Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lymphoma
Lymphoma
adolescents
Authors: Kenneth L McClain, MD, PhD, Kala Kamdar, MD, MS Epi
Section Editor: Julie R Park, MD
Deputy Editor: Alan G Rosmarin, MD
Contributor Disclosures
All topics are updated as new evidence becomes available and our peer review process is complete.
Literature review current through: Jan 2024. | This topic last updated: Nov 11, 2022.
INTRODUCTION
Few risk factors, other than those related to viral exposure and immune function,
have been convincingly identified. (See "Hodgkin lymphoma: Epidemiology and risk
factors".)
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Variation in the incidence, age, and sex distribution of HL occurs in different
populations according to geographic location, socioeconomic status, and
immunologic status. In the United States and other economically advantaged
countries, two incidence peaks exist: one in young adults and one in persons older
than 50 years; most patients are young adults ( figure 1) [1,3]. The estimated age-
related incidence rates are 29 cases per million per year in adolescents aged 15 to 19;
approximately 10 per million per year in 10- to 14-year-olds; 3.5 per million in 5- to 9-
year-olds; and 1 per million for ages 0 to 4 years. The bimodal age distribution of HL is
different in economically disadvantaged areas. An initial peak occurs in childhood for
boys, relatively low rates are found in young adults, and a late peak occurs in older
adults [4]. (See "Hodgkin lymphoma: Epidemiology and risk factors", section on 'Age
and race'.)
● Familial – Familial HL has been estimated to represent 4.5 percent of all cases of
HL [11-13]. This familial association may include shared environmental factors,
exposure to viruses, and genetic influences, including inherited
immunodeficiency states. This is discussed in more detail separately. (See
"Hodgkin lymphoma: Epidemiology and risk factors", section on 'Familial risk' and
"Hyperimmunoglobulin M syndromes".)
BIOLOGY
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is associated with many, but not all cases of HL.
When EBV is present, it can be detected in HRS cells, and is thought to play a role in
the pathogenesis of HL. Twenty-five to 50 percent of cases of classic HL in developed
countries are EBV positive; the incidence of EBV varies among histological subtypes.
(See "Hodgkin lymphoma: Epidemiology and risk factors".)
HISTOLOGIC CLASSIFICATION
● Nodular sclerosis (NS) – This accounts for 80 percent of HL in older children and
adolescents, but 55 percent of HL in younger children in the United States [17].
Dense collagenous bands divide the lymph node into nodules. The
Hodgkin/Reed-Sternberg (HRS) cells may be a variant known as a lacunar cell.
● Mixed cellularity (MC) – This accounts for 20 percent of children younger than
10 years and half that in adolescents. Often with prominent eosinophils, it can be
confused with non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
● Lymphocyte depleted (LD) – This subtype is rare in children, often with bizarre
malignant cells, diffuse fibrosis, and necrosis [18].
The malignant cells in NLPHL, which are called LP cells ("popcorn cells"), have
distinctive characteristics that distinguish them from Reed-Sternberg cells of cHL
( table 2). (See "Nodular lymphocyte-predominant Hodgkin lymphoma: Clinical
manifestations, diagnosis, and staging".)
CLINICAL PRESENTATION
As in adults, pruritus and alcohol-induced pain, which typically resolve with treatment,
have been described [24-28].
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
The presenting symptoms and signs suggestive of HL in children and adolescents
may be caused by a variety of diseases and the differential diagnosis includes other
malignant, infectious, and inflammatory diseases. They include non-Hodgkin
lymphoma, metastatic adenopathy from other primary tumors (eg, nasopharyngeal
carcinoma, soft tissue sarcoma), toxoplasmosis, typical and atypical mycobacterium
infections, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, systemic lupus erythematosus, and
disorders causing reactive hyperplasia of lymph nodes [30]. (See "Clinical presentation
and diagnosis of classic Hodgkin lymphoma in adults", section on 'Differential
diagnosis'.)
The diagnostic considerations in patients with mediastinal masses depend upon the
anatomic compartment in which the mass is located ( figure 2). In children, anterior
mediastinal mass must be distinguished from normal thymus, which attains maximal
size when the child reaches approximately 10 years of age [31]. (See "Approach to the
adult patient with a mediastinal mass".)
Clinical and laboratory evaluation and tissue biopsy are required for establishing the
diagnosis of HL.
● Clinical
● Laboratory – Routine laboratory tests, including complete blood count (CBC) with
white blood cell differential count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, renal and liver
function tests, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and urinalysis are obtained to assess
organ involvement and risk for relapse. (See "Pretreatment evaluation, staging,
and treatment stratification of classic Hodgkin lymphoma", section on 'Laboratory
studies'.)
Imaging — The goal of imaging is to define the extent of disease and guide tissue
biopsy. (See 'Diagnosis' below.)
Patients with a large mediastinal mass are at risk for acute respiratory compromise.
The evaluation and biopsy of these patients must be undertaken with special care.
These patients may have assumed an awkward seated position that allows them to
keep an open airway. Such patients should never be placed in a lying position. A
biopsy of a superficial node under local anesthesia may be required. Occasionally,
such patients need urgent systemic steroid administration and/or involved field
radiotherapy.
Bone marrow aspirates are recommended only for patients with advanced stage
disease (stage III, IV), B symptoms, or an abnormality on CBC that is suspicious for
bone marrow involvement (see 'Staging' below) [37]. Advances in diagnostic imaging
and the use of systemic chemotherapy in all pediatric HL treatment protocols have
made routine staging laparotomy unnecessary.
STAGING
Therapy and prognosis are based upon the stage of the disease, as defined by the
Ann Arbor staging system with Cotswolds modifications used both in children and
adults ( table 3). (See "Pretreatment evaluation, staging, and treatment stratification
of classic Hodgkin lymphoma".)
TREATMENT
Initial treatment
Although criteria for stratification may differ between centers and/or studies, we
suggest the following approach, based on the Children's Oncology Group criteria and
trial outcomes:
● High-risk disease – Stage IIB with bulk, stage IIIB, or stage IV disease (see 'High-
risk disease' below)
The treatment options for patients in each of these risk groups are described in the
sections that follow. Patients with nodular lymphocyte-predominant HL appear to
have a better outcome and require specific consideration. For all risk groups, a choice
among regimens with equivalent outcomes is largely made based upon physician
experience, cancer center preference, and expected toxicities ( table 4). (See
'Nodular lymphocyte-predominant HL' below.)
Most protocols use combination chemotherapy plus low dose involved field radiation
therapy (LD-IFRT). Commonly used regimens and clinical responses include:
Ongoing trials are evaluating whether early response to therapy can identify low-risk
patients for whom radiation may be eliminated without compromising survival. A
nonrandomized prospective international trial (GPOH-HD95) suggested that omission
of radiation did not compromise survival rates among children with early stage HL
who attained a complete response on CT or MRI following initial treatment with OEPA
or OPPA [43]. The Children's Oncology Group (COG) AHOD0431 trial investigated
whether doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone, and cyclophosphamide (AVPC) without
radiotherapy would be curative in patients with complete remission at end of therapy.
Though preliminary data showed two-year OS to be 100 percent, two-year EFS was
just 65 percent in those patients with positron emission tomography (PET)-avid
disease after one cycle of therapy and who did not receive radiotherapy due to
complete remission at end of treatment [48]. Optimization of risk stratification in this
patient population is a subject for future clinical trials.
Some experts omit radiation therapy in children without bulky disease who achieve a
rapid early response after two cycles of ABVE-PC and a PET-negative complete
response after four cycles of ABVE-PC (ie, rapid early responders/complete
responders). Conversely, some escalate therapy in those who remain PET-positive
after the first two cycles (ie, slow early responders). Support for such dose
modifications comes from the COG AHOD0031 trial, in which 1712 children and
adolescents with newly diagnosed intermediate-risk HL were treated with two cycles
of ABVE-PC followed by response evaluation by CT scan with or without PET [50]. The
trial reported the following:
High-risk disease — Children with stage IIIB or IV disease are considered to have
high-risk or advanced stage HL; in some schemes, children with stage IIB bulky
disease or pleural effusions are included in this high-risk group.
For children with high-risk HL, we recommend dose-intensive treatment that includes
brentuximab vedotin (BV; anti-CD30 monoclonal antibody conjugate) plus
doxorubicin, vincristine, etoposide, prednisone, and cyclophosphamide, rather than
standard pediatric combination chemotherapy. This recommendation is based on a
phase 3 trial which reported that, compared with the standard pediatric regimen, the
BV-based regimen achieved superior three-year event-free survival (EFS) with no
increase in toxicity [52]. In settings where BV is not available, treatment using the
standard pediatric regimen is acceptable.
Other regimens that limit doses of alkylating agents, anthracyclines, and/or radiation
in children with advanced and unfavorable disease have led to inferior outcomes
compared with standard regimens [54-56].
NLPHL represents a more indolent disease than classic HL, and is therefore managed
uniquely. Patients with stage I/II NLPHL without B symptoms are treated with less
intensive therapy than patients with classic HL. In contrast, patients with stage III/IV
are treated in a similar fashion to patients with classic HL.
The current strategies for treating NLPHL in children are modest intensity
chemotherapy regimens, some without anthracyclines, with or without involved field
radiation. Since this disease is rare, most information concerning this approach has
come from reports of single institutions or pooled, multi-institutional retrospective
analyses in children and adults. These are described separately. (See "Treatment of
nodular lymphocyte-predominant Hodgkin lymphoma".)
Given the indolent nature of NLPHL and the potential toxicities of treatment, small
studies have evaluated the use of chemotherapy alone and the use of observation
without treatment following excision in children with stage I/II NLPHL. The latter
should be reserved for highly selected patients. The OS in most series is 100 percent,
with lower progression-free survival (PFS) and EFS in series with surgery alone (67 to
82 percent) [59,60] or CVP (cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisone) chemotherapy
(74 percent) [61].
● A prospective COG trial observed 52 children with stage IA nonbulky single node
disease that had a negative PET/CT scan after complete resection [60]. At a
median follow-up of 56 months, 13 patients (25 percent) relapsed with a median
time to relapse 11.5 months (range, 1 to 79 months). One relapse was stage IIA
and the rest were IA, occurring at or near the initial site. Nine relapses were
treated on protocol with three cycles of AV-PC (adriamycin [doxorubicin],
vincristine, prednisone, cyclophosphamide) chemotherapy and attained a
complete remission without radiation therapy. One of the nine had a second
relapse six months after treatment with AV-PC. The other four patients were
treated with chemotherapy off protocol. The five-year estimated EFS and OS rates
were 77 and 100 percent, respectively for the group as a whole.
This study also evaluated the use of three cycles of AV-PC chemotherapy in 135
children with nonbulky stage IA or IIA disease [60]. Following chemotherapy
alone, 124 children (92 percent) attained a complete remission and 11 children
had a partial remission that was successfully converted to a complete remission
after IFRT. At a median follow-up of 62 months, the five-year estimated EFS and
OS rates were 89 and 100 percent, respectively.
● The Stanford protocol for low-risk HL patients used four cycles of VAMP
(vincristine, adriamycin [doxorubicin] at 25 mg/m2, methotrexate, and
prednisone) [64]. Six of 32 patients with NLPHL histology failed this therapy but
were successfully treated with IFRT or additional chemotherapy.
● The European Network group reported data from 58 children (54 with stage IA
NLPHL) who were initially treated with resection alone [59]. After a median follow-
up of 43 months, all of the children were alive, with an estimated 50-month PFS of
67 percent. Of the stage IA patients who developed recurrence after initial
resection, all were restaged as either IA or IIA.
These data suggest that radiation therapy can be eliminated in those children who
achieve an early response to therapy. However, it is unclear if the long-term toxicities
of anthracycline based chemotherapy (eg, AV-PC) are less than those expected with
current radiation protocols.
NLPHL is CD20+ and rituximab (anti-CD20 antibody) has been effective for relapsed
disease; it has not been well-studied in front-line therapy for NLPHL.
The protocol for follow-up imaging may vary between institutions, but a common
approach is PET at 6 and 12 months off-therapy and possibly 18 months off-therapy in
high-risk patients [67]. Disease response is determined using the International
Working Group response criteria ( table 5), which also uses the Deauville Scale for
response by PET criteria ( table 6). The immediate goal of initial treatment is the
attainment of a complete response. Failure to attain a complete response should
prompt further therapy for refractory disease.
TOXICITY
Radiation — Acute radiation effects are a function of the total dose delivered and the
volume irradiated. The low dose involved-field radiation that is used in the treatment
of pediatric HL is usually well tolerated. Toxic effects, which are usually self-limited
and reversible, include:
The cellular immune system, including decreased T cell and NK cell function, may be
impaired at baseline and further compromised by myelosuppression, increasing the
susceptibility to herpes zoster and varicella infections. Post-exposure prophylaxis can
be used to prevent development of varicella infection in children who did not receive
the varicella vaccine before undergoing chemotherapy. Antiviral therapy should be
promptly initiated in patients who develop varicella infection or varicella zoster. (See
"Post-exposure prophylaxis against varicella-zoster virus infection" and "Treatment of
herpes zoster".)
Patients who have undergone splenectomy or splenic irradiation are at particular risk
for acquisition of serious bacterial infection and should receive prophylactic
antibiotics and guidelines to follow during a febrile illness. Immunizations should be
administered prior to splenectomy/splenic irradiation and chemotherapy, when
possible. (See "Prevention of infection in patients with impaired splenic function".)
OUTCOME
Most children and adolescents with HL have an excellent prognosis with current
therapy. The overall five-year survival rate for early stage disease exceeds 90 percent,
regardless of the therapeutic regimen chosen [2,68-70]. Even high-risk disease has
cure rates above 85 percent with modern therapy, albeit with increased risk of late
effects.
PROGNOSTIC FACTORS
Factors that are commonly utilized in clinical practice as markers of worse outcome
are higher stage [71], presence of B symptoms [19,47], and presence of bulky disease
[72]. Other prognostic features that have been associated with worse outcome
include:
Scoring systems for childhood Hodgkin lymphoma have shown promise for
identifying patients at high risk of relapse [71] but have not yet been validated in
prospective clinical trials.
The above factors also have been found to predict for disease relapse in adults. (See
"Pretreatment evaluation, staging, and treatment stratification of classic Hodgkin
lymphoma", section on 'International Prognostic Score (IPS)'.)
Many of these long-term effects were described initially following treatment regimens
that are no longer used in children. As patients with HL have better longevity, side
effects from the chemotherapy, such as cardiopulmonary toxicity and second
malignancies, emerged as a competing cause of delayed mortality ( figure 4) [80,82-
84]. The combined modality therapy regimens that are currently given were designed
to be less intensive than the early therapies in an effort to decrease the incidence of
adverse late effects. (See "Second malignancies after treatment of classic Hodgkin
lymphoma".)
Rates of late mortality among survivors of childhood HL have improved over time as
therapy has evolved. One study evaluated late mortality among over 34,000 survivors
of childhood cancer treated from 1970 through 1999 with a median follow-up of 21
years, including 4332 patients who had survived at least five years after a diagnosis of
childhood HL [85]. In the group as a whole, later decades demonstrated a significant
decline in mortality rates, reflecting fewer deaths due to recurrence and long-term
toxicities. Among five-year survivors of childhood HL treated in the most recent
decade (1990 to 1994), an estimated 5.8 percent died within 15 years, with the cause
of death evenly split between progression (2.7 percent) and long-term toxicities (2.6
percent). The most common causes of treatment-related mortality included
subsequent neoplasm (1.3 percent at 15 years), cardiac toxicity (0.5 percent at 15
years), and pulmonary toxicity (0.5 percent at 15 years). Risk-adapted therapy has
been associated with a substantial reduction in late effects as well, with the omission
of radiation linked to a threefold reduction in late effects [86].
● Second cancers – Data from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study indicate that
the incidence of second malignancies among survivors of HL and soft-tissue
sarcomas is higher than that of other childhood cancers [75,110]. There is an
18.5-fold increased risk of developing a second cancer in HL patients compared
with the general population [80,111]. By 10 years after completing HL treatment,
10.6 percent will develop a second malignancy and 26.3 percent will by 30 years.
Breast cancer, thyroid cancer, acute myeloid leukemia, and soft tissue sarcomas
were the most common secondary malignances [111-115]. After HL therapy, the
latency for acute myeloid leukemia (AML) or myelodysplasia is 3.2 years and for
solid tumors is 14.3 years [116]. Breast cancer incidence is directly related to the
dose of radiation given with a 3.2-fold increased risk at 4 Gy and eightfold
increased risk when 40 Gy is given [117,118]. Treatment-related AML is associated
with the use of alkylating agents, anthracycline, and etoposide [119]. (See
"Second malignancies after treatment of classic Hodgkin lymphoma".)
Patients relapsing with early stage HL (stages IA, IIA with no bulky disease or B
symptoms) who had previously been treated with chemotherapy alone can have long
term responses to chemotherapy plus IFRT. Patients past puberty are sometimes
treated with radiotherapy alone, although this is currently less common due to
concern for potential late effects [125]. Patients initially treated for advanced stage HL
and those who relapse within three months of completing therapy need high dose
chemotherapy and autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT).
● Rituximab (for patients with CD20-positive HL, such as NLPHL) alone or with other
second-line chemotherapy [132]
● PD-1 and PDL-1 inhibitors include nivolumab and pembrolizumab. HRS cells
evade immune detection by utilizing the programmed death 1 (PD-1) pathway.
PD-1 ligands are overexpressed in classic HL. PD-1 pathway inhibitors are being
evaluated for refractory/relapsed HL in children. Pembrolizumab is approved by
the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment in children with
refractory classic HL or disease that has relapsed after ≥2 lines of therapy. Use of
PD-1 pathway inhibitors in adults is discussed separately. (See "Treatment of
relapsed or refractory classic Hodgkin lymphoma", section on 'PD-1 blockade'.)
If patients develop refractory disease during therapy or relapse <1 year after
completing therapy, second-line chemotherapy is followed by high dose
chemotherapy and subsequent autologous HCT [135,136]. Autologous HCT is
preferred over allogeneic HCT for most patients because of the increased transplant-
related mortality with the latter [137]. Survival rates of 45 to 70 percent and
progression-free survival rates of 30 to 89 percent have been reported. For patients
who fail autologous HCT or have chemotherapy resistant disease, an allogeneic HCT is
the best therapy. (See "Treatment of relapsed or refractory classic Hodgkin
lymphoma" and "Hematopoietic cell transplantation in classic Hodgkin lymphoma".)
Patients with primary refractory disease have poor outcomes with second-line
therapy even if HCT and radiation are employed. As examples:
Consolidation therapy with BV after autologous HCT may provide benefit for high-risk
refractory/relapse HL patients. In a randomized, controlled phase 3 trial involving 329
adult patients with refractory or unfavorable-risk relapsed HL, patients who received
16 cycles of BV after autologous HCT had improved progression-free survival (hazard
ratio 0.57, 95% CI 0.40-0.81) [140].
Diagnosis of cHL requires a lymph node biopsy that demonstrates the malignant
Hodgkin/Reed-Sternberg (HRS) cells ( picture 1 and picture 2) in a background
of reactive small lymphocytes, eosinophils, neutrophils, histiocytes, and plasma
cells. HRS cells have reduced expression of most B cell antigens (eg, CD20, CD791,
PAX5), and positive staining for CD30. (See 'Diagnosis' above.)
● Classification – There are four subtypes of cHL and a distinct category, called
nodular lymphocyte predominant HL (NLPHL) (See 'Histologic classification'
above.):
• Mixed cellularity
• Lymphocyte depleted
• Lymphocyte rich
● Staging – Disease stage is based on the Ann Arbor staging system with
Cotswolds modifications ( table 3). In children bulky disease is ≥6 cm. (See
'Staging' above.)
• Low-risk cHL – Children with low-risk cHL (ie, stage IA or IIA cHL without bulky
disease) are usually treated with combination chemotherapy. (See 'Low-risk
disease' above.)
• High-risk cHL – For children with high-risk HL (stage IIB with bulky disease,
stage IIIB, or stage IV), we recommend brentuximab vedotin (anti-CD30
antibody conjugate)-containing intensive combination chemotherapy rather
than other regimens (Grade 1B); RT is generally added for bulky or slowly-
responding disease. (See 'High-risk disease' above.)
● Monitoring – Late effects include impaired growth of soft tissue and bones,
thyroid dysfunction, gonadal dysfunction, cardiopulmonary toxicity, second
malignancies, functional impairment, and reduced overall general health. (See
'Late complications' above.)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS