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Stats Cheat Sheet for Final Exam

Introduction to Psychological Design and Statistics (Macquarie University)

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Stats Cheat Sheet

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Wednesday, 3 November 2021

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Wednesday, 3 November 2021

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Wednesday, 3 November 2021

Pearsons Correlation
- Correlation is a numerical summary that shows the strength P-Value
and direction of the linear relationship between 2 numerical > 0.05 we fail to reject the null
variables hypothesis - accept null
Scatterplot - swilk and Levene’s we want above
- Correlation coefficient (r) ranges from -1.00 to +1.00 0.05 so we can run it
- Values closer to 0 - weaker correlation
- Values closer to +/-1 - stronger correlation < 0.05 we reject the null hypothesis -
no difference between means and
In general there is no significant difference
- 0-0.10 = very weak to no relationship
- 0.10-0.30 = weak relationship
- 0.30-0.50 = moderate relationship
- 0.50-1 = strong relationship
- the more scatter/variability (spread out, no pattern) = the correlation is weaker

Cause and Effect: Distinction between - two things being related vs one thing causing the other
Criteria for a cause and effect (causal) relationship:
1. Covariance rule: must be a relationship
2. Temporal precedence: the cause must precede the effect
3. Internal validity: exclude other potential causes of the effect

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Normal Distribution
- bell shaped distribution - has an unlimited range
- The height and width of the “bell” depends on s, the standard deviation.
- The “bell’s” position along the horizontal axis depends on m, its
mean.
Independent (IV): use to predict or explain or cause
a change in the outcome
Dependent (DV): dependent on independent
variable - outcome

Empirical science: knowledge about behaviour that’s

been tested and confirmed via scientific methods
Empirical research can either use:
- Quantitative research methods: data gathered is
numeric
- Qualitative research methods: data gathered is
descriptive
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Non Experimental
Non experimental studies are used when:
- RQ’s/hypotheses don’t specify cause and effect relationships
- Phenomena can’t be manipulated (practically and/or ethically)
- External validity is more important than internal

Types of Non-Experimental Methods:

1. Single variable research - studying one variable
- Descriptive statistics and one-sample tests can be used for this

2. Correlational research: no (or minimal) interference, measuring things that already exist
- eg. Do Psychology students have higher self-reported science aptitude than Philosophy students?

3. Quasi-experimental research: looks a bit experimental but not properly experimental

- eg. Do Psychology students perform better in lab science skills test than Philosophy students?

Two specific kinds of non-experimental RQ’s/hypotheses:

1. Group comparison (tested with independent samples t-tests) - is there a difference between the 2 groups?
- they have 1 categorical IV & 1 numeric DV
- they can also have a categorial DV

2. Correlation RQs/hypotheses (tested with correlational analyses) - is there a relationship between the 2 groups?
- they have 2 numeric variables

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Experimental
Experimental Methods
- researcher has control over the IV: eg:
- What the conditions/groups are
- Who is in what group

To maximise internal validity - we use experimental methods

Types of Experimental Methods

1. Between-subjects (independent groups) design - tested with independent sample t-tests
- distinct independent groups
- random allocation
- either comparing two unique groups/interventions/conditions, or comparing one thing (e.g. intervention) against a
control group

2. Within subjects (related group comparison) - tested with paired samples t-test
Eg: Does condition A cause a different score of Y than condition B?
- still have a “group” (“condition” variable)
- Same group of people experiencing all conditions
- ALL participants do/experience ALL conditions
- Same control as between subjects - but better
- only need half the amount of people
- Less variation/error in scores - scores are more related, cause they’re from the same people

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Mixed Methods
Empirical research: Conducting Mixed Methods Study
- quantitative research methods: data = numeric Either:
- qualitative research methods: data = descriptive - conducted in a single “study” eg. Survey
- or be mixed method study = combination of both with open ended questions or interview
- Conducted in 2 parts - eg. Quant study
- Quantitative = restricting response (eg. Multiple choice)
- Qualitative = free, open ended responses (experiment, survey) then follow up interview
- In psych mixed method studies - Qual part is
Most qualitative study methods: often briefer than pure qual studies
1. interviews: one on one convo, often with back and forth
- Structured: scripted Purpose of mixed - brings different and
- Unstructured: general questions/convo complimentary info - allowing more exploration
- Semi-structured: starts with script, then lets it flow of a topic and approach to RQ
- Can’t be promoting people with words - avoiding response bias

2. Focus groups: small no. of people in a room together Tools to summarise and build models for
- individuals response can be affected by others responses qualitative data
- see intergroup processes Word cloud - picks out certain words in the
response
3. Online survey: open-ended questions Sentiment analysis - program that picks out
words to classify them into positive, neutral or
Themes:
negative
noticing the % of people who:
- mention the word cat
- Mention the feeling positive
- Mention another animal

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Replication/Reproducibility: reproduce and
conduct the study multiple times with different
samples. Helps see if the results are consistent,
real and reliable
Replication/Reproducibility crisis
Concerns about credibility of findings in
psychological science
Meta-analaysis - summarises individual studies
and results. Finds the average overall typical
population effect.
Reasons of replication issues:
- questionable (bad) research practices eg. Only
reporting some results
- Luck/random chance and variability
- Only positive results are published
Best Practices
- we want to find real human behaviour that’s
reliable, consistence and predictable
- Being more systematic helps - planning,
conducting and reporting study properly
Preregistration
- formalise research question, method and
analysis before doing the study. Publicly report
it so you’re held accountable
- peer reviewed before study
- Preregistration minimises bias
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Open Data, Open Code, Transparent Methods
- disclosing all decisions that you ended up doing
- Disclosing all analyses you conducted
- Make it publicly available
- This makes sure data is not selectively report
Open Access Publications
- publications available freely online
- If papers haven’t been peer reviewed they might not be good
quality
Robust Statistical Methods
- use methods of reducing the likelihood of making a type 1 error
Replication
- true findings should be replicable
Best practice in Psychological Science
Culture and WEIRD Psychology
- empirical research is how we understand human behaviour - via
participant samples
- Sample = participants, population = general/broader group were
researching
- Location is not broadly representative of the world
- WEIRD = western, educated, industrialised, rich and democratic
- We need studies to be conducted in different countries, cultures
and genders so we can compare and find differences