary Control
24
(H) Retrospectively
(I) Pre Dominance of Union Power

A. ITC case
B. Legislative Relations
Based on 2 type
 Territory
 Subject matter
Leading cases:
AH Wadia v ITC, Bombay
Wallace v. ITC, Bombay
State of Bombay vs. RMDC
The Constitution, based on the principle of federalism with a strong and indestructible1 Union, has a
scheme of distribution of legislative powers designed to blend the imperatives of diversity with the
drive of a common national Endeavour. In this respect our Constitutional theory as well as practice has
kept pace with contemporary developments. The current trends emphasize cooperation and
coordination, rather than demarcation of powers, between different levels of government. The basic
theme is inter-dependence in orchestrating the balance between autonomy of the States and the inner
logic of the Union.
The Constitution adopts a three-fold distribution of legislative powers by placing them in any one of
the three lists, namely I (Union List), II (State List) and III (Concurrent List). Amendments Article s 245
and 246 demarcate the legislative domain, subject to the controlling principle of the supremacy of the
Union which is the basis of the entire system. The Concurrent List gives power to two legislatures,
Union as well as State, to legislate on the same subject. In case of conflict or inconsistency, the rule of
repugnancy, as contained in Amendments Article 254, comes into play to uphold the principle of Union
power. The Concurrent List expresses and illustrates vividly the underlying process of nation building
in the setting of our heterogeneity and diversity. The framers of the Constitution recognized that there
was a category of subjects of common interest which could not be allocated exclusively either to the
States or the Union.
Nonetheless, a broad uniformity of approach in legislative policy was essential to combine specific
requirements of different States with the articulation 2 of a common national policy objective.
Conceived thus, harmonious operation of the Concurrent List could well be considered to be creative
federalism at its best. The problems that have attracted attention in the field of Union-State relations
have less to do with the structure or the rationale of the Concurrent List than with the manner in
which the Union has exercised its powers. In a fundamental political sense, the passing of one party
dominance that characterized the first four decades of the Republic has also ended the drive towards
over centralization. Even the powers that unquestionably belong to the Union, for example the power
to temporarily assume the functions of a State Government under Amendments Article 356, are
heavily circumscribed by the political reality of a multi-party system where the States have acquired
significant bargaining power vis-à-vis the Government of India. The evolving political system has thus
imparted considerable vitality to the federal impulses of the Constitution. However, what has been
1
Permanent
2
Expressions
25
gained in the actual practice of legislative relations between the Union and the States, in terms of
restoring the balance inherent in the Constitutional scheme, has not entered the realm of institutional
validation. To this extent, the unilateralism of the Union in regard to the exercise of legislative powers
under the Concurrent List remains a potential problem area. The principal critique of concurrency is
not that it is not required, but that it is used without consultation, that it is not exercised to deepen
inter-dependence and co-operation but to stress dominance of the Union point of view. It has to be
conceded that institutional arrangements for facilitating exchange of views between the States and the
Union on matters falling within the field of concurrent legislation leave something to be desired. This
has happened in spite of the existence of the Inter-State Council under Amendments Article 263. The
Council has yet to develop into a mechanism to be relied on for an ongoing process of dialogue on vital
socio-economic and political issues between the Union and the States and among the States. It is not as
if such consultation is absent. There are Chief Ministers’ Conferences on specific issues. There are State
Ministers’ Conferences on a variety of subjects on which common policy positions have to be
formulated, such as Value Added Tax.
There is, however, no formal institutional structure that requires mandatory consultation between the
Union and the States in the area of legislation under the Concurrent List which covers several items of
crucial importance to national economy and security. Even the National Development Council, whose
ambit may occasionally be widened beyond the Five Year and the Annual Plans, is seldom 3 convened
to test ideas and evaluate experience in policy formulation and implementation in areas where both
the Union and the States are interested for the sake of social and economic development. The
Concurrent List provides a fine balance between the need for uniformity in the national laws and
creating a simultaneous jurisdiction for the States to accommodate the diversities and peculiarities of
different regions. This also provides a distinguishing feature in the federal scheme envisaged by the
framers of the Constitution. This is further reinforced by placing a mode of altering the provisions in
lists I,II and III in the 7thschedule among other matters of provisions substantive in nature and basic to
the structure of the Constitution that fall within the purview of the proviso to clause (2) of
Amendments Article 368. A bill for amending the list in the 7thschedule has to be passed by
Parliament by a majority of the total membership of that House and by a majority of not less than
2/3rd of the members of the House present and voting – and followed by ratification of legislatures of
not less than ½ of the States. This mechanism provides a statutory tilt in favour of consultation and
cooperation with the States in matters pertaining to the Legislative sphere and inherent balance
between flexibility and rigidity. Globalization as a phenomenon has created a great deal of mobility of
goods, services, capital, technology; integrating the world trade far more than ever before. There are
also related concerns arising out of a need for a better and sustained use of resources of the earth as a
planet that call for a much greater coordination in identification and formulation of responses among
the nations. This process of cohesive and concurrent action needs to generate, first-of-all within the
national context. The geographical climate, environmental, technological diversities amongst States
have to be harmonized in order that these may link with global processes for viable sustained,
development and growth. A major field of undertaking new initiatives in these spheres would lie in
the legislative domain where a certain concurrences and coherence between the States and their
different needs have to be harmonized to evolve national policies. This is also reflected in issues that
pertain to technology, trade, financial services etc. In the global context.The Commission examined the
Constitutional provisions regarding concurrent powers of legislation, analyzing the Constitutional
Amendments that had been enacted from time to time and the judicial pronouncements on major
issues arising from concurrency. The view that emerged was that there was no ground for change in
3
Rarely
26
the existing Constitutional provisions. The Commission believes that on the whole the framework of
legislative relations between the Union and the States, contained in Amendments Article s 245 to 254,
has stood the test of time. In particular, the Concurrent List, List III in the Seventh Schedule under
Amendments Article 246 (2), has to be regarded as a valuable instrument for consolidating and
furthering the principle of cooperative and creative federalism that has made a major contribution to
nation building. The Commission is convinced that it is essential to institutionalize the process of
consultation between the Union and the States on legislation under the Concurrent List.
The Commission recommends that individual and collective consultation with the States should be
undertaken through the Inter-State Council established under Amendments Article 263 of the
Constitution. Further, the Inter-State Council Order, 1990, issued by the President may clearly specify
in 4(b) of the order the subjects that should form part of consultation in the Inter-State Council.
A – Finance Article (264-291)

Financial Relations
Division of financial powers and functions among different levels of the federal polity are
asymmetrical, with a pronounced bias for revenue taxing powers at the Union level while the States
carry the responsibility for subjects that affect the day to day life of the people entailing larger
expenditure than can be met from their own resources. On an average, the revenue of States from their
own resources suffices only for about 50 to 60 percent of States’ current expenditure. Since the
insufficiency of the States’ fiscal resources had been foreseen at the time of framing the Constitution, a
mechanism in the shape of Finance Commission was provided under Amendments Article 280 for
financial transfers from the Union. Its function is to ensure orderly and judicious devolution that is
deemed necessary from the point of view of avoiding vertical or horizontal imbalances. The Finance
Commission is only one stream of transfer of resources from the Union to the States. The Planning
Commission advises the Union Government regarding the desirable transfer of resources to the States
over and above those recommended by the Finance Commission. Bulk of the transfer of revenue and
capital resources from the Union to the States is determined largely on the advice of these two
Commissions. By and large, such transfers are formula-based. Then there are some discretionary
transfers as well to meet the exigencies of specific situations in individual States. These institutional
arrangements served the country well in the first three decades after independence. Testifying to the
strength of these institutions neither the Union nor the States suffered from any large imbalance in
their budgets, although the size of the public sector in terms of proportion of government expenditure
to Gross Domestic Product had nearly doubled during this period. Imbalances have become endemic
during the last two decades and have assumed alarming proportions recently. For this state of affairs,
the Constitutional provisions can hardly be blamed. Broadly, the causes have to be sought in the
working of the political institutions. There are shortcomings in the transfer system. For example, the
‘gap-filling’ approach adopted by the Finance Commission and the soft budget constraints have
provided perverse incentives. The point, however, is that these deficiencies are capable of being
corrected without any change in the Constitution.
Article 265 of double taxation policy it can be taken to anyone.
Enlargement of the Scope of the Finance Commission

The institution of the Finance Commission has been one of the major success stories of the
Constitution. The broad terms of reference as laid down in Amendments Article 280(3) are
unexceptionable. However, other matters in the interest of sound finance can also be referred to the
Finance Commission. These would constitute additional terms of reference. It has been suggested that
it would be desirable to associate the States more actively in deciding the additional terms of
reference, preferably by having the National Development Council (comprising the Prime Minister and
the Chief Ministers of States) to endorse the additional terms of reference. The Commission is not in
favour of an amendment of Amendments Article 280(3)(d) to enable such enlargement of the scope of
27
the Finance Commission, However, it is recommended that terms of reference of the Finance
Commission should be broader and comprise of matters which would take care, in a comprehensive
way, aspects of the financial relations between the Union and the States. The broadening of such
terms of reference could also be discussed earlier by the National Development Council. Under
Amendments Article 281, the recommendations of the Finance Commission are laid before the Houses
of Parliament along with an explanatory memorandum as to the action taken on them. The
recommendations are not theoretically binding, although there has been no case so far when the
Government of India has deviated from recommendations of successive Finance Commissions. It has
been suggested that the Constitution itself should describe the recommendations as an award binding
on both the Union and the States. This has been urged in the context of the mechanism of the State
Finance Commissions which are set up under Amendments Article s 243-I and 243-Y which too make
only recommendations and not awards. The State Finance Commissions are a comparatively new
Constitutional mechanism. They would take some time to strike roots in the Constitutional
soil. Politicians at the State level have also to find their bearings in the new landscape where the old
landmarks of patronage at the State level have yielded place to a non-discriminatory passage of
resources from the State exchequer to the local government institutions. Keeping in view the factors
pointed out above the Commission does not consider it necessary to recommend the amendment of
the Constitution to provide for the recommendations of either the Finance Commission constituted
under Amendments Article 280 or of the State Finance Commissions constituted under Amendments
Article s 243-I and 243-Y being treated as awards.
Important Article
267-Contingency4 Fund
270- Taxes levied b/w Center and States
280-Finace Commission
Leading case law:
M/s Chhotabhai vs UOI
Commissioner HRE v LT Swaminar
Secundrabad and Hyderabad hotel owner case
B - Trade, Commerce and Intercourse

Barriers to Inter-State Trade and Commerce
Free flow of trade without geographical barriers is sine-qua-non for economic prosperity nationally as
well as internationally. Therefore, progressive removal of such barriers has been a general
phenomenon in social evolution in the modern world. Today we are vigorously pursuing the goal of
free flow of trade among the nations of the world under the banner of globalization through, for
example, the WTO among the nations of the world. Regionally, member states of the European
Community, for example, have already achieved that goal almost fully. As economy is the most
important source of power and identity in the world of today, the nations or regions that constitute the
federation do not want to lose their hold on economic power. Nor do the economically strong States
want the economically weak States to become parasites on them. Therefore, an arrangement must be
devised which will ensure free flow of trade, encourage fair competition and simultaneously remain
capable of discouraging and regulating unfair trade practices. One common arrangement found in all
federations in this regard, is the division between the interstate and intrastate trade and
commerce. While the regulation of the former is assigned to the federal authority, the States retain the
regulation of the latter. Some federations have gone further and made interstate trade free from
regulation both by the federal authority as well as the authority of the States. Australia is the foremost
4
emergency
28
example of that. India goes one step further than Australia in so far as it makes flow of interstate as
well as intrastate trade free from regulation by the Union as well as the States. However, unlike
Australia, after making such a general declaration, the Constitution of India gives adequate powers to
the Union and the States, particularly to the former, to regulate trade and commerce.
Trade and Commerce Commission

In order that the country’s competitiveness in trade, commerce and industry is enabled to respond to
the increasing pressures of globalisation, it is necessary that barriers to Interstate trade and
commerce, particularly, the free movement of goods on the inter-state routes should be progressively
reduced with a view to their final elimination. A statutory authority contemplated under Amendments
Article 307 of the Constitution requires to be set-up. As the effects of such an authority could as well
go beyond the purposes of Amendments Article -307, the legislation could be comprehensive drawing
on Entry 42 of List -I and, if necessary, Entry 97 of List-I of the Seventh Schedule. The composition of
the authority may provide for representation of the FICCI, CII, Railway Board, FSIME (Federation of
Small Industries and Micro Enterprises), Indian Society of Automobile Manufacturers, National
Highway Authority of India, NCAER, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, Inter-State
Council, School of International Studies (Jawaharlal Nehru University), Planning Commission and
Ministry of Surface Transport.For carrying out the objectives of Amendments Article s 301, 302, 303
and 304, and other purposes relating to the needs and requirements of inter-state trade and
commerce and for purposes of eliminating barriers to inter-state trade and commerce Parliament
should by law establish an authority called the “Interstate Trade and Commerce Commission” under
the Ministry of Industry and Commerce under Amendments Article 307 read with Entry 42 of List-I.
Leading case Law

1. James V Commonwealth of Australia
2. Automobile cases
3. State of Mysore v Sanjeeviah
4. GK Krishna v. State of tamil Naidu
5. Indian Cement v. State of AP
6. State of MP vs Bhailal Bhai
7. Sahgir Ahmad v. State of UP.
C - Resolution of Disputes
Inter-State Disputes
In a Constitutional set-up where powers are distributed between the Union and the States, it is natural
to expect disputes as to on which side of the boundary a particular matter falls. Where such
differences do arise, it is desirable that there should be a well thought out systemic mechanism for the
resolution of such inter- State disputes.
Amendments Article 131 relates to the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and provides the
judicial mechanism for dealing with inter-Governmental disputes involving any questions of law or
fact on which existence or extent of a legal right depends between the Government of India and one or
more States or between the Government of India and any State or States on the one side and one or
more other States on the other or between two or more States. However, a few matters are excluded
either by express provisions or by necessary implication. The Commission considered as to whether
the Supreme Court should be given exclusive jurisdiction in controversies concerning the distribution
of legislative powers. Incidentally, it may be mentioned here that Amendments Article 131A was
inserted in the Constitution vide the Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976 so as to
provide exclusive jurisdiction to the Supreme Court in regard to the questions as to Constitutional
validity of Union laws. However, the said provision was repealed by the Constitution (Forty-third
29
Amendment) Act, 1977. After carefully considering the issues, the Commission is of the view that no
exclusive jurisdiction need be conferred on the Supreme Court in matters of controversies concerning
distribution of legislative power between the Union and the States. It would deprive non-
governmental parties of the facilities and the advantages of seeking remedy in the High
Courts. However, there may be situations, which may require that such questions should not undergo
a long drawn process of litigation and the Supreme Court should be enabled to dispose of such
questions finally and quickly without its being made a court of exclusive jurisdiction. The Commission
is of the view that the Supreme Court should be empowered to transfer such cases to itself and decide
the same. For this purpose it is not necessary to amend Amendments Article 131. It can be provided
for by amending Amendments Article 139A. This will also ensure that the Supreme Court would be
able to apply its mind and prima facie see as to whether (a) the case really involves some substantial
question of law and is not raising untenable or frivolous contentions; and (b) whether the case is such
that it should be transferred to it and disposed of expeditiously.
The Commission recommends that Amendments Article 139A, which confers power on the Supreme
Court to withdraw cases involving the same or substantially the same question of law, which are
pending in Supreme Court and one or more High Courts, should be amended so as to provide that it
can withdraw to itself cases even if they are pending in one court where such questions as to the
legislative competence of the Parliament or State Legislature are involved.
Inter-State Water Disputes

Water is a prime resource for sustaining life on earth. The domestic, agricultural and industrial uses
of water are multiplying day by day and this phenomenal increase in demand for water in diverse
fields has resulted in its scarcity. Moreover, availability of water is highly uneven in both space and
time as it is dependent upon varying seasons of rainfall and capacity of storage. India is served by two
great river systems, i.e. the Great Himalayan Drainage system and the peninsular river network. It has
14 major rivers that are inter-State rivers and 44 medium rivers of which 9 are inter-State
rivers. Eighty five per cent of the Indian land mass lies within its major and medium inter-State rivers.
The Commission considered the importance of inter-State water sharing as an area of great concern in
maintaining the federal spirit and better Union-State and inter-State relations. The Commission
accordingly studied the mechanisms available for efficient, productive and sustainable resource
management of the country’s river systems and allocation of inter-State water resources.
The Constitution does not itself lay down any specific machinery for adjudication of water
disputes. Amendments Article 262(1) lays down that Parliament may by law provide for the
adjudication of any disputes or complaints with respect to use, distribution or control of the waters of,
or in, any inter-State river or river valley. The subject “Water, that is to say, water supplies, irrigation
and canals, drainage and embankments, water storage and water power, subject to the provisions of
Entry 56 of List I” is a matter enumerated in entry 17 of the State List (List II) of the Seventh
Schedule. The expression “regulation and development of inter-State rivers and river valleys” in
Entry 56 of the Union List in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution would include the use,
distribution and allocation of the waters of the inter-State rivers and river valleys between different
riparian States. Otherwise the provision for the Union to take over the regulation and development
under its control makes no sense and serves no purpose. The River Boards Act, 1956 which is
admittedly enacted under Entry 56 of the Union List for the regulation and development of inter-State
rivers and river valleys does cover the field of the use, distribution and allocation of the waters of the
inter-State rivers and river valleys. The very basis of a federal Constitution like ours mandates such
interpretation and would not bear an interpretation to the contrary which will destroy the
Constitutional scheme. Although, therefore, it is possible technically to separate the “regulation and
development” of the inter-State rivers and river valleys from the “use, distribution and allocation” of
water, yet it is neither warranted nor necessary to do so.
30
Inter-State Water Disputes Act

Pursuant to the powers conferred by Amendments Article 262 of the Constitution, Parliament enacted
the Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956 (Act 33 of 1956) to provide for adjudication of disputes
relating to waters of inter-State river and river valleys. The Union Government has constituted
several Tribunals under the aforesaid Act. Section 4(1) of the Inter-States Water Disputes Act, 1956
empowers the Central Government to constitute a Water Disputes Tribunal for adjudication of a water
dispute when a request from any State Government in respect of such water dispute is received by it
and it is of opinion that the water dispute cannot be negotiated. The process under the Act from the
stage of Constitution of the Tribunal to the giving of the award by it normally takes 7 to 10 years. The
inordinate delay caused in constituting the Tribunals, delay in passing awards, framing of schemes or
plans for giving effect to the decisions, and judicial review by the Supreme Court at times have been
contributing factors in developing bitterness and friction between the States involved in the
disputes. All these delays were also causing underutilization of water resources and hindering the
timely development of the nation. Having regard to the various infirmities and difficulties in speedy
and timely resolution of disputes, the Commission on Centre-State Relations (commonly known as
Sarkaria Commission) in Chapter XVII of its report (Volume I) gave several recommendations for
implementation. Keeping in view the recommendations of the Sarkaria Commission, the Union
Government introduced the Inter-State Water Disputes (Amendment) Bill, 2001 in Lok Sabha to
ensure the setting up of inter–State Tribunals and submission of reports by the Tribunals in a time
bound manner. (See the Background paper on the subject for details). It was passed by Lok Sabha on
03.08.2001 and is still pending in the Rajya Sabha Though the Bill has dealt with some important
aspects, particularly the speedier settlement of Inter-State Water Disputes; the momentum of change
in technologies requires quicker and larger mobilization of water resources to sufficiently meet the
different needs including that of food security. The Commission observed that in case of every water
dispute there have been several occasions when one or the other party approached the Supreme Court
by way of seeking judicial review both against the interim orders of the tribunal as also against the
final decision. Further in the implementation of the decision of the tribunal the ousters or persons on
behalf of the ousters resort to enforcing their fundamental rights under Amendments Article 21 by a
remedy under Amendments Article 32, consequent on the submergence of their lands due to
construction of reservoirs. This leads to adjudication by two forums one as to the use and distribution
of water and the other relating to the enforcement of fundamental rights in the process of
implementation of the decision of the Tribunal. The Commission is of the view that it is not necessary
to exclude Inter-State Water Disputes from the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court under
Amendments Article 131 of the Constitution and that such disputes should also be made to fall within
the exclusive jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. It has been noticed that Inter-State Water Disputes
Act, 1956 has vested the Tribunal with a very unique jurisdiction under section 3. When a water
dispute has arisen or is likely to arise by reason of the fact that the interest of the State or of the
inhabitants thereof, in the waters of an inter-State river or river valley have been or are likely to be
affected prejudicially by any executive action or legislation taken or passed or proposed to be taken or
passed by another State, the aggrieved State Government may request the Union Government to refer
the water dispute to a Tribunal for adjudication. Consequently, even a proposed legislation can be the
subject matter of a dispute and interdicted by the Tribunal by a quia timet action. Courts do not
exercise such powers of interdiction of legislative measures. Appropriate provision should be made
for conferring such a unique power on the Supreme Court. It is recommended that the Inter-State
Water Disputes Act, 1956 be repealed and in its place a more comprehensive parliamentary legislation
should be enacted. However, it is necessary to make express provisions that the suit shall be instituted
in the Supreme Court, which shall have exclusive jurisdiction. It is not necessary to repeal
Amendments Article 262 of the Constitution for shifting the jurisdiction from the Tribunal to the
Supreme Court. Amendments Article 262 is a very important provision and the said provision being a
part of the Constitution as originally enacted and having come up before the courts several times, it is
31
unlikely to successfully challenge the same. Once it is omitted or repealed, difficulties would arise if
after experimenting on the changed form of adjudication, it is later felt or desired to have a Tribunal
with a modified or changed jurisdiction or even if it is felt that the system of adjudication by a Tribunal
as in the Act of 1956 would be better. Amendments Article 131 is subject to the provisions of the
Constitution. It may be noticed that Amendments Article 262(2) is only an enabling provision and
Parliament is not bound to enact a legislation constituting a Tribunal. A parliamentary legislation is
sufficient to substitute the forum of the Supreme Court to the Tribunal. No amendment to the
provisions of the Constitution may be required. This will enable Parliament to change the law, from
time to time, as it may deem fit and proper by resorting to its power under Amendments Article
262.The Commission feels that as river water disputes being important disputes between two or more
States and/or the Union, they should be heard and disposed by a bench of not less than three Judges
and if necessary, a bench of five Judges of the Supreme Court for the final disposal of the suit.
Appropriate provisions may be made as envisaged by Amendments Article 145(1) in consultation with
the Supreme Court or if the Supreme Court so opts to provide for the same by the Supreme Court
Rules to appoint Commissioners or Masters and to have the evidence recorded not by the Supreme
Court itself but by the Commissioners or Masters so that the precious time of the Supreme Court is
saved. While a more radical suggestion has been made to place all the inter-State rivers under the
jurisdiction of an authority appointed to administer them in national interest by law enacted by Union
Parliament, it is a fact that in relation to regulation and development of inter-State waters, the River
Boards Act, 1956 has remained a dead letter. Further, as and when occasions arose, different River
Boards have been constituted under different Acts of Parliament to meet the needs in a particular river
system according to the exigencies, facts and the circumstances. The Commission, therefore,
recommends that appropriate Parliamentary legislation should be made for repealing the River
Boards Act, 1956 and replacing it by another comprehensive enactment under Entry 56 of List I. The
new enactment should clearly define the Constitution of the River Boards and their jurisdiction so as
to regulate, develop and control all inter-State rivers keeping intact the adjudicated and the recognized
rights of the States through which the inter-State river passes and their inhabitants. While enacting the
legislation, national interest should be the paramount consideration as inter-State rivers are ‘material
resources’ of the community and are national assets. Such enactment should be passed by Parliament
after having effective and meaningful consultation with all the State Governments.
Leading case
 Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal Re.
Inter-State Council
Amendments Article 263 provides a mechanism for resolving problems by collective thinking,
persuasion and discussion through a high level coordinating forum, namely the inter-State Council. In
view of frequent friction between the Union and the States and between the States, the Amendments
Article has become more relevant. Amendments Article 263 empowers the President to establish an
Inter-State Council at any time if it appears to him that the establishment of such a Council would
serve the public interest. The Council could be charged with the duty of - (a) inquiring into and
advising upon disputes which may have arisen between States;(b) investigating and discussing
subjects in which some or all of the States, or the Union and one or more of the States, have a common
interest; or (c) making recommendations upon any such subject and, in particular, recommendations
for the better coordination of policy and action with respect to that subject. An Inter-State Council was
established in 1990 but it met for the first time in 1996. Under the States Reorganization Act, 1956 five
zonal Councils were set up. Besides this, North-Eastern Council has been setup under the North-
Eastern Council Act, 1971.The Commission observes that Amendments Article 263 has vast potential
and the same has not yet been fully utilized for resolving various problems concerning more than one
State. Of late, it has been observed that where a treaty is entered into by the Union Government
concerning a matter in the State List vitally affecting the interests of the States no prior consultation is
32
made with them. The forum of inter-State Council could be very well utilized for discussion of policy
matters involving more than one State and arriving at a decision expeditiously. The Commission
issued a consultation paper on “Constitutional mechanism for the settlement of inter-State disputes”
and elicited opinion of the general public. The responses were most helpful. The Commission, while
endorsing the recommendations of the Commission on Centre-State Relations (Sarkaria Commission),
recommends that in resolving problems and coordinating policy and action, the Union as well as the
States should more effectively utilize the forum of inter-State Council. This will be in tune with the
spirit of cooperative federalism requiring proper understanding and mutual confidence and resolution
of problems of common interest expeditiously.
Treaty Making
Entering into treaties and agreements with foreign powers is one of the attributes of State
sovereignty. No State can insulate itself from the rest of the world whether it be in the matter of
foreign relations, trade, commerce, economy, communications, environment or ecology. The advent of
globalization and the enormous advances made in communication and information technology have
rendered independent States more inter-dependent.
Amendments Article 246 (1) read with Entry 14 of List I- Union List of the Seventh Schedule
empowers Parliament to make laws with respect to “entering into treaties and agreements with
foreign countries and implementing of treaties, agreements and conventions with foreign countries”.
As per the provisions contained in Amendments Article 253, Parliament has, notwithstanding anything
contained in Amendments Article 245 to 252, power to make any law for the whole or any part of the
territory of India for implementing any treaty, agreement or convention with any other country or
countries or any decision made at any international conference, association or other body. This
Amendments Article (Amendments Article 253), therefore, overrides the distribution of legislative
powers provided for by Amendments Article 246 read with Lists in the Seventh Schedule to the
Constitution. The Commission recommends that for reducing tension or friction between States and
the Union and for expeditious decision-making on important issues involving States, the desirability of
prior consultation by the Union Government with the inter-State Council may be considered before
signing any treaty vitally affecting the interests of the States regarding matters in the State List.
Administrative Relations
256. Obligation of States and the Union.—
The executive power of every State shall be so exercised as to ensure compliance with the laws made
by Parliament and any existing laws which apply in that State, and the executive power of the Union
shall extend to the giving of such directions to a State as may appear to the Government of India to be
necessary for that purpose.
257. Control of the Union over States in certain cases.—

(1) The executive power of every State shall be so exercised as not to impede or prejudice the exercise
of the executive power of the Union, and the executive power of the Union shall extend to the giving of
such directions to a State as may appear to the Government of India to be necessary for that purpose.
(2) The executive power of the Union shall also extend to the giving of directions to a State as to the
construction and maintenance of means of communication declared in the direction to be of national
or military importance:
Provided that nothing in this clause shall be taken as restricting the power of Parliament to declare
highways or waterways to be national highways or national waterways so declared or the power of
the Union to construct and maintain means of communication as part of its functions with respect to
naval, military and air force works.
(3) The executive power of the Union shall also extend to the giving of directions to a State as to the
measures to be taken for the protection of the railways within the State.
33
(4) Where in carrying out any direction given to a State under clause (2) as to the construction or
maintenance of any means of communication or under clause (3) as to the measures to be taken for
the protection of any railway, costs have been incurred in excess of those which would have been
incurred in the discharge of the normal duties of the State if such direction had not been given, there
shall be paid by the Government of India to the State such sum as may be agreed, or, in default of
agreement, as may be determined by an arbitrator appointed by the Chief Justice of India, in respect of
the extra costs so incurred by the State.
258. Power of the Union to confer powers, etc., on States in certain cases.—
(1) Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, the President may, with the consent of the Governor
of a State, entrust either conditionally or unconditionally to that Government or to its officers
functions in relation to any matter to which the executive power of the Union extends.
(2) A law made by Parliament which applies in any State may, notwithstanding that it relates to a
matter with respect to which the Legislature of the State has no power to make laws, confer powers
and impose duties, or authorize the conferring of powers and the imposition of duties, upon the State
or officers and authorities thereof.
(3) Where by virtue of this article powers and duties have been conferred or imposed upon a State or
officers or authorities thereof, there shall be paid by the Government of India to the State such sum as
may be agreed, or, in default of agreement, as may be determined by an arbitrator appointed by the
Chief Justice of India, in respect of any extra costs of administration incurred by the State in
connection with the exercise of those powers and duties.
Case Law
 Jayanti Lal Amritlal Shodhan v. FN Rana
 Anwar V. State of J&K
 Samsher Singh v. State of Punjab
258A. Power of the States to entrust functions to the Union.—

Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, the Governor of a State may, with the consent of the
Government of India, entrust either conditionally or unconditionally to that Government or to its
officers functions in relation to any matter to which the executive power of the State extends.
260. Jurisdiction of the Union in relation to territories outside India.—

The Government of India may by agreement with the Government of any territory not being part of the
territory of India undertake any executive, legislative or judicial functions vested in the Government of
such territory, but every such agreement shall be subject to, and governed by, any law relating to the
exercise of foreign jurisdiction for the time being in force.
261. Public acts, records and judicial proceedings.—

Full faith and credit shall be given throughout the territory of India to public acts, records and judicial
proceedings of the Union and of every State.
(2) The manner in which and the conditions under which the acts, records and proceedings referred to
in clause (1) shall be proved and the effect thereof determined shall be as provided by law made by
Parliament.
(3) Final judgments or orders delivered or passed by civil courts in any part of the territory of India
shall be capable of execution anywhere within that territory according to law.
34
Form of Government
Single government Division of power

Written or unwritten
Separate form of
Rigid or flexible
Govt.
No special judiciary
Concentration of power Written
Rigid
Special judiciary
35

UNIT – III Finance and Service
1 Financial provisions: property, contracts, rights, liabilities obligation and Suit

2 Public service commissions, service under the Union and the States
Miscellaneous Financial Provisions
282 Expenditure defrayable by the Union or a State out of its revenues

283 Custody, etc of Consolidated Funds, Contingency Funds and moneys credited
to the public accounts
284 Custody of suitors’ deposits and other moneys received by public servants
and courts
285 Exemption of property of the Union from State taxation
286 Restrictions as to imposition of tax on the sale or purchase of goods
287 Exemption from taxes on electricity
288 Exemption from taxation by States in respect of water or electricity in certain
cases
289 Exemption of property and income of a State from Union taxation
290 Adjustment in respect of certain expenses and pensions
290A Annual payment to certain Devaswom Funds
291 Repealed
CHAPTER II BORROWING
292 Borrowing by the Government of India

293 Borrowing by States
CHAPTER III PROPERTY, CONTRACTS, RIGHTS, LIABILITIES, OBLIGATIONS AND SUITS
294 Succession to property, assets, rights, liabilities and obligations in certain
cases
295 Succession to property, assets, rights, liabilities and obligations in other cases
296 Property accruing by escheat or lapse or as bona vacantia
297 Things of value within territorial waters or continental shelf and resources of
the exclusive economic zone to vest in the Union
298 Power to carry on trade, etc
299 Contracts
300 Suits and proceedings
CHAPTER IV RIGHT TO PROPERTY
300A Persons not to be deprived of property save by authority of law

PART XIV SERVICES UNDER THE UNION AND THE STATES
CHAPTER I SERVICES
308 Interpretation
309 Recruitment and conditions of service of persons serving the Union or a State
310 Tenure of office of persons serving the Union or a State
311 Dismissal, removal or reduction in rank of persons employed in civil
36
capacities under the Union or a State

312 All-India Services
312A Power of Parliament to vary or revoke conditions of service of officers of
certain services
313 Transitional provisions
314 Repealed
CHAPTER II PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION
315 Public Service Commissions for the Union and for the States
316 Appointment and term of office of members
317 Removal and suspension of a member of a Public Service Commission
318 Power to make regulations as to conditions of service of members and staff of
the Commission
319 Prohibition as to the holding of offices by members of Commission on ceasing
to be such members
320 Functions of Public Service Commissions
321 Power to extend functions of Public Service Commissions
322 Expenses of Public Service Commission
323 Reports of Public Service Commissions
The State Liability 299-300

Leading case
Steam navigation co. v Secretary of State for India
Kasturi Lal v State of UP
UOI v. Sugrabai
N.Nagendra Rao & Co. State of AP
Rudal Shah v. Bihar
Nilbati Behra V. State of Orissa
The Liability of State in Contracts – Art. 299

Amendments Article 299 narrates about “The Liability of State in Contracts”
299. Contracts.—(1) All contracts made in the exercise of the executive power of the Union or of a
State shall be expressed to be made by the President, or by the Governor of the State, as the case may
be, and all such contracts and all assurances of property made in the exercise of that power shall be
executed on behalf of the President or the Governor by such persons and in such manner as he may
direct or authorize.
(2) Neither the President nor the Governor shall be personally liable in respect of
any contract or assurance made or executed for the purposes of this Constitution, or for the purposes
of any enactment relating to the Government of India heretofore in force, nor shall any person making
or executing any such contract or assurance on behalf of any of them be personally liable in respect
thereof.
Essentials of Amendments Article 299

All contracts made in the exercise of the executive power of the Union or of a State shall be expressed
to be made by the President or by the Governor of the State, as the case may be.
All such contracts and all assurances of property made in the exercise of that power shall be executed
on behalf of the President or the Governor by such persons and in such manner as he may direct or
authorize.
37
No liability of the President or Governor: Neither the President nor the Governor shall be personally
liable in respect of any contract or assurance made or executed for the purposes of this Constitution,
or for the purposes of any enactment relating to the Government of India heretofore in force, nor shall
any person making or executing any such contract or assurance on behalf of any of them be personally
liable in respect thereof.
Amendments Article 299 is mandatory

If the requirements of Amendments Article 299 are not complied with, the officer executing the
contract would be personally liable.
Quantum merit or quantum valebat (service or goods received): If the Government enjoys the benefit
of performance by the other party to the contract, shall be bound to give recompense on the principles
of Quantum merit or quantum valebat. The principles as laid down in Sections 65 to 70 (Quasi-
contracts) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 shall also apply in the Government Contracts also.
Depending upon the facts and circumstances, the Doctrine of Estoppels may also apply in the
Government Contracts under Amendments Article 299.
State of West Bengal v B.K. Mondal & Sons
Union of India v Rallia Ram
The Bihar Eastern Gangetic Fishermen Co-operative Society Ltd. v Sipani Singh and others
Promissory Estoppels
The Doctrine of Promissory Estoppels has been variously called ‘Promissory Estoppels’, ‘Requisite
Estoppels’, and ‘Quasi-Estoppels
Services Under Union & State Article (308-323)

The idea of establishing a Public Service Commission for the recruitment of Public Services in the
country was first formulated in the memorandum presented by the Government of India in 1919 to
the Committee on the division of functions. It is provided that “there shall be established in India a
Public Service Commission which shall discharge in regard to the recruitment and control of the
public services in India., such other functions as may be assigned thereto by rules made by the
secretary of State in council” The Government of India considered this question and forwarded its
recommendations to the Provincial Governments of their views. It also said that competitive
examinations were going to be introduced; it must be subject to the following conditions.
First the candidates must be graduates; there should be a preliminary selection of candidates by a
Committee to be constituted for the purpose; the Provincial Governments should decide upon the
recommendations of the Committee; there should be some age limit. In 1924, the Royal Commission
on public Services (Lee Commission) laid stress on the necessity for constituting without delay a
Public Service Commission under the Government of India Act, 1919. They proposed to assign to the
Commission four distinct functions; First, the recruitment of personnel for public services; Second, the
establishment and the maintenance of proper standards of qualifications for admission to the services;
Third, quasi-judicial functions relating to disciplinary control and protection of services and finally,
advisory functions in regard to the general service problems.
The Government of India Act, 1935 accordingly provided in section 264 that, “there shall be a Public
Service
Commission for the Federation and a Public Service Commission for each Province. After India
attained her Independence in 1947 and proceeded to frame a Constitution according to her own
ideals, the Constituent Assembly, entrusted with this
38
Public Service Commission

The Constitution of India, unlike the Constitution of many other countries, has provided for public
service commission at the Centre as well as in the States. In most Countries of the world such agencies
are created by the legislature; they have no Constitutional existence. Considered from this point of
view, the commissions are only advisory bodies, and the governments may disregard their advice with
impunity. Experience, however, reveals that the governments both at centre and in the states have
been implementing the recommendations of the Commissions with all sincerity.
In a democratic state, like India, it is desirable that the government should be guided in respect of
appointment and control of its officials by an impartial body of experts like the public service
commission. It has been observed from the discussion in parliament and in state legislature over the
years on the reports of the Commissions that only in a very few cases the government failed to accept
the recommendations of the Commissions, and even for such few cases the government concerned has
been bitterly criticized.
Recruitment and Conditions of Service

Under the provisions of Article 309, Parliament is empowered to regulate the recruitment and
conditions of service of persons appointed to public service and posts in connection with the
affairs of the Union. Similarly, State Legislatures are empowered to regulate recruitment and
conditions of service of persons appointed to public service or posts in connection with the affairs of
the states. But according to the opinion of the Supreme Court, In the case of Rajinder Singh v State of
Punjab AIR, 2001 S.C 1769, the executive instructions cannot amend the rules, where appointment or
promotion is made without requisite qualifications prescribed by Rules only; relying upon notification
the appointment or promotion shall be illegal. Article 311 expressly imposes restrictions upon the
pleasure of the president or the Governor, as the case may be, and provisions of clause (1) and (2) of it
come within the ambit of the words “Except as otherwise provided by this Constitution” which qualify
Article 310(1). However, opening words of Article 309 make it expressly subject to other provisions of
the Constitution and therefore it cannot operate as an exception to pleasure doctrine. Rules made
under the proviso to article 309 or Acts referable to it would be subject to both Articles 310 and 311
decided in Union of India v Tulsiram Patel, AIR, and 1985 S.C. 1416. Where however, no law is made by
Parliament or State Legislature for such regulation, President can make rules in connection with the
Union Public Services and posts and Governor in connection with State Public Services and posts. The
President and Governors have also been given power to delegate their rule making power to any other
person.
Doctrine of Pleasure
In England the rule is that a civil servant of the Crown holds office during the pleasure of the Crown
and his services can be terminated by the Crown at any time without assigning any reason and without
giving any compensation except where it is otherwise provided by a statute. The Crown is not bound
by the contract of employment between it and a civil servant and therefore in the case of dismissal, a
civil servant is not entitled to damages for premature termination of his services. The doctrine of
pleasure is based on the public policy. Its operation, however, can be modified by an act of Parliament.
In India the doctrine of pleasure has been incorporated in Article 310 of the Constitution of India.
Article 310 provides that except as expressly provided by the Constitution, every person, who is a
member of defense service or of a civil service of the Union or of an All India Service or holds any post
connected with defense or any civil post under the Union, holds office during the pleasure of the
President and every person who is a member of a civil service of a State or holds any civil post under a
state holds office during the pleasure of the Governor of the State.
39
It was decided in the case of Shyam v Union of India AIR, 1987 S.C. 1137, Pleasure under Article 310 is
not required to be exercised by the president or the Governor personally. It may be exercised by the
president or the Governor acting on the advice of the Council of Ministers. In another case of Union of
India v Tulsiram, AIR 1985 SC 1416, it was decided that pleasure of the President or the Governor
under Article 310 is not subject to any contract and cannot be fettered by contract, ordinary legislation
or the rules made under Article 309.
Exceptions to Doctrine of Pleasure

The Doctrine of pleasure is subject to other express provisions of the Constitution. Article 310(1) will
not apply where the Constitution expressly provides for secured tenure. Article 124 and Article 217
guarantee a secured tenure to the judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts. Similarly, the
Comptroller and Auditor-General of India (Article148), Chairman and Members of Public Service
Commission (Article 317) and the Chief Election Commissioner (Article324) also have constitutionally
secured tenure. Doctrine of pleasure does not apply to the holders of these offices. They can be
removed from office on the ground of ‘Proved misbehavior’ or ‘incapacity’ by observing the procedure
contemplated by the Constitution.
Other Offices Subject to Doctrine of Pleasure

The executive power of the Union and of a state has been vested in the President and the Governor of
the State concerned respectively. The President has a fixed term and he does not hold office at
pleasure. The Governor is the executive head of a state and has a term of five years. But he can be
removed from his office earlier because he holds his office during the pleasure of the president. This
doctrine of pleasure has no safeguards and in a number of cases the Governors have been dismissed
by the president arbitrarily.
There are no safeguards available to him. The ministers of the Union and of various States have real
executive powers with respect to their ministers. But all the ministers hold office during the pleasure
of the president or a Governor as the case may be. Factually, all ministers hold office during the
pleasure of the Prime Minister or the Chief Minister which is exercised formally in the name of the
President or Governor.
The Council of Ministers of National Capital Territory of Delhi holds office during the pleasure of the
President though it is accountable to the Legislative Council. The Attorney General of India and the
Advocate General of each state also hold office during the pleasure of the President or the Governor as
the case may be.
Doctrine of Pleasure under Article 310 and Common Law

In Britain, the doctrine of pleasure is a common law doctrine. It can be modified by parliament by law.
In India, it is a Constitutional doctrine and cannot be changed by ordinary legislation (decided in the
case of Sampuran Singh v State of Punjab, AIR 1982 SC 1407). In Britain, a civil servant has no right to
bring suit against the Crown for arrears of salary. In India, a civil servant will get his arrears of salary if
his dismissal is found to be unlawful. The pleasure of the President/Governor is subject to other
provisions of the Constitution. In our Republic where the rule of law prevails, even pleasure is
canalized. Viewed from this perspective, security of tenure is a value itself.
Clause (2) of Article 310 again makes an exception to the doctrine of pleasure. The state can enter into
service contracts with new entrants, other than those covered by Clause (1), having special
qualifications and such agreements will not be subject to the doctrine of pleasure where such
contracts make provision for compensation in case of premature termination of contract,, except the
cases of misconduct on the part of the employee, the Government shall be bound to pay compensation.
40
Payment of compensation under clause (2) of Article 310 is not implicit. It can be made only when the
contract of service makes specific provision for such compensation. Being an enabling provision in the
matter of payment of compensation on the basis of a contractual obligation, it cannot be said that even
when there is no stipulation in a contract of employment, the same is implicit, decided in the case of
J.P. Bansal v State of Rajasthan, AIR 2003 SC 1405.
Save Guards to Civil Servants (Article 311)

Article 311 is a bulwark of civil servants. This is an important guarantee which severely restricts the
doctrine of pleasure contained in Article 310 (1) of the Constitution. Article 311 envisages three major
penalties which may be inflicted on a civil servant. They are dismissal, removal and reduction in rank.
Dismissal and removal from service are grave penalties which end the services of an employee. Article
311 gives more protection to a civil servant against these penalties. Reduction in rank does not end the
services of an employee and, has been treated differently. Article 311 (1) provides that no person who
is a member of a civil service of a state or holds a civil post under the union or a state shall be
dismissed or removed by an authority subordinate to that by which he was appointed.
Reasonable Opportunity of Hearing

(a) A civil servant cannot be dismissed, removed or reduced in rank unless: (a) an inquiry is made in
which
(b) he is informed of the charges against him; and (c) given a reasonable opportunity of being heard in
respect of those charges. Procedural defect in the inquiry proceedings does not set aside the order of
dismissal etc. and reinstate the employee. In such cases, the enquiry proceedings shall continue from
the stage where it stood before the alleged vulnerability surfaced. Decided in the case of (Union of
India v Y.S. Sandhu, Air,2009 SC 162; U P State Spining Co. Ltd. V R.S Pandey, (2005) 8 SCC 264)The
protection given to a civil servant by Article311 (20 is that he cannot be dismissed, removed or
reduced in rank by way of punishment without : (a) an inquiry informing him of (b) the charges
against him and without
(c) giving a reasonable opportunity of being heard in respect of those charges.In cases where the basis
on which the employee obtained the employment is false, no inquiry is required. In Superintendent of
Post Offices v R. Valasina Babu, AIR 2007 SC 1126, the respondent secured Government Job by
producing false certificate. On inquiry the Collector cancelled the certificate. After disciplinary
proceedings he was dismissed from service. It was held that in case of this nature, it might not have
been necessary to initiate any disciplinary proceedings against the respondent. He could be dismissed
without an inquiry.
Departmental proceedings are said to have been initiated only when a charge-sheet is issued (Coal
India Ltd. V Saroj Kumar Mishra,AIR 2007 SC 1707) Departmental proceedings and criminal
proceedings are different. Unless the charge in criminal trial is of grave nature with complicated facts
and law, departmental inquiry can be held separately, decided in the case of NOIDA Entrepreneurs
Association v NOIDA, AIR 2007 SC 1161.
In India
Doctrine of Pleasure in India is controlled by the President and Governor according to the
provisions of Article 310 of Constitution of India that deals with the Tenure of office of
persons serving the Union or a State.
Certain tenures such as Judges of Supreme Court of India, Judges of High Court, Auditor-
General of India, Chief Election Commissioner, Chairman and Member of Public Service
Commission are expressly excluded from this Doctrine.
The Doctrine is subject to Fundamental Rights
41
Reasonable Opportunity
Reasonable Opportunity is a facet of natural justice. Natural Justice has no fixed meaning. The basic
object is to ensure fairness, impartiality and reasonableness In the case of Uma Nath Pandey v State of
U.P. AIR 2009 SC 2375, it was held by the Supreme Court that the very purpose of the following
principles of natural justice is the prevention of miscarriage of justice. Broadly reasonable opportunity
may include the following:
The employee against whom action for either of three punishments (removal,
dismissal or reduction in rank) is proposed should be informed of the charges;
The charges must be clear, precise and accurate;
The delinquent employee should be informed of the evidence by which those charges
are sought to be substantiated against him;
Copies of relevant document must be supplied to the employee;
If charges are framed on the basis of evidence of witnesses examined in the absence
of delinquent employee, copies of statements of witnesses must be given to him;
Personal hearing if demanded by the delinquent servant, must be given; The
employee charged must be given an opportunity to cross-examine the witnesses
produced against him;
The employee against whom an inquiry is being held has a right to argue his own case. It is
a part of personal hearing;
Inquiry officer should not be biased;
Reasons must be given by an inquiry officer for his decision;
Inquiry officer cannot be witnesses himself.
Service Tribunals
One of the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee was to have special tribunals for
resolving the disputes of civil servants which had resulted in backlog of cases in High Courts. Article
323-A was inserted in the Constitution as a follow-up measures by the Constitution (forty-Second
Amendment) Act, 1976. The purpose of service Tribunals is to deal exclusively with service matters
and to provide to persons covered by them, speedy relief in respect of their grievances. Article 323-A
is not self-executor. Parliament ‘may’, by law provide for the adjudication of or trial by administrative
tribunals of disputes and complaints with respect to recruitment and condition of service of persons
appointed to public services and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of any State or of
any local or other authority within the territory of India or under the control of the Government of
India or of any corporation owned or controlled by the Government. By virtue of this authorization
Parliament in 1985 has enacted The Administrative Tribunals Act providing for the establishment
Central/State/Joint Administrative Tribunals. It is clear from the language of Article 323-A that
Parliament alone has power to establish such tribunals. The object was to equate these tribunals with
the High Court so that the burden of the later could be reduced.
42
Right to property
Pre 1978 Amendment ACT Article 19(1)(f)

Post 1978 Amendment Act Articles 31(a), 31(a), 31(a), 300 A
The Indian Constitution does not recognize property right as a fundamental right. In the year 1977, the
44th amendment eliminated the right to acquire, hold and dispose of property as a fundamental
right. However, in another part of the Constitution, Article 300 (A) was inserted to affirm that no
person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law. The result is that the right to
property as a fundamental right is now substituted as a statutory right. The amendment expanded the
power of the state to appropriate property for social welfare purposes. In other words, the
amendment bestowed upon the Indian socialist state a license to indulge in what Fredric Bastiat
termed legal plunder. This is one of the classic examples when the law has been perverted in order to
make plunder look just and sacred to many consciences.
Indian experiences and conception of property and wealth have a very different historical basis than
that of western countries. The fact the present system of property as we know arises out of the
peculiar developments in Europe in the 17th to 18thcentury and therefore its experiences were
universally not applicable. A still more economic area in which the answer is both difficult and
important is the definition of property rights. The notion of property as it has developed over
centuries and it has embodies in our legal codes, has become so much a part of us that we tend to take
it for granted, and fail to recognize the extent to which just what constitutes property and what rights
the ownership of property confers are complex social creations rather than self evident
propositions. This also seems to be the hidden reason why the right to property is suddenly much
contested throughout India today and why the state is coming up unexpectedly against huge
resistance from unexpected quarters in attempting to acquire land in India. The action of the state to
assert the Eminent Domain over subsidiary claims on property and the clash which resulted there
from Singur, Nandigram and other parts of India is precisely a manifestation of a clash of cultures. To
put in Samuel Huntingtons words, the ideas of the west of development and liberalization propagated
by the present ruling elite and the old Indic ideas which shape the views of the majority of the people.
Whereas the new A.300 A imposes only one limitation on this power (i.e.,) Authority of Law
MAXIMS
The doctrine is based on the following two Latin maxims
i. Salus Populi est Suprema Lex Welfare Of The People Of The Public Is The
Paramount Law;
ii. Necessita Public Major est Quam Public Necessity Is Greater Than Private
Necessity. Also right to property against the state.
However, when the state realized that an absolute property and the aspirations of the people were not
the same the legislature was subsequently forced to make the said right to property subject to social
welfare amid amendments to the Constitution. Articles 31-A, 31-B and 31-C are the indicators of the
change and the counter pressure of the state when it realized the inherent problems in granting a clear
western style absolute fundamental right to property (even though it was balanced by reasonable
43
restrictions in the interest of the public), specially Article 31-C, which for the first time brought out the
social nature of property. It is another matter that the said provisions were misused, and what we are
discussing today, but the abuse of the socialist state in India is not the scope of the present article and
the articles are considered on their face value only. Supreme Court Approach to the Right to Property
The Supreme Courts approach to the right to property can be divided into two phases:-
THE TIME TILL THE RIGHT

TO PROPERTY WAS A THE TIME AFTER
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT (PRE THE CONVERSION OF
1978) RIGHT TO PROPERTY
AS A
CONSTITUTIONAL
RIGHT (POST 1978)
Pre 1978 The Fundamental Right to Property

The Ninth Schedule was inserted in the Constitution by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951
along with two new Articles 31 A & 31 B so as to make laws acquiring zamindaris unchallengeable in
the courts. Thirteen State Acts named in this schedule were put beyond any challenge in courts for
contravention of fundamental rights. These steps were felt necessary to carry out land reforms in
accordance with the economic philosophy of the state to distribute the land among the land workers,
after taking away such land from the land lords.
By the Fourth Amendment Act, 1955, Art 31 relating to right to property was amended in several
respects. The purpose of these amendments related to the power of the state o compulsory acquisition
and requisitioning of private property. The amount of compensation payable for this purpose was
made unjustifiable to overcome the effect of the Supreme Court judgment in the decision of State of
West Bengal v. Bella Banerjee. By the Constitution (Seventeenth Amendment) Act, 1964, article 31 A
was amended with respect to meaning of expression estate and the Ninth Schedule was amended by
including therein certain state enactments.
During this period the Supreme Court was generally of the view that land reforms need to be upheld
even if they did strictly clash against the right to property, though the Supreme Court was itself
skeptical about the way the government went about exercising its administrative power in this regard.
The Supreme Court was insistent that the administrative discretion to appropriate or infringe
property rights should be in accordance with law and cannot be by mere fact. The court however
really clashed with the socialist executive during the period of nationalization, when the court
44
admirably stood up for the right to property in however a limited manner against the over reaches of
the socialist state
In this juncture the court in this Bank Nationalization case has clearly pointed out the following two
points:
 The Constitution guarantees the right to compensation which is equivalent in
money to the value of the property has been compulsorily acquired. This is the
basic guarantee. The law must therefore provide compensation and for
determining compensation relevant principles must be specified: if the principles
are not relevant the ultimate value determined is not compensation.
 The Constitution guarantees that the expropriate owner must be given the value of
his property (the reasonable compensation for the loss of the property). That
reasonable compensation must not be illusionary and not reached by the
application of an undertaking as a unit after awarding compensation for some
items which go to make up the undertaking and omitting important items amounts
to adopting an irrelevant principle in the determination of the value of the
undertaking and does not furnish compensation to the expropriated owner.
Post 1978 The Constitutional Right to Property

It was at this period the Supreme Court had gone out of its way to hold against the right to property
and the right to accumulate wealth and also held that with regard to Article 39, the distribution of
material resources to better serve the common good and the restriction on the concentration of
wealth. The court however is also responsible in toning down the excesses on the right to property
and wealth by the socialist state. During the period of Liberalization, the Supreme Court has attempted
to get back to reinterpret the provisions which give protection to the right to property so as to make
the protection real and not illusory and dilute the claim of distribution of wealth. However, this has
been an incremental approach and much more needs to be done to shift the balance back to the
original in the Constitution. This means that the acquisition of property is not merely temporal but to
be accepted as valid it must conform to spiritual guidelines as well as the Indian conceptions recognize
quite clearly that though property can be enjoyed which has not been acquired strictly in terms of the
law, it cannot be called real property of the person concerned. Property therefore is not merely an
individual right but a construction and part of social and spiritual order. The basis of conception of
property in the societies of India is not a rigid and clear demarcation of claims belonging to an
individual but is a sum total of societal and individual claims all of which need not be based on clear
individual legal demarcation.
44th Amendment to the Constitution & the present scenario

The outburst against the Right to Property as a Fundamental Right in Articles 19 (1) (f) and 31 started
immediately after the enforcement of the Constitution in 1950. Land reforms, zamindari abolition
laws, disputes relating to compensation, several rounds of Constitutional amendments, litigations and
adjudications ultimately culminated first in the insertion of the word socialist in the Preamble by the
42nd Amendment in 1977 and later in the omission of the Right to Property as a FR and its
reincarnation as a bare Constitutional right in Article 300-A by the 44th Amendment in 1978.
Today, the times have changed radically. India is no more seen through the eyes of only political
leaders with a socialist bias. It is India Shining seen through the corporate lenses of financial giants
like the Tatas, Ambanis and Mahindras, with an unfathomable zeal for capitalism, money and markets.
There is another angle. There is a scramble by industrialists and developers for land all over the
country for establishment of Special Economic Zones. Violent protests by poor agriculturists have
taken place to defend their meager land-holdings against compulsory acquisition by the State. In
particular, the riots and killings in Singur, Nandigram etc. in a State (of West Bengal) ruled by
45
communists has turned the wheel full circle. Socialism has become a bad word and the Right to
Property has become a necessity to assure and assuage the feelings of the poor more than those of the
rich. Soon after the abolition of the Fundamental Right to property, in Bhim Singh v. UOI, the Supreme
Court realised the worth of the Right to Property as a Fundamental Right. In the absence of this
Fundamental Right to property, it took recourse to the other Fundamental Right of Equality which is
absolutely the concept of Reasonableness under Article 14 for invalidating certain aspects of the urban
land ceiling legislation. Today, the need is felt to restore the right to property as a Fundamental Right
for protecting at least the elementary and basic proprietary rights of the poor Indian citizens against
compulsory land acquisition. Very recently, the Supreme Court, while disapproving the age-old
Doctrine of Adverse Possession, as against the rights of the real owner, observed that The right to
property is now considered to be not only a Constitutional right or statutory right but also a human
right. Thus, the trend is unmistakable. By 2050, if the Constitution of India is to be credited with a
sense of sensibility and flexibility in keeping with the times, the bad word socialist inserted in the
Preamble in 1977 shall stand omitted and the Right to Property shall stand resurrected to its original
position as a Fundamental Right.
Judiciary over 300-A

Constitutionality of A. 31A
In Ambika Mishra v State of UP , the Supreme Court upheld the Constitutionality of clause (a)
of Article 31A (1) on the test of basic structure. In Minerva Mills v Union of India , the Court held that
the whole of Art. 31A is unassailable on the basis of stare decisis, a quietus that should not allowed to
be disturbed.In Waman Rao and I R Coelho case, the First Amendment in which the Art. 31A was
introduced and Fourth Amendment which substituted new clauses to this Article has been held
Constitutional. Therefore relying on the judgments of Minerva Mills, Waman Rao and Coelho
case Article 31A can be stated as constitutionally valid.
Emergence of Article 31 B: Validation of certain Laws

Art.31A was added to the Constitution by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951. It was added
as a Constitutional device to protect the specified statutes from any attack on the ground that they
infringe Part III of the Constitution . It has retrospective effect which is clear from the words “ever to
have become void” . The introduction of this provision has cure the defects in various acts of the Ninth
schedule as regards to the unconstitutionality alleged on the grounds of infringement of Part III of
the Constitution, these acts even if void or inoperative at the time, they were inactive by reason of
infringement of Article 13(2) of the Constitution assumes full force from the respective dates of their
enactment after their inclusion in the Ninth schedule read with Article 31B of the Constitution. The
Ninth schedule consists of 284 legislations until the Constitution (78th amendment) act, 1995 but
article 31B did not empower the legislatures to amend these acts inconsistently with the provisions of
the Constitution or to take away the rights conferred by the Constitution. The amendments must be
consistent with the provision of the Constitution or be saved under Article 31A of the Constitution, if
not they must be held void. A question was raised in Prag Ice And Oil Mills v. Union Of India whether
article 31B saved the orders and notifications issued under Section 3 of the Essential Commodities Act
1955 which was already included in the Ninth schedule but as was already decided in Godavari Sugar
Mills Ltd. v. S.B Kamble that the amendments to ac act subsequent to an inclusion of an act in the Ninth
schedule were not entitled to the protection of Article 31B. The Supreme Court dismissed the petition
as the act did not violate the petitioner’s rights under Article 14 and 19, it was explained by the court
that when a particular act or regulation is placed in the Ninth schedule, the parliament may be
assumed to have applied its mind to the provisions of the particular act and the desirability, propriety
or necessity of placing it in the Ninth schedule and such an assumption cannot in the very nature of
things be made in the case of an order issued under an Act or Regulation placed in the Ninth schedule.
46
Constitutional Validity of Article 31B

In Waman Rao v. Union of India , the court held that amendments in the Ninth schedule made before
the decision of Keshavananda Bharti v. State of Kerala that is before 24.04.1973 were beyond
challenge but the amendments made afterwards could be tested on the grounds of amendment of
basic structure. Similar views were given by the court in Minerva Mills v. Union of India and Bhim
Singhji v. Union of India . In I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu the nine judge bench of the Supreme
Court unanimously decided that as held in Keshavananda Bharti case and later clarified in Waman Rao
case while the laws included in the Ninth schedule before the decision in Keshavananda Bharti case
are immune from any challenge on the grounds of violation of fundamental rights or basic structure
and the Acts included after the decision shall be open to challenge. The Court reaffirmed
that Article 31B did not destroy or damage the basic structure of the Constitution.
Emergence of Article 31 C
Insertion of Article 31-C by the Twenty-Fifth Amendment Article 31-C “Notwithstanding anything
contained in Article 13, no law giving effect to the policy of the state towards securing [all or any of the
principles laid down in Part IV] shall be deemed to be void on the ground that it is inconsistent with, or
takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by [Article 14 or Article 19] and [no law containing
a declaration that it is for giving effect to such policy shall be called in question in any court on the
ground that it does not give effect to such policy].Provided that where such law is made by the
Legislature of a State, the provisions of this Article shall not apply thereto unless such law, having been
reserved for the consideration of the President, has received his assent Right to Constitutional
Remedies. ”The insertion of this article made A. 14, 19 and 31 inapplicable to certain laws made by
Parliament or any legislature. Along with this it was also added that a declaration in the law that is to
implement the directive principles enshrined in A. 39(b) and (c) cannot be questioned in a court of
law. Therefore, the insertion of this article granted complete immunity to a law from judicial scrutiny
if the President certified that it was enacted to promote the policy laid down in A. 39(a) and (b). The
provisions of this Article would apply only if the law had received the assent of the President.
History behind Article 31C

This article was inserted by the 25th Constitutional Amendment to get over the difficulties placed by
judicial decisions in the way of giving effect to the Directive Principles in Part IV. It provided immunity
from any challenge on the grounds of violation of Article 14, 19 and 31 any law enacted for
implementing the directives in clause (b) and (c) of Article 39. In the 25th amendment it was further
provided that such law made to give effect to the policy under Article 39(b) and (c), would not be open
to judicial review. However, this second part was struck down in Keshavananda Bharti v State of
Kerala, but rest of the Article was held valid. After this amendment 42nd Constitutional Amendment
Act was passed by the Parliament which replaced Article 39(b)-(c) by all Directives contained in Part
IV of the Constitution. The part which was held unconstitutional in the Keshavananda Case was not
omitted from the official text of the Constitution, since later cases seems to restrict the scope of judicial
review of the statutory declaration only to the narrow question whether there is a reasonable nexus
between the act passed and the objects of the directive it seeks to implement. But in the Minerva mills
v Union of India , it was held that extending the immunity of Article 31C to all the Directives of Part IV
by the 42nd amendment was unconstitutional, thus, Article 31C is confined to its pre 1976 position,
which has not been overruled by any larger bench yet.
Decisions given by court on the Constitutionality of Article 31C

The validity of the 25th Constitutional Amendment was questioned in Keshavananda Bharti v State of
Kerala , Sikri C.J. held that since Parliament cannot under article 368 abrogate fundamental rights;
equally it cannot enable the legislature to abrogate them. Therefore article 31C must be declared
unconstitutional. The second part of Article 31C was held unconstitutional on the ground that it ousted
47
the jurisdiction of the Courts which is a basic feature of the Constitution and which cannot be done
away with a amendment under Article 368.
Minerva Mills Ltd. v. Union of India, The extended version of article 31C was struck down by the
Supreme Court. The Court ruled that the extension of the shield of article 31C to all the Directive
Principles was beyond the amending power of Parliament under article 368 because by giving primacy
to all Directive Principles over the Fundamental Rights in articles 14 and 19, the basic or essential
features of the Constitution viz., judicial review has been destroyed.
Waman Rao v. Union of India , The Supreme Court maintained that article 31C as it stood prior to the
42nd Amendment Act made in 1978, was valid as its Constitutionality had been upheld in
Keshavananda Bharti case.
Sanjeev Coke Manufacturing Company v. M/s. Bharat Coking Coal Ltd. , The Supreme Court struck
down article 31C as unconstitutional (Amended portion in 42nd Amendment Act) on the ground that it
destroys the "basic features" of the Constitution. The goal set out in Part IV has to be achieved without
abrogating the means provided for by Part III. Thus there is no conflict between the directive
principles and the fundamental rights. These are meant to supplement one another. The Court held
that article 31C as originally introduced by the 25th Amendment is constitutionally valid.I.R. Coelho v.
State of Tamil Nadu , the Supreme Court held that any law which infringes basic structure of
the Constitution can be struck down. Parliament has power to amend Part III so as to abridge or take
away fundamental rights but that power is subject to the limitation of basic structure doctrine. There
should be a balance between fundamental rights an Directive Principles of State Policy.
Conditions for applicability of Article 31C

There are two conditions which must be fulfilled for the application of Article 31 C
1. A law for giving effect to the policy of the state to implement a Directive Principle in Article 39(b) or
(c).
2. The Legislature making a declaration to that effect.
But the question that whether the act is intended to secure the object contained in Article 39(b)-(c)
does not depend upon the declaration made by the legislature but upon the contents of the act as
found by the court.
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Unit 4
1 Tribunals
2 Elections
3 Special provisions-relating to certain classes
4 Official language
PART XIVA
323A. Administrative tribunals.—

Parliament may, by law, provide for the adjudication or trial by administrative tribunals of disputes
and complaints with respect to recruitment and conditions of service of persons appointed to public
services and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of any State or of any local or other
authority within the territory of India or under the control of the Government of India or of any
corporation owned or controlled by the Government.
(2) A law made under clause (1) may—
(a) provide for the establishment of an administrative tribunal for the Union and a separate
administrative tribunal for each State or for two or more States;
(b) specify the jurisdiction, powers (including the power to punish for contempt) and authority which
may be exercised by each of the said tribunals;
(c) provide for the procedure (including provisions as to limitation and rules of evidence) to be
followed by the said tribunals;
(d) exclude the jurisdiction of all courts, except the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court under article
136, with respect to the disputes or complaints referred to in clause (1);
(e) provide for the transfer to each such administrative tribunal of any cases pending before any court
or other authority immediately before the establishment of such tribunal as would have been within
the jurisdiction of such tribunal if the cause of action on which such suits or proceedings are based had
arisen after such establishment;
(f) repeal or amend any order made by the President under clause (3) of article 371D;
(g) contain such supplemental, incidental and consequential provisions (including provisions as to
fees) as Parliament may deem necessary for the effective functioning of, and for the speedy disposal of
cases by, and the enforcement of the orders of, such tribunals.
(3) The provisions of this article shall have effect notwithstanding anything in any other provision of
this Constitution or in any other law for the time being in force.
323B. Tribunals for other matters.—

(1) The appropriate Legislature may, by law, provide for the adjudication or trial by tribunals of any
disputes, complaints, or offences with respect to all or any of the matters specified in clause (2) with
respect to which such Legislature has power to make laws.
(2) The matters referred to in clause (1) are the following, namely:—
(a) levy, assessment, collection and enforcement of any tax;
(b) foreign exchange, import and export across customs frontiers;
(c) industrial and labor disputes;
(d) land reforms by way of acquisition by the State of any estate as defined in article 31A or of any
rights therein or the extinguishment or modification of any such rights or by way of ceiling on
agricultural land or in any other way;
49
(e) ceiling on urban property;

(f) elections to either House of Parliament or the House or either House of the Legislature of a State,
but excluding the matters referred to in article 329 and article 329A;
(g) production, procurement, supply and distribution of foodstuffs (including edible oilseeds and oils)
and such other goods as the President may, by public notification, declare to be essential goods for the
purpose of this article and control of prices of such goods;
(h) rent, its regulation and control and tenancy issues including the rights, title and interest of
landlords and tenants—,
(i) offences against laws with respect to any of the matters specified in sub-clause (a) to (h) and fees in
respect of any of those matters;
(j) any matter incidental to any of the matters specified in sub-clause (a) to (i).
(3) A law made under clause (1) may—
(a) provide for the establishment of a hierarchy of tribunals;
(b) specify the jurisdiction, powers (including the power to punish for contempt) and authority which
may be exercised by each of the said tribunals;
(c) provide for the procedure (including provisions as to limitation and rules of evidence) to be
followed by the said tribunals;
(d) exclude the jurisdiction of all courts except the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court under article 136
with respect to all or any of the matters falling within the jurisdiction of the said tribunals;
(e) provide for the transfer to each such tribunal of any cases pending before any court or any other
authority immediately before the establishment of such tribunal as would have been within the
jurisdiction of such tribunal if the causes of action on which such suits or proceedings are based had
arisen after such establishment;
(f) contain such supplemental, incidental and consequential provisions (including provisions as to
fees) as the appropriate Legislature may deem necessary for the effective functioning of, and for the
speedy disposal of cases by, and the enforcement of the orders of, such tribunals.
(4) The provisions of this article shall have effect notwithstanding anything in any other provision of
this Constitution or in any other law for the time being in force.
Explanation.—In this article, "appropriate Legislature", in relation to any matter, means Parliament or,
as the case may be, a State Legislature competent to make laws with respect to such matter in
accordance with the provisions of Part XI.
Important case law

UOI V. Deep Chand Pandey
SP Sampat Kumar v. UOI
L.chandra v. UOI
Elections
Article 326 of the Constitution of India provides universal adult suffrage. The voting age
has now come down from 21 to 18. Anybody who has completed 18 years of age,
irrespective of his caste, creed, sex or religion, is eligible to vote in general elections. This is
one of the most revolutionary aspects of Indian democracy. UNIVERSAL ADULT
FRANCHISE
50
Under Article 324 (1), the superintendence, direction and control of elections is in the hands of
the Election Commission, which is to conduct all elections to the offices of the President, Vice-
President, and the Parliament and state legislatures. Since it enjoys the status of an
independent Constitutional body, there were even proposals to authorize it to conduct
elections to the Panchayats and Nagar Palikas as well, but these did not take the shape of law.
The entire process of conducting elections (including preparation of electoral rolls) is done by
the Commission. This provision being fairly widely worded enables the Commission to
exercise its authority in relation to all those issues in connection with elections.
Under Article 324 (2) the President may appoint ECs in consultation with the CEC. With respect
to their appointment, it should be noted their appointment is not mandatory. It shall be done
keeping in mind the requirements of the Commission from time to time. For this reason, their
number is not fixed. They are thus intended to assist the CEC in discharging his functions. An
increased work burden in itself will not justify their appointment. The duties to be performed
have to be of such nature so as to warrant their appointment. Their appointment has to be on
justifiable grounds that the judiciary may call into question. The appointment of ECs shall be
subject to the provisions of any law passed by the Parliament in this respect. They shall be
appointed upon the recommendations of the CEC, but this does not place him at a higher
position. Drawing an analogy, in the Supreme Court, and even in the High Courts, the judges
are appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice. But this does not mean
the Chief Justice is at a higher position as compared to the judges. His decisions are not binding
upon the other judges, they being free to decide a case as they please in accordance with the
relevant legal principles.
Under Article 324 (3) in a multi-member Commission, the President shall act as the Chairman
of the body. By virtue of being the Chairman, to what extent may he control the ECs in
discharge their functions? In the first place, should he be allowed to control the ECs in
performing their functions, the independence of the Commission shall stand directly affected.
The very purpose for which the ECs are appointed shall thereby be defeated. The appointment
of ECs ensures there is a system of checks and balances in force to check the CEC, to ensure
that he does not exceed his jurisdiction. Their independence is therefore a must.
The relevant Constitutional provisions have taken adequate care to ensure the independence
of this body from all kinds of executive influences. Under Article 324 (5), the CEC can be
dismissed only in the same manner as a judge of the Supreme Court. Further, his conditions of
service cannot be changed to his disadvantage after his appointment. The same Constitutional
protections have not been expressly extended to the ECs, as they can be removed only on the
recommendations of the CEC. The Commission may require staff to help it in discharging its
function of conducting elections. Under Article 324 (6), the President or the Governor of a state
shall ensure all necessary staff is provided to it for this purpose. However, there is a distinction
between ordinary staff and ECs, the latter may be appointed only when the work burden of the
Commission is such that it cannot be discharged by using ordinary staff.
Considering the nature of functions to be performed by it, the Commission has been armed
with widest possible powers. Since it is beyond the scope of this article to discuss all these
powers, the writer shall deal with them in brief. The Commission can go to the extent of
ordering a repoll in those constituencies wherein elections have not been conducted fairly. The
final word as to which symbol shall be allotted to which party shall be decided by the
Commission itself. In all contingencies that have not been provided for by the law, the
Commission may pass necessary orders.
The conduct of free and fair elections is what is intended to be achieved. Therefore, if the
conditions in a state are conducive due to breakdown of law and order, or due to other factors
that in the opinion of the appropriate authorities shall prevent the people from choosing their
candidates in a fair manner, the Commission may postpone elections, but only for a reasonable
51
period of time. In Yadav Reddy v. Election Commission of India, a Division Bench of the Supreme
Court refused to interfere with the Election Commission's order for postponing elections for
the Bihar Assembly for a definite period of time, due to the conditions prevailing in Bihar at
that point of time.
In recent years, there has been a lot of concern about the manner in which elections are to be
funded. In this respect, the Commission has the authority to issue directions, in the process of
conducting elections, requiring all political parties to provide details of their expenditure in the
elections, and the sources of their funds. (Held in Common Cause (A Registered Society) v. Union
of India).
FACTS OF THE SS DHANOA CASE

On 16th October 1989, by a subsequent notification issued in exercise of the same power, he
appointed SS Dhanoa (the petitioner) and VS Seigell as the Election Commissioners. By another
notification issued on the same day, he made rules to regulate regulated their conditions of
service.
According to these rules, an EC shall hold office for a term of 5 years or till he attains the age of
65 years, whichever happens earlier.
On 1st January 1990, the President issued another notification in exercise of the same power
rescinding the previous notifications with immediate effect.
The petitioner challenged the notification of 1st January 1990 in his writ petition.
FACTS OF THE TN SESHAN CASE

I. In exercise of his powers under Article 123 of the Constitution, the President promulgated an
Ordinance (No. 32 of 1993) called “The Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners
(Conditions of Service) Amendment Ordinance, 1993” in order to amend “The Chief Election
Commissioner and Other Commissioners (Conditions of Service) Act, 1991”.
II. On 1st October 1993, the day on which this Ordinance had been issued, he issued another
notification under Article 324 (2) by which he fixed the number of ECs at two, and under another
notification appointed Mr. MS Gill and Mr. GVG Krishnamurthy as the ECs w.e.f. the said date.
III. The first writ petition was filed by a journalist, Mr. S Ramaswamy who prayed for a declaration that
the Ordinance was arbitrary, unconstitutional and void. He also prayed for the writ of certiorari to
quash the said notifications.
IV. The second writ petition was filed by the CEC himself (Mr. TN Seshan) claiming similar relief. The
other two writ petitions were filed challenging the Constitutionality of the Ordinance and the said
notifications.
V. In the course of the pendency of these petitions, the Ordinance became an Act without any change.
Since the petitions involved an interpretation of Article 324 of the Constitution, they were placed
before a Constitution Bench that decided upon the petitions.
Common Cause (A Registered Mohinder Singh Gill v. Chief NP Ponnuswami v. Returning

Society) v. Union of Election Commissioner, AIR Officer, Namakkal
India, (1996) 2 SCC 752 1978 SC 851 Constituency, AIR 1952 SC 64
SS Dhanoa v. Union of India, SS Party v. Election TN Seshan v. Union of
(1991) 3 SCC 567, 584 Commission of India, AIR India, (1995) 4 SCC 611
52
1967 SC 898
Yadav Reddy v. Election
Commission of India
SPECIAL PROVISIONS RELATING TO CERTAIN CLASSES

The Constitution of India has listed the special provisions relating to certain classes in Part XVI. From
Article 330 to Article 342, the special provisions have been clearly indicated. Below is a detailed list of
all the special provisions relating to certain classes:
Article 330: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of
the People - this Article states that a certain number of seats should be reserved in the House
of the People for both the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. However, clause b of the
Article includes Schedule Tribes excluding those who live in the autonomous districts of
Assam. Clause c of the Article includes the Schedule Tribes belonging to the autonomous
Assam districts. It is also mentioned in this Article that the total number of such seats assigned
to the Schedule Tribes of autonomous Assam districts should match the total number of seats
allotted in the House of the People. The seats allotted to the Schedule Castes and Schedule
Tribes of a particular state or Union Territory should be proportional to the total number of
seats reserved for such state or Union Territory in the house of the People.
Article 331: Representation of the Anglo-Indian Community in the House of the People - it is
specified in this Article of the Indian Constitution that the President of India has the sole right
to elect a maximum of 2 members belonging to the Anglo-Indian section to represent the entire
community.
Article 332: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative
Assemblies of the States - This Article of the Constitution states that a definite number of seats
in every state's Legislative Assembly should be allotted to the Schedule Castes and Schedule
Tribes. The Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes of the autonomous districts of Assam are also
given seats in the Legislative Assembly. It is also specified that a person not belonging to the
Schedule Tribes category of Assam state cannot contest the Legislation Assembly election from
any of the constituencies of the districts of the state. Also, all areas outside the periphery of the
districts of Assam should not hold any constituency of the Legislative Assembly of the Assam
state. The total seats allotted to the state Legislative Assembly of Assam should be in
proportion of the total population and the share of the SC/ST in such population. As per
Article332, the number of seats allotted to the SC/STs of a state should follow a proportion to
the total number of seats assigned in the Assembly as the total population of the SC/STs in that
state with respect to the total state population.
In case of such states as Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh, as per
the Constitution Act 1987, if all the seats of the Legislative Assembly after the first census of
2000, belong to the Schedule Tribes, then only one seat shall be allotted to other communities.
Also, the total number of seats allotted to the Schedule Tribes shall not be less than the existing
number of seats in the Assembly of the state. The Article suggests that the total number of
seats of Schedule Tribes in the Legislative Assembly of Tripura state should be proportional to
the total number of existing seats in the Assembly. As per the Constitution Act 1992, the
number of the Schedule Tribe members in the Legislative Assembly of Tripura shall not be less
than the total number of seats already available in the Assembly.
Article 333: Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the Legislative Assemblies of
the States - according to this Article of the Constitution of India if the Governor of any state
thinks it necessary to elect one representative of the Anglo-Indian community for the
Legislative Assembly of that state then he can do the same. Also, if the governor feels that
Anglo-Indian community does not have sufficient representation in the state Legislative
Assembly then also he can elect one member of that community for the Assembly.
53
Article 334: Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after 289A - This Article
holds the fact that after 60 years of the enactment of the Indian Constitution, certain provisions
shall become ineffective. However, it is also specified that the Article will not be applied until
and unless the House of the People or the Legislative Assembly gets dissolved because of some
significant reason. The Provisions with which this Article deals with include reserving seats for
Anglo-Indian community, Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes in the House of the People or in
the Legislative Assembly.
Article 335: Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts - The
Article states that the various claims of the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes shall be
regarded accordingly. Relaxation of age, lower cut off marks and easier parameters of
evaluation for the purpose of selecting SC/ST candidates to different posts and services will
remain intact irrespective of the provisions mentioned in this Article.
Article 336: Special provision for Anglo-Indian community in certain services - as per this
Article, for such posts of Union as postal and telegraph, customs and railway, the members of
the Anglo-Indian community will be selected, for the first two years of the initiation of
the Constitution, following the rules prevailing before 15th August, 1947. It is also specified
that in every two years the total number of seats allotted to the Anglo-Indian community in
different services and posts will go down by 10%. The Article states that these provisions will
become ineffective after 10 years of the enactment of the Indian Constitution. However, clause
2 of this Article clearly mentions that if a candidate of the concerned community is eligible for
any post other than the ones mentioned above then he will be selected with immediate effect.
Article 337: Special provision with respect to educational grants for the benefit of Anglo-
Indian community - the provisions of this Article deal with the fact that grants to the Anglo-
Indian community shall be offered in the first three years of the enactment of
the Constitution following the same rules made on 31st March 1948. It is also stated that the
amount of such grants will reduce by 10% in every three succeeding years. It is mentioned that
after 10 years of the initiation of the Constitution of India all such grants will cease to exist.
Moreover, the Article states that only when at least 40% of the admissions in educational units
belong to communities other than Anglo-Indians, such grants will be offered to the said
community.
Article 338: National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes - This Article
covers the issues to be dealt with by the said Commission exclusively made for the Schedule
Castes and Schedule Tribes. As per the Constitution of India, the Article holds that the
Commission should include a Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson and other members all of whom
are elected by the President of India. The Commission, according to the Article, has the power
to investigate all matters that are related to the safeguard of the Sc/STs. The commission can
also exercise its power by summoning any person from any part of the nation to interrogate
him regarding a particular issue of the SC/STs. The Commission shall also take necessary
measures to improve the socio-economic status of the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. A
report specifying whether the safeguards of the ST/SCs are maintained properly shall be
submitted to the President of India every year by the Commission.
Article 339: Control of the Union over the administration of Scheduled Areas and the welfare
of Scheduled Tribes - the Article suggests that a Commission specifying the administration of
Scheduled Areas and Welfare of Scheduled Tribes shall be formed by Order of the President
after 10 years of the Indian Constitution's enactment. The various procedures and powers of
the commission are to be included in the said Order. Planning and execution of various
schemes pertaining to the development of the Schedule Tribes included in the executive power
of the Union is also mentioned in the Article.
Article 340: Appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of backward classes -
this Article specifies that the President of India can form a Commission by Order that will look
54
into the overall condition of the people belonging to the backward classes. This Commission is
also supposed to recommend any state or union the necessary steps through which the
underprivileged classes can improve their social and economic status. On the basis of the
investigation done, the Commission shall submit a report to the President of India. The
President, in turn, shall present such report with a memorandum to both of the Houses of the
Indian Parliament and will prescribe the necessary steps to be taken to develop the condition
of the backward classes.
Article 341: Scheduled Castes - this Article states that the President of India after taking the
advice of the Governor of any state or Union Territory, has the right to demarcate tribes, races
or castes or a part of any group as Scheduled Castes, in accordance with the law of
the Constitution. The president can do the same by issuing a public notification. However, the
Parliament of India can, by law, accept or reject the list containing the Scheduled Caste groups.
Article 342: Scheduled Tribe - a group belonging to a tribe or an entire tribal community of a
state or an Union Territory can be declared as Scheduled Tribe by the President of India
through issuing a public notice. The President consults with the Governor of the concerned
state or Union Territory before specifying a tribe as Scheduled Tribe. The Parliament of India
can decide upon canceling or keeping the particular ST in the list of Scheduled Tribes.
However, the public notification issued for declaration of the Scheduled Tribe can be saved by
the Parliament.
OFFICIAL LANGUAGE (343-351 )Article
India is a country where different languages are spoken in various parts. Hindi and
English have been made official languages of the central government. A state can adopt
the language spoken by its people in that state also as its official language. Although India
is a multi-lingual state, the constitution provides that Hindi in Devnagri script will be the
national language. It shall be the duty of the union to promote and spread Hindi
language. LANGUAGE POLICY
343. Official language of the Union.

The Indian Constitution, in 1950, declared Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official
language of the union. Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official
purposes was to cease 15 years after the Constitution came into effect, i.e., on 26 January 1965.
The prospect of the changeover, however, led to much alarm in the non Hindi-speaking areas
of India, especially Dravidian-speaking states whose languages were not related to Hindi at all.
As a result, Parliament enacted the Official Languages Act, 1963, which provided for the
continued use of Hindi for official purposes along with English, even after 1965.In late 1964, an
attempt was made to expressly provide for an end to the use of English, but it was met with
protests from states such as Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu, Punjab, , Karnataka, Pondicherry and Andhra Pradesh. Some of these protests also
turned violent. As a result, the proposal was dropped, and the Act itself was amended in 1967
to provide that the use of English would not be ended until a resolution to that effect was
passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted Hindi as its official language, and
by each house of the Indian Parliament.
The current position is thus that the Union government continues to use English in addition
to Hindi for its official purposes as a "subsidiary official language," but is also required to
prepare and execute a programme to progressively increase its use of Hindi. The exact extent
55
to which, and the areas in which, the Union government uses Hindi and English, respectively, is
determined by the provisions of the Constitution, the Official Languages Act, 1963, the Official
Languages Rules, 1976, and instruments made by the Department of Official Language under
these laws.
Parliamentary proceedings and law Judiciary Administration

Union and state interstate Legislature Implementation
communication
56
UNIT-V Emergency provisions and Amendment
1 Emergency provisions: Proclamation of emergency, effect of emergency, Financial

emergency
2 Amendment in the Constitutions
PART XVIII EMERGENCY PROVISIONS

352 Proclamation of Emergency
353 Effect of Proclamation of Emergency
354 Application of provisions relating to distribution of revenues while a
Proclamation of Emergency is in operation
355 Duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression and internal
disturbance
356 Provisions in case of failure of Constitutional machinery in State
357 Exercise of legislative powers under Proclamation issued under article 356
358 Suspension of provisions of article 19 during emergencies
359 Suspension of the enforcement of the rights conferred by Part III during
emergencies
359A Repealed
360 Provisions as to financial emergency
PART XX AMENDMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION
368 Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure therefore
Amendment article 368 of Constitution of India

368. Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure therefore
(1) Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, Parliament may in exercise of its constituent power
amend by way of addition, variation or repeal any provision of this Constitution in accordance with the
procedure laid down in this article
(2) An amendment of this Constitution may be initiated only by the introduction of a Bill for the
purpose in either House of Parliament, and when the Bill is passed in each House by a majority of the
total membership of that House present and voting, it shall be presented to the President who shall
give his assent to the Bill and thereupon the Constitution shall stand amended in accordance with the
terms of the Bill: Provided that if such amendment seeks to make any change in
(a) Article 54, Article 55, Article 73, Article 162 or Article 241, or
(b) Chapter IV of Part V, Chapter V of Part VI, or Chapter I of Part XI, or
(c) any of the Lists in the Seventh Schedule, or
(d) the representation of States in Parliament, or
(e) the provisions of this article, the amendment shall also require to be ratified by the Legislature of
not less than one half of the States by resolution to that effect passed by those Legislatures before the
Bill making provision for such amendment is presented to the President for assent
(3) Nothing in Article 13 shall apply to any amendment made under this article
(4) No amendment of this Constitution (including the provisions of Part III) made or purporting to
have been made under this article whether before or after the commencement of Section 55 of the
Constitution (Forty second Amendment) Act, 1976 shall be called in question in any court on any
ground
57
(5) For the removal of doubts, it is hereby declared that there shall be no limitation whatever on the
constituent power of Parliament to amend by way of addition, variation or repeal the provisions of this
Constitution under this article
PART XXI TEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS
Indian Constitution is a balanced Constitution. The framers of the Constitution desired to secure
balance and moderation in incorporating various provisions in our Constitution. As far as the
amendment of the Constitution is concerned, a balance is struck in making the Constitution partly
rigid and partly flexible.
A flexible Constitution is one, which can be easily amended like ordinary law of the land. On the
contrary, a rigid Constitution is one whose amendment is very difficult and where there is a distinction
between the amendment of Constitutional law and ordinary law. Both the types of Constitutions had
their merits and demerits.
But the framers of the Indian Constitution did not go to the extreme. They incorporated a unique
procedure of amendment which combines both rigidity and flexibility. Amendments Article 368 of
Constitution deals with procedure of amendment of the Constitution. The Constitution can be
amended in three different ways:-
(a) Some categories of amendment like creation of new States, creation or abolition of second chamber
of the States, changes in the citizenship, etc., require only a simple majority in both the Houses of the
Union Parliament. In this case amendment of the Constitution is made in a flexible manner.
(b) Certain other provisions of the Constitution in order to be amended, require a majority of the total
membership in each House of Parliament and a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members
present and voting in each House of parliament. The bulk of the Constitution can be amended in this
way.
(c) Certain categories of amendment like the Presidential powers and mode of election, the extent of
the Executive and Legislative Powers of the Union or the States, the provision regarding the Supreme
Court and the High Court, the representation of States in Parliament etc. require
Type of amendments
Simple Special Majority and ratification by states
Majority 2/3 Special majority and 1/*52 vote in favour by state
legislature
Article All Fundamental article 54,55,162,124-147,214-231,241,245-
5,168,239-A Constitutional 255, 7th schedule representation of parliament in IV
amendments schedule, 368
The Emergency Provisions

Need of Emergency Powers – kinds of Emergency – Arts. 352 – 360
Emergency is a unique feature of Indian Constitution that allows the center to assume wide powers so
as to handle special situations. In emergency, the center can take full legislative and executive control
of any state. It also allows the center to curtail or suspend freedom of the citizens. Existence of
emergency is a big reason why academicians are hesitant to call Indian Constitution as fully federal.
Emergency can be of three types –
Due to war, external aggression or armed rebellion (Amendments Article 352)
Failure of Constitutional machinery in a state (Amendments Article 356), or
Financial emergency (Amendments Article 360).
However, technically, Proclamation of Emergency is only done upon external aggression or armed
rebellion. In the second case, it is called Presidential Rule, and in the third case it is called
“Proclamation of Financial Emergency:
58
Proclamation of Emergency
Art 352 says that if the President is satisfied that a grave emergency exists whereby the security of
India or any part of India is threatened due to outside aggression or armed rebellion, he may make a
proclamation to that effect regarding whole of India or a part thereof.
However, sub clause 3 says that President can make such a proclamation only upon the written advice
of the Union Cabinet. Such a proclamation must be placed before each house of the parliament and
must be approved by each house within one month otherwise the proclamation will expire.
An explanation to art 352 says that it is not necessary that external aggression or armed rebellion has
actually happened to proclaim emergency. It can be proclaimed even if there is a possibility of such
thing happening.
In the case of Minerva Mills vs Union of India AIR 1980, SC held that there is no bar to judicial review
of the validity of the proclamation of emergency issued by the president under 352(1). However,
court’s power is limited only to examining whether the limitations conferred by the Constitution have
been observed or not. It can check if the satisfaction of the president is valid or not. If the satisfaction
is based on mala fide or absurd or irrelevant grounds, it is no satisfaction at all.
Prior to 44th amendment, duration of emergency was two months initially and then after approval by
the houses, it would continue indefinitely until ended by another proclamation. However after 44 th
amendment, the period is reduced to 1 month and then 6 months after approval.
Effects of Proclamation of emergency

The following are the effects arising out of proclamation of emergency in art 352.
On Executive – declared only a part of the count, the powers in 1 and 2 shall extend to any other part if
that is also threatened.
State Government is not dismissed when National Emergency is proclaimed but brought under the
effective control of the Union.
As soon as National Emergency Art 353 executive power of the Union shall extend to giving directions
to any state. Parliament will get power to make laws on subjects that are not in Union list. if the
emergency is proclaimed distribution of power between Centre and States gets automatically
suspended. Hence, Union Executive is free to give directions on all the subjects and such directions are
binding on the States.
On Legislature – Art 354

Provisions of art 268 to 279, which are related to taxation, can be subjected to exceptions as deem fit
by the president. Every law such made shall be laid before each house of the parliament.
Art 355 says that it is the duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression.
Judicial Review – Art 358

While proclamation of emergency declaring that security of India or any part of the territory of India is
threatened due to war or external aggression, is in operation, the state shall not be limited by art 19. In
other words, govt may make laws that transgress upon the freedoms given under art 19 during such
emergency. However, such a law will cease to have effect as soon as emergency ends. Further, every
such law or very executive action that transgresses upon freedoms granted by art 19 must recite that
it is in relation to the emergency otherwise, it cannot be immune from art 19.
It also says that any acts done or omitted to be done under this provision cannot be challenged in the
courts after the end of emergency.
In the case of M M Pathak vs Union of India AIR 1978, SC held that the rights granted by 14 to 19 are
not suspended during emergency but only their operation is suspended. This means that as soon as
emergency is over, rights transgressed by a law will revive and can be enforced. In this case, a
settlement that was reached before emergency between LIC and its employees was rendered
ineffective by a law during emergency. After emergency was over, SC held that the previous settlement
59
will revive. This is because the emergency law only suspended the operation of the existing laws. It
cannot completely wash away the liabilities that pre existed the emergency.
The Impact of Emergency on Federalism and Fundamental Rights – Arts. 353 – 360
Art 359
This Amendments Article provides additional power to the president while proclamation of
emergency is in operation, using which the president can, by an order, declare that the right to move
any court for the enforcement of rights conferred by part III except art 20 and 21, shall be suspended
for the period the proclamation is in operation of a shorter period as mentioned in the order. Further,
every such law or every executive action recite that it is in relation to the emergency.
In the case of Makhan Singh vs State of Punjab AIR 1964, SC distinguished between art 358 and 359 as
shown below:
Art 358 Art 359
Freedoms given by art 19 are Fundamental rights are not suspended. Only the courts
suspended. cannot be moved to enforce fundamental rights.
Any actions done or omitted to be done Any action done by the legislature or executive can be
cannot be challenged even after challenged after the suspension is over.
emergency.
Art 19 is suspended for the period of Right to move courts is suspended for the period of
emergency. emergency or until the proclamation of the president to
remove suspension.
Effective all over the country. May be confined to an area.
Art 83(2) while the proclamation is in operation, the president may extend the normal life of the Lok
Sabha by one year each time up to a period not exceeding beyond 6 months after proclamation ceases
to expire.
State Emergency on failure of Constitutional Machinery in a State / Centre-State Relations – Arts. 356 –
357
Provisions in case of failure of Constitutional machinery is States

Art 356 says that if, upon the report of the Governor of a state, the president is satisfied that the govt.
of the state is cannot function according to the provisions of the Constitution, he may, by proclamation,
assume to himself all or any of the functions of the govt, or all or any of the powers vested in the
governor, or anybody or any authority in the state except the legislature of the state. The power of the
legislature of the state shall be exercised by the authority of the parliament.
Under this Amendments Article, president can also make such incidental and consequential provisions
which are necessary to give effect to the objectives of the proclamation. This includes suspension of
any provision of this Constitution relating to anybody or authority in the state.
However, this Amendments Article does not authorize the president to assume the powers vested in
the High Courts.
Art 357 provides that in the case of proclamation under art 356 Parliament can confer upon the
president the power of legislature of the state to make laws or the power to delegate the power to
make laws to anybody else. The parliament or the president can confer power or impose duties on the
Union or Union officers or Union authorities. President can authorize the expenditure from the
consolidated fund of the stat pending sanction of such expenditure by the parliament.
60
The Financial Emergency – Art. 360

Under Amendments Article 360 the President enjoys the power to proclaim the financial Emergency. If
he is satisfied that a situation has arisen that financial stability and credit of India or any part thereof is
threatened he may proclaim emergency to that effect. All such proclamations
(a) Can be varied or revoked by the President.
(b) Financial Emergency must be approved by the Parliament within 2 months after its proclamation.
Once it is approved, it will remain till the President revokes it.
This Amendments Article has never been invoked.
Effects of Financial Emergency

President is empowered to suspend the distribution of financial resources with States.
President can issue directions to States to follow canons of financial propriety.
He can direct State Government to decrease salaries allowances of Civil Servants and other
Constitutional dignitaries.
President can direct the government to resume all the financial and Money Bills passed by legislature
for his consideration.
The President can issue directions for the reduction of salaries and allowances of Judges of the
Supreme Court and the High Courts.
Changes made by 44th Amendment

44th amendment substantially altered the emergency provisions of the Constitution to ensure that it is
not abused by the executive as done by Indira Gandhi in 1975. It also restored certain changes that
were done by 42nd amendment. The following are important points of these Amendments -
“Internal disturbance” was replaced by “armed rebellion” under art 352.
The decision of proclamation of emergency must be communicated by the Cabinet in writing.
Proclamation of emergency must be by the houses within one month.
To continue emergency, it must be re approved by the houses every six month.
Emergency can be revoked by passing resolution to that effect by a simple majority of the houses
present and voting. 1/10 of the members of a house can move such a resolution.
Art 358 – Under this Amendments Article art 19 will be suspended only upon war or external
aggression and not upon armed rebellion. Further, every such law that transgresses art 19 must recite
that it is connected to art 358. All other laws can still be challenged if they violate art 19.
 Art 359, under this Amendments Article, suspension of the right to move courts for violation of
part III will not include art 20 and 21.
 Reversed back the term of Lok Sabha from 6 to 5 years.
 Services under the State (the Doctrine of Pleasure) – Arts. 308 – 314
2. Amendment 368
1. A majority of the total membership in each House of Parliament.
2. A majority of not less than two-thirds of all the members present and voting in each House of
Parliament, and
3. Ratification by the legislatures of at least one half of the States.
National Emergency
The 21-month period between 1975 and 1977 is considered one of the darkest phases of Indian
democracy when a state of emergency was declared across the country. Such a provision of imposing
national emergency is guaranteed in the Article 352 of Indian Constitution. National emergency is
imposed during “war, external aggression or armed rebellion in the whole of India or a part of its
territory.”
The President declares national emergency based on the official request from the Prime Minister and
the Council of Ministers. The state of emergency expires after a month unless it’s approved by the
61
Parliament within that stipulated timeframe. According to Article 352(6), the majority of both the
houses is needed to approve emergency. The emergency period can be extended indefinitely by
passing resolutions every six months.
During a national emergency, several Fundamental Rights are suspended along with the Right to
Freedom. However, citizens are allowed to enjoy their Right to Life and Personal Liberty. When
national emergency is imposed in the country, a unitary form of governance comes into effect with
Parliament wielding the power to establish laws mentioned in the State List. Moreover, the state
money bills are referred to the Parliament for its approval. During national emergency, the term of the
Lok Sabha can be extended for up to one year.
State Emergency or the President’s Rule

When a state government is deemed unfit to function as per the Constitution and its political
machinery collapses, it comes under direct control of the Union government. The power of running the
state administration shifts from the Chief Minister to the Governor. He administers the state in the
name of the President. Also known as the President’s rule, the purpose of ‘state emergency’ is
elaborately documented in the Article 356 of the Constitution
The state emergency comes into effect under different circumstances with one of them being the
breakdown of a coalition government. Elections getting postponed or the state legislature failing to
elect a leader as Chief Minister could be other viable reasons for the imposition of the President’s rule.
During this phase, the Governor has the authority to appoint ex-civil servants or other bureaucrats to
assist him in discharging his duties.
Initially, such emergency is imposed for a period of six months and it can be extended for a period of
three years provided the Parliament gives its approval for the same. In the past, the state emergency
has been imposed for more than three years in states such as Jammu & Kashmir and Punjab. The
extension was made possible only after Constitutional amendment.
Sometimes, “arbitrary” imposition of President’s rule” by the Union government has received criticism
from all quarters. Under Article 356, the purpose of giving wide powers to Union government is to
maintain law and order in the country and “preserve the unity and integrity of the nation.” However,
that power has often been misused. Imposition of state emergency for 39 times between 1966 and
1977 is a classic example. Be it the Indira Gandhi’s government or the Janata Party government, both
used this power to dissolve state governments ruled by opposition parties.
The Supreme Court has reduced the scope for misuse of Article 356 by establishing strict guidelines
for imposing state emergency. Since early 2000, the incidents of imposition of President’s rule have
dropped substantially. The Sarkaria Commission has opined that Article 356 must be used “very
sparingly” and “in extreme cases” wherein there are no other viable alternatives to prevent complete
failure of Constitutional machinery in the state.
Financial Emergency
The Article 360 of the Indian Constitution has the provision for imposing financial emergency when
the President is convinced that the economy is vulnerable and the financial stability of the country is
under threat. The Parliament has to approve financial emergency within two months. Such emergency
remains enforced till it is revoked by the President.
During financial emergency, the President gives directions to the state to adopt certain economic
measures as he may deem necessary and adequate. He can reduce the salaries of all government
officials, including judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts. The President has to approve all
money bills passed by the State legislatures. Although India has witnessed economic volatility in the
past, financial emergency was never imposed. The country had bailed itself out by putting its gold
assets as collateral for foreign credit.
62
Emergency Provision
Emergency is a unique feature of Indian Constitution that allows the center to assume wide powers so
as to handle special situations. In emergency, the center can take full legislative and executive control
of any state. It also allows the center to curtail or suspend freedom of the citizens. Existence of
emergency is a big reason why academicians are hesitant to call Indian Constitution as fully
federal. Emergency can be of three types - Due to war, external aggression or armed rebellion, failure
of Constitutional machinery in a state, or financial emergency. However, technically, Proclamation of
Emergency is only done upon external aggression or armed rebellion. In the second case, it is called
Presidential Rule, and in the third case it is called "Proclamation of Financial Emergency
Proclamation of Emergency
Art 352 says that if the President is satisfied that a grave emergency exists whereby the security of
India or any part of India is threatened due to outside aggression or armed rebellion, he may make a
proclamation to that effect regarding whole of India or a part thereof. However, sub clause 3 says that
President can make such a proclamation only upon the written advice of the Union Cabinet. Such a
proclamation must be placed before each house of the parliament and must be approved by each
house within one month otherwise the proclamation will expire.
An explanation to art 352 says that it is not necessary that external aggression or armed rebellion has
actually happened to proclaim emergency. It can be proclaimed even if there is a possibility of such
thing happening.
In the case of Minerva Mills vs Union of India AIR 1980, SC held that there is no bar to
judicial review of the validity of the proclamation of emergency issued by the president under
352(1). However, court's power is limited only to examining whether the limitations conferred
by the Constitution have been observed or not. It can check if the satisfaction of the president
is valid or not. If the satisfaction is based on mala fide or absurd or irrelevant grounds, it is no
satisfaction at all.
Prior to 44th amendment, duration of emergency was two months initially and then after
approval by the houses, it would continue indefinitely until ended by another proclamation.
However after 44th amendment, the period is reduced to 1 month and then 6 months after
approval.
Effects of Proclamation of emergency

The following are the effects arising out of proclamation of emergency in art 352.
Art 353
1. Executive power of the Union shall extend to giving directions to any state.
2. Parliament will get power to make laws on subjects that are not in Union list.
3. if the emergency is declared only a part of the count, the powers in 1 and 2 shall extend to any
other part if that is also threatened.
Art 354
Provisions of art 268 to 279, which are related to taxation, can be subjected to exceptions as deem fit
by the president. Every law such made shall be laid before each house of the parliament.
Art 355 says that it is the duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression.
Art 358
While proclamation of emergency declaring that security of India or any part of the territory of India is
threatened due to war or external aggression, is in operation, the state shall not be limited by art 19. In
other words, govt may make laws that transgress upon the freedoms given under art 19 during such
63
emergency. However, such a law will cease to have effect as soon as emergency ends. Further, every
such law or very executive action that transgresses upon freedoms granted by art 19 must recite that
it is in relation to the emergency otherwise, it cannot be immune from art 19.It also says that any acts
done or omitted to be done under this provision cannot be challenged in the courts after the end of
emergency. In the case of M M Pathak vs Union of India AIR 1978, SC held that the rights rights
granted by 14 to 19 are not suspended during emergency but only their operation is suspended. This
means that as soon as emergency is over, rights transgressed by a law will revive and can be enforced.
In this case, a settlement that was reached before emergency between LIC and its employees was
rendered ineffective by a law during emergency. After emergency was over, SC held that the previous
settlement will revive. This is because the emergency law only suspended the operation of the existing
laws. It cannot completely wash away the liabilities that preexisted the emergency.
Art 359
This Amendments Article provides additional power to the president while proclamation of
emergency is in operation, using which the president can, by an order, declare that the right to move
any court for the enforcement of rights conferred by part III except art 20 and 21, shall be suspended
for the period the proclamation is in operation of a shorter period as mentioned in the order. Further,
every such law or every executive action recite that it is in relation to the emergency. In the case
of Makhan Singh vs. State of Punjab AIR 1964, SC distinguished between art 358 and 359 as shown
below:
Article 358 Article 359

Freedoms given by art 19 are suspended. Fundamental rights are not suspended.
Only the courts cannot be moved to enforce
Fundamental rights.
Any actions done or omitted to be done Any action done by the legislature or executive
cannot be challenged even after emergency. can be challenged after the suspension is over.
Art 19 is suspended for the period of Right to move courts is suspended for the period
emergency. of emergency or until the proclamation of the
president to remove suspension.
Effective all over the country. May be confined to an area.
Provisions in case of failure of Constitutional machinery is States

Art 356 says that if, upon the report of the Governor of a state, the president is satisfied that the govt.
of the state is cannot function according to the provisions of the Constitution, he may, by proclamation,
assume to himself all or any of the functions of the govt, or all or any of the powers vested in the
governor, or anybody or any authority in the state except the legislature of the state. The power of the
legislature of the state shall be exercised by the authority of the parliament.
Under this Amendments Article, president can also make such incidental and consequential provisions
which are necessary to give effect to the objectives of the proclamation. This includes suspension of
any provision of this Constitution relating to anybody or authority in the state.
However, this Amendments Article does not authorize the president to assume the powers vested in
the High Courts.
Art 357 provides that in the case of proclamation under art 356
parliament can confer upon the president the power of legislature of the state to make laws or
the power to delegate the power to make laws to anybody else.
the parliament or the president can confer power or impose duties on the Union or Union
officers or Union authorities.
64
president can authorize the expenditure from the consolidated fund of the stat pending
sanction of such expenditure by the parliament.
Important instances of invocation of Art 356
This Amendments Article has been invoked over a hundred times.
1. Dissolution of 9 state assemblies in 1977 by Janata Party Govt.
This was challenged in the case of State of Rajasthan vs Union of India AIR 1977. In this case, SC
held that the decision of the president is not only dependent on the report of the governor but also on
other information. The decision is entirely political and rests with the executive. So it is not
unconstitutional per se. However, courts can validate the satisfaction of the president that it is no mala
fide.
2. Dissolution of 9 state assemblies in 1980 by Congress party govt.
3. Dissolution of BJP govt in MP, HP, and Raj. in 1992.
This was challenged in the case of SR Bommai vs Union of India AIR 1994. In this case SC held that
secularism is a basic feature of the Constitution and a state govt. can be dismissed on this ground. It
further observed that no party can simultaneously be a religious party as well as a political party.
Financial Emergency
Art 360 provides that if the president is satisfied that a situation has arisen whereby the financial
security of India or the credit of India or of any part of India is threatened, he may make a declaration
to that effect. Under such situation, the executive and legislative powers will go to the center. This
Amendments Article has never been invoked.
Changes made by 44th Amendment
44th amendment substantially altered the emergency provisions of the Constitution to ensure that it is
not abused by the executive as done by Indira Gandhi in 1975. It also restored certain changes that
were done by 42nd amendment. The following are important points of these Amendments -
42nd 1976 Amendments under Article 352-356
 "Internal disturbance" was replaced by "armed rebellion" under art 352.

 The decision of proclamation of emergency must be communicated by the Cabinet in writing.
 Proclamation of emergency must be by the houses within one month.
 To continue emergency, it must be re approved by the houses every six month.
 Emergency can be revoked by passing resolution to that effect by a simple majority of the
houses present and voting. 1/10 of the members of a house can move such a resolution.
 Art 358 - Under this Amendments Article art 19 will be suspended only upon war or external
aggression and not upon armed rebellion. Further, every such law that transgresses art
19 must recite that it is connected to art 358. All other laws can still be challenged if they
violate art 19.
 Art 359, under this Amendments Article, suspension of the right to move courts for violation
of part III will not include art 20 and 21.
65
 Reversed back the term of Lok Sabha from 6 to 5 years.
Comparison Chart between Emergencies

Headings National Emergency State Emergency Financial Emergency
Article 352 356 360
When Army Rebellion(replaced by Failure of Constitutional Final stability
Internal Disturbance ) machinery and its report credit of India
War submitted to president by
External aggression governor
Tenure 1 month (prior amendment 2 month (prior 2 month (prior
2 month amendment 2 month amendment 2 month
) ) )
Notice 14 day ----- -----
Maximum 6 month on passed on 2/3 6 month on passed on 2/3 6 month on passed on
period majority special majority majority(1 yr in a row) 2/3 majority
(no limit prior 44th Amend ) (68th Amend 5 year in row
for Punjab )
Exist 30 day 30 day 30 day
Passed by 1/10 of total member of Lok Both house agree Both house agree
Sabha
Amendment Internal disturbance 42nd and 44th the time 42nd and 44th the time
amended period period
Maximum period is not
there but now 6 month
FR suspended (except 19-
21) prior not exception
Unitary / Transforms from federal to Transforms from federal Transforms from
Federal Unitary to Unitary federal to Unitary
Form of govt.
Maximum Not fixed 3 year and in Punjab 5 year Not fixed
limit of
enforcement `
Limitation FR 14 & 21 Not suspended Functions of State Reduction of salaries of
Legislature and Executive CJI,SC,HC all bill and
vests in Union Legislature financial bills work with
and Executive permission of President
after they passed by
legislature of state
Major 42nd and 44th 42nd and 44th 42nd and 44th
amendment
Apply 1 time by Late PM Mrs. 1 or more Never
Indira Gandhi
66
Important  Minerva mills case  SR Bommai case No case law

case law  MM Pathak case  State of Rajasthan
 Makhan Singh case v. UOI
 Mohd. Yaqub case  Rameshwar Prasad
 ADM Jabalpur case v UOI
 President rule
 Delhi, Punjab,
Jharkhaand,
Karnataka etc.
Satisfied by President
Proclamation With permission of PM and With report of governor
Cabinet and Council of state
Without 30 Days 30 Days 30 Days
approval
exist
Lok Sabha 6 yr.
Tenure
Amendment
Shankari Prasad vs. Union of 1st amendment that inserted of Art 31-A and 31-B
India by was challenged. Art 368/13
SC held that “Law” in Art 13 refers to ordinary law
AIR 1951 made under Amendment of the
legislative power and does not include amendment
of the constitution. constitution
Art 368 gives complete power to the parliament to
amend the
constitution including fundamental rights.
17th amendment was challenged. SC followed the
Sajjan Singh vs. State of Raj. judgment in Art 368/13
Shankari Prasad case and held that “amendment of
AIR 1965 the constitution” Amendment of the
means amendment of all the provisions of the
constitution. constitution
17th amendment that inserted certain state acts in
Golak Nath vs. State of Pun. the 9th schedule Art 368/13
AIR 1971 was again challenged. Amendment of the
SC overruled the previous judgment and held that
the parliament does constitution
not have the power amend part III so as to take
away fundamental
rights. It held that art 368 merely describes the
procedure of
amendment and the actual power of amendment
comes from art 245
and entry 97 of List 1. “Amendment” is a “law” with
in art 13 (1).
Keshavanand Bharati vs. In order to overcome difficulties posed by SC
Union of decision in Golak Nath Art 368/13
case, parliament added clause 13(3) by 24th
India amendment, which says Amendment of the
that art 13 will not apply to any amendments made
AIR 1973 under art 368. constitution
67
Further, it added a new clause to art 368 saying

nothing in art 13 shall
apply to amendment made under this article.
In this case, this amendment was challenged.
SC overruled Golak Nath case and held the following
–
 “Law” in art 13 means ordinary law made under
legislative power.
24th amendment is only clarifying that point and
so it valid.
 Parliament has wide power of amending the
constitution but it is
not unlimited.
 The usage of the word “amendment” in the
constitution means
that the basic framework of the constitution
must survive after the
amendment. It does not allow destruction of the
basic structure of
the constitution.
 Power to amend the constitution does not
including abrogating
the constitution.
 C J Sikri said that basic features of the
constitution include –
o Supremacy of the judiciary
o Republic and democratic character
Emergency
Minerva Mills vs. Union of Proclamation of emergency by the president falls under
India judicial Art 352
preview. However, court's power is limited only to
AIR 1980 examining whether
the limitations conferred by the constitution have been
observed or
not. It can check if the satisfaction of the president is valid or
not. If the
satisfaction is based on mala-fide or absurd or irrelevant
grounds, it is
no satisfaction at all.
Dissolution of 9 state assemblies in 1977 was held valid. SC
State of Raj. vs. Union of India held that Art 356
it is a political decision and rests with the executive.
AIR 1977 Satisfaction of the
president can be reviewed by the court.
Secularism is a basic feature and a govt. may be dismissed
S R Bommai vs. Union of India on this Art 356
ground. It gave detailed guidelines on invocation of art
AIR 1994 356.
Art
Makhan Singh vs. State of In this case SC identified the difference between art 358 358/35
Punjab and art 359. 9
AIR 1964 Art 358 Art 359
Freedoms given by art 19
are Fundamental rights are not
suspended. suspended. Only that courts
cannot be moved to enforce
fundamental rights.
Any actions done or
omitted to Any action done by the
68
be done cannot be legislature or executive can

challenged be
challenged after the
even after emergency. suspension
is over.
Art 19 is suspended for the Right to move courts is
period of emergency. suspended for the period of
emergency or until the
proclamation of the
president to
remove suspension.
Effective all over the
country. May be confined to an area.
LIC entered into a settlement with its employee before
MM Pathak vs. Union of India emergency. Art 359
During emergency this settlement was scrapped by a law.
AIR 1978 This was
defended on the ground that since fundamental rights
were
suspended during emergency it cannot be challenged on
the ground
that it violates fundamental rights in the courts.
SC held that rights given under art 14 to 19 are not
suspended under
emergency. Only their operation is suspended. Therefore
as soon as
emergency ends, those rights are revived again. Also,
liabilities
incurred before emergency cannot be quashed by a law
made in
emergency. They are revived after emergency.
69

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Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

B.A. LL.B. (HONS.) II SEMESTER

Parliamentary government, Rule of Law, legislative procedure, single

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

UNITED STATES Fundamental rights, independence of judiciary, judicial review,

CANADIAN Federation with strong centre, vesting of residuary power in the

WEIMAR CONSTITUTION Suspension of Fundamental Rights during Emergency. Soviet

Constitution Procedure for amendment of the Constitution and

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

Preamble means a preliminary or introductory statement, especially attached to a statute or

PREAMBLE AND ITS INTERPRETATION

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

PREAMBLE WHETHER A PART OF

 In Re Berubari Case {AIR 1960 SC 845}

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Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

CAN PREAMBLE BE AMENDED??

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

5) Three Tier Government

6) Fundamental rights and duties

8) Directive principles of state policy

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

10) Partly rigid and partly flexible

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

11) Single citizenship

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

17) Federal Government with Unitary Bias

NATURE OF VARIOUS CONSTITUTIONS IN THE WORLD

Nature of Constitution necessarily depends upon the types of Constitution

 Constitution which provides for a federal system of government is called a Federal

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

 Merits of Unitary Constitution

 Demerits of Unitary Constitution

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

 Merits of Federal Constitution

 Demerits of Federal Constitution

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

2. Such weaknesses are evident on the times of emergencies.

 No doubt, Indian Constitution is a blend of features of both Federal as well as Unitary

Dr. Ambedkar has categorically said in Constituent Assembly discussions that

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

Comparative analysis of essential features of federal Constitution and

A federal Constitution possesses the following characteristics -

Distribution of powers is an essential feature of Federal Constitution but Indian Constitution

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

Various provisions to ensure the independence of judiciary are-

Comparative analysis of essential features of Unitary Constitution and

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

CASES ON NATURE OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

OPINIONS REGARDING NATURE OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

Article 1 : Name and territory of the Union

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

Class –B.A.LL.B (HONS.) II SEM. Subject – Constitution

(c) diminish the area of any State;

Constitution I & II Complete Notes

Constitution I & II Complete Notes