SESSION 2023-24 VII SEMESTER

KOE-078
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
ENGINEERING

UNIT -3
All Topic

SANJANA SINGH
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
 Content
Biological methods of soil erosion control
 grass land management
forest management.
Soil quality management
 drainage works
reclamation of salt affected soils.
Water conservation off relation
water storage in ponds, lakes, reservoirs and aquifers
groundwater recharge through wells
check dams and storage works
 Biological methods of soil erosion control
1. Contour Farming.
2. Terracing
3. Strip Cropping:
4. Windbreaks
5. Cover Crops/Green Manure: Planting cover crops during non-growing seasons
6. Riparian Buffer Strips: Planting native vegetation along water bodies like rivers, streams,
and lakes creates a natural buffer zone that filters sediments and pollutants before they enter
the water.
7. Mulching
8. Grassed Waterways: Designing grass-lined channels or waterways.
9. Soil Conservation Farming: Adopting conservation tillage practices like no-till or reduced
tillage minimizes soil disturbance and maintains crop residues on the soil surface, protecting
it from erosion.
10. Agro forestry: Integrating trees and shrubs with crops or livestock systems can provide
multiple benefits, including soil erosion control. Trees help anchor the soil, create
windbreaks, and enhance overall ecosystem stability.
 Grass land management
The main objective in the management of grassland is to secure the maximum production of
livestock without any adverse effect to the productivity of grass land.
Decline of grass/ plants productivity may be due to bad drainage or lack of sufficient nutrients
in the soil or over grazing.
 Nutrients and physiological defects may be caused by the lack of any one or more of the
essential plant nutrient.

Key aspects of grassland management include:

Weed control (Bush control)
Burning of grass lands
Enclosure of grass lands
Reseeding
Conservation of soil and moisture
Grazing management
WEED CONTROL
Both herbaceous and shrubby weeds are found
to invade deteriorated grasslands. Destroying
weeds is to be a continous process in
deteriorated grasslands. To eradicate the weeds,
various methods are available such as :
Manual cutting
Mechanised means by the use of implements
Digging out
Burning (in case of heavy infestation)
Use of weedicides
BURNING OF GRASS LANDS
Setting fire to dry vegetation in order to encourage new growth after the next monsoon
rains, is a wide spread practice in many parts of India.

It is a convenient method of removing unutilized herbage residues of the previous year so
that, a new growth of vegetation may develop unhindered and become available to grazing
animals.
It is also helpful in destroying undesirable weeds and shrubby growths that may compete
with desirable grasses and legumes.

Burning is also helpful in encouraging an early spring growth of grasses and discouraging
encroachment of jungle growths. In humid high rainfall areas, burning may not be very
harmful, but in semi-arid regions burning is definitely harmful.
ENCLOSURE OF GRASS LANDS

Elimination of the grazing factor, which is directly

responsible for the deterioration of the grasslands, induces
a progressive succession
Closure for a few years will be effective when the
reminants of better species are still scattered in the area, to
serve as seed sources.
 4 or 5 years of closure may be necessary but if the
deterioration has already proceeded to the 'poor' condition
when only annual species of grasses are left to grow, than
the regeneration even under closure may be much slower.
RESEEDING
On level grounds, the operation is fairly easy and effective.
Sufficient preliminary information should also be gathered on
the choice of species to be sown, the quality of the seed,
preparation of soil, moisture conditions and method of re-
seeding, if the re-seeding programme is to be successfully.
On undulating sites soil conservation measures are essential
before re-seeding.
Re-seeding can be done on level land in rows 54 cm apart
but the spacing can be increased if necessary, depending
upon the quality of seed available, the urgency of
regeneration and other factors.

After sowing the soil is given a light harrowing.

The grazing during the first year of reseeding should be very

light and allowed only after the grass has set seed. From the 2nd
year onwards, moderate grazing can be allowed.
 CONSERVATION OF SOIL AND MOISTURE
The proper conservation of both water and soil is an integral part of all good grassland
management systems.
On degraded grassland especially on sloppy ground, the first measure of improvement could
be to prevent any further erosion of the soil.
 Where the erosion has already progressed to the stage of gully formation, dams will have to
be put across the gully channels.
A number of small check dams being more effective than a few large ones. Terraces or surges
are useful in high rainfall regions in directing water from the slopes to the channels with a
minimum of soil loss from the grasslands.
Erosion can be controlled by avoiding excessive removal of herbage, adopting contour
bunding for soil as well as moisture conservation.
 GRAZING MANAGEMENT
This is defined as the number of animals that can graze in a unit area without over
grazing or undergrazing in an average season.
To avoid this risk, grazing must be stopped at some stage or other i.e., in grassland
The practical method is to defer grazing in a part of the grassland and to allow grazing in
the other part in a 'rotational' system.
In most perennial grasses, new shoots are produced by utilizing the reserve food material that is
stored in the underground parts.
Before the new growths are in a position to build up food reserves by their own photosynthetic
activity, there is a stage in the life history of the perennial plant when the food reserves are at their
minimum.
When the plant produces food material in excess of its growth requirements, the surplus is
translocated in to storage organs.
 Intensive rotational grazing
Simple Rotational grazing
Under grazing conditions these fresh shoots get removed by the grazing animals and the
plant never get a chance to build up any reserve food material.
There is thus a continuous drain on the food reserves of the plant, so that at the next
growing period, the plant has to start with greatly depleted food reserves.
 If this over grazing continues, the food reserves get exhausted soon and the plant becomes
weaker and weaker and ultimately dies.
Hence in grasslands, it is essential to allow the plants to build up their food reserves
before the forage is utilized for grazing purposes.
In the case of annual plants, which can continue to exist only through seed formation and
germination of that seed each year, the correct management of grasslands dominated by
animals is to cut it for forage only after the seed formation stage
CONTROLLED CONTINUOUS GRAZING

The present practice of uncontrolled continuous grazing results in depletion of all the

desirable species.

Controlled grazing even, if it is continuous, can mitigate this effect to a great extent.

The grazing is stopped when a certain minimum number of preferred plants are still left

with sufficient seed stock.

When managed on these lines, the system would permit a progressive development of

grassland area.
 DEFERRED GRAZING
This system consists in delaying grazing in a part of the grassland area until after seed
maturity in order to give a chance for the herbage to make sufficient growth and to accumulate
sufficient reserved food material to maintain energy of the plants and produce new shoots next
year from the seeds that are shed.
This system is applicable where perennial grasses are predominant.
In practice the grassland is divided into three compartments.
One compartment is completely closed to grazing during the growing season, while the
animals are allowed to graze in other two compartments alternately.
Grazing is allowed in the closed "compartment later on, before the herbage becomes too old
and unpalatable.
Grazing at this stage help in the disposal of seeds and their placement in the soil, thus favour
good germination.
Grazing in the other two compartments gives the benefit of early growth, to the grazing
animals, while the alternation of grazing in two plots enables the plants to recoup their energy
after grazing, the grass in the deferred plot though less nutritious makes up for it by its greater
quantity.
 ROTATIONAL GRAZING
July August September

1st Year I II III

2nd Year II III I

3rd Year III I II

In this type of grazing, animals are allowed for grazing into different sub units of the grassland
area in rotation at suitable intervals during the grazing season, so as to bring about uniform
grazing without making it too close.

The quick change over from one compartment to another provides the advantages of giving the
animals a nutritive, young herbage and at the same time provides a period of rest during the
growth season.

The disadvantages in this method is that it gives no chance for seed formation.
 DEFERRED AND ROTATIONAL GRAZING
•der traditional open grazing.

This system is useful for grasslands where annual species predominate and where seeding of the
perennial species is desired to maintain the density of the grass cover.
The grass land is divided into three compartments and grazing is allowed in rotation, so that
each compartment is grazed for the grazing season and protected afterwards, until the seed
mature.
By the time the animals are let into the 3rd compartment, the seeds would have matured and got
shed. In subsequent years, the same order is followed for each compartment in rotation, so that in
3 years the grasses in each compartment would have produced enough seed with the partial
protection afforded to the grasses.
Year Compartme Months of grazing in different
nt closed to compartments
grazing July-Oct Aug-Nov Sep-Dec
Jan-Apr Feb-May Mar-Jun
1 st A B C D
2 nd B C D A
3 rd C D A B
4 th D A B C
Forest management
 Key components of Forest management include
Forest Planning:
Considering ecological, social, and
economic factors when setting goals
and priorities for forest use and
conservation.

Silvi culture
Selecting appropriate tree species and
managing their growth to achieve
desired forest characteristics.

Timber Harvesting:
Carefully planning and executing tree
harvesting to minimize environmental
impacts, maintain forest health, and
optimize timber yields.
Wildlife and Biodiversity
Conservation:
Implementing strategies to protect
and enhance wildlife habitat,
promote species diversity, and
maintain ecosystem balance.

Creating and maintaining wildlife

corridors, habitat patches, and
protected areas.

Fire Management:

Erosion and Watershed

Protection:
.
Reforestation and Restoration

Climate Change Mitigation

Invasive Species Control

Managing and controlling invasive plant and animal species that threaten the health of native
ecosystems.
Research and Monitoring
Conducting scientific research to understand forest ecosystems, biodiversity, and ecological
processes, and using this knowledge to inform management decisions.
Regularly monitoring forest health, vegetation composition, wildlife populations, and other
indicators to assess the effectiveness of management practices.
Stakeholder Engagement
Involving local communities, indigenous groups, environmental organizations, and other
stakeholders in the decision-making process to ensure a balanced approach to forest
management.
Soil Quality management
Texture: Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay particles in the soil. It
affects water-holding capacity, drainage, and aeration. Loam soils, which have a balanced mixture
of sand, silt, and clay, are generally considered ideal for agriculture.
pH Level : Most crops grow best in soils ith a pH between 6.0 and 7.0. Soil pH affects nutrient
availability, microbial activity, and root development.
Nutrient Content: Soil nutrient levels are critical for plant growth. Key nutrients include nitrogen
(N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), as well as secondary and micronutrients like calcium,
magnesium, sulfur, iron, and zinc. Soil tests assess nutrient concentrations and help determine
fertilizer requirements.
Organic Matter: Organic matter in the soil, primarily composed of decomposed plant and animal
material, improves soil structure, water retention, and nutrient availability.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC): CEC measures the soil's ability to retain and exchange
essential nutrients like calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Soils with higher CEC can hold more
nutrients
Electrical Conductivity (EC): EC measures the soil's ability to conduct electrical currents, which
is related to the soil's salt content. High EC levels can indicate salinity issues, which can harm
plant growth.
Water-Holding Capacity: This parameter refers to the soil's ability to retain moisture.
Adequate water-holding capacity ensures plants have access to water during dry periods.
Bulk Density: Bulk density measures the soil's compactness or density. Soil with high bulk
density can restrict root growth and water infiltration.
Soil Organic Carbon: This parameter assesses the amount of organic carbon in the soil,
which is essential for soil fertility and microbial activity.
Microbial Activity: Soil microbial biomass and activity levels can indicate soil health.
Beneficial soil microbes play a crucial role in nutrient cycling and disease suppression.
Soil Erosion and Structure: The soil's physical structure and resistance to erosion are
important for preventing topsoil loss, which can degrade soil quality over time.
Infiltration Rate: Infiltration rate measures how quickly water penetrates the soil surface.
It is essential to prevent surface runoff and ensure efficient water use.
Respiration Rate: Soil respiration measures the release of carbon dioxide by soil
microorganisms during their metabolic processes. It is a proxy for microbial activity and
soil health.
Soil Temperature: Soil temperature affects seed germination, root growth, and microbial
activity. Monitoring soil temperature can help with crop management decisions.
 Soil Quality Management
Enhance organic matter
Regular additions of organic matter improve soil structure, enhance water and nutrient holding
capacity, protect soil from erosion and compaction, and support a healthy community of soil
organisms.
Manage pests and nutrients efficiently

Nutrients from organic sources also can pollute when misapplied or over-applied. Efficient pest
and nutrient management means testing and monitoring soil and pests; applying only the
necessary chemicals, at the right time and place to get the job done; and taking advantage of non-
chemical approaches to pest and nutrient management such as crop rotations, cover crops, and
manure management
Prevent soil compaction

Compaction reduces the amount of air, water, and space available to roots and soil organisms.
Compaction is caused by repeated traffic, heavy traffic, or traveling on wet soil.
Diversify cropping systems
Soil quality management focuses on preserving the essential physical, chemical, and
biological properties of soil to support sustainable agricultural, environmental, and land
use practices.
Here are some key aspects of soil quality management
Soil Testing and Analysis: Regularly testing soil for pH, nutrient levels, organic matter
content, and other parameters to understand its current condition and nutrient
requirements.
Organic Matter Management
Nutrient Management
Crop Rotation and Diversity
Conservation Tillage
Cover Cropping
Mulching
Reduced Chemical Inputs
Water Management
Efficient irrigation practices that avoid water logging and reduce runoff to minimize soil
degradation and nutrient leaching.
Soil Amendments: Adding soil conditioners like lime or gypsum to adjust pH levels and
improve nutrient availability.
Biological Soil Amendments:
Applying beneficial microorganisms or microbial inoculants to enhance nutrient cycling
and improve soil structure.

Soil Compaction Management:

Minimizing soil compaction through careful machinery operation and avoiding heavy
equipment on wet soils.

Agroforestry and Windbreaks:

Introducing trees and shrubs in agro ecosystems to enhance soil stability, reduce wind
erosion, and provide additional organic matter inputs.

Education and Outreach:

Educating farmers, landowners, and communities about the importance of soil
conservation and sustainable management practices.
 Drainage

Drainage work related to soil and water conservation engineering involves the design and
implementation of systems to manage excess water in agricultural fields, urban areas, and
other landscapes. Proper drainage systems help prevent water logging, soil erosion, and
nutrient leaching, contributing to improved soil health and water quality.
 Drainage
Here are some aspects of drainage work in soil and
water conservation engineering:
Surface Drainage:
Constructing open ditches, channels, or grassed
waterways to direct excess surface water away from
fields and prevent erosion.Designing contour channels
that follow the natural slope of the land to slow down
and control water flow.
Subsurface Drainage:
Installing subsurface drainage systems, such as tile
drains or drainage pipes, to lower the water table and
remove excess water from the soil profile.
Designing the drainage system layout and depth to
balance effective drainage without causing excessive
soil compaction.
Need of Drain
 The main aims of Field drainage include:
 To bring soil moisture down from saturation to field capacity.
 At field capacity, air is available to the soil and most soils are mesophites ie. like to grow at
moisture less than saturation.
Drainage helps improve hydraulic conductivity: Soil structure can collapse under very wet
conditions and so also engineering structures.
In some areas with salt disposition, especially in arid regions, drainage is used to leach excess
salt.
In irrigated areas, drainage is needed due to poor application efficiency which means that a lot
of water is applied.
Drainage can shorten the number of occasions when cultivation is held up waiting for soil to dry
out.
 Surface Drainage Channels

• The drainage channels are normally designed using the Manning formula. The
required capacity of a drainage channel is calculated from the summation of the
inflowing streams. The bed level of an open drain collecting flow from field
pipe drains should be such as to allow free fall from the pipe drain outlets under
maximum flow conditions, with an allowance for siltation and weed growth.
300 mm is a reasonable general figure.
 Surface Ditch Arrangements

• The ditch arrangement can be random, parallel or cross- slope.

• Random ditch system: Used where only scattered wet lands require
drainage.

• Parallel ditch system: Used in flat topography. Ditches are parallel and
perpendicular to the slope. Laterals, which run in the direction of the
flow, collect water from ditches.
Surface Ditch Arrangements
 DESIGN OF SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

• Sub-surface drainage is the removal of excess groundwater below the soil

surface.
• It aims at increasing the rate at which water will drain from the soil, and so
lowering the water table, thus increasing the depth of drier soil above the water
table.
• Sub-surface drainage can be done by open ditches or buried drains.
Sub-Surface Drainage Using open Ditches
 Sub-Surface Drainage Using Ditches

• Ditches have lower initial cost than buried drains.

• There is ease of inspection and ditches are applicable in some organic soils
where drains are unsuitable.

• Ditches, however, reduce the land available for cropping and require more
maintenance that drains due to weed growth and erosion.
Sub-Surface Drains Using Buried Drains
 Sub-Surface Drainage Using Buried Drains
• Buried drains refer to any type of buried conduits having open joints or
perforations, which collect and convey drainage water.

• They can be fabricated from clay, concrete, corrugated plastic tubes or

any other suitable material.

• The drains can be arranged in a parallel, herringbone, double main or

random fashion.
Arrangements of Sub-Surface Drains
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 Saline soil
Soluble salts, particularly sodium, calcium, magnesium, and chloride ions. Salt-affected soils
are categorized into several types based on the dominant salt ions and their impacts:
1.Saline Soil: Saline soils contain elevated levels of soluble salts, primarily sodium chloride
(table salt). Excessive salinity can interfere with plant root function and water uptake, leading
to reduced crop productivity.
2.Sodic Soil: Sodic soils have high sodium levels but may not necessarily have high overall
salinity. The high sodium content can cause soil particles to disperse and create poor soil
structure, leading to reduced water infiltration and aeration.
3.Saline-Sodic Soil: These soils have high levels of both salts (mainly sodium and chloride
ions) and sodium, combining the issues of salinity and sodicity. Saline-sodic soils often have
poor structure and drainage, making them particularly challenging for plant growth. 46
4.Alkaline Soil: Alkaline soils have a high pH (above 8.5) due to the presence of sodium
carbonate or bicarbonate. High alkalinity can affect nutrient availability and plant growth.
5.Black Alkali Soil:
contains high levels of sodium carbonate. It often appears as a white, crusty layer on the soil
surface.

The presence of high salt levels in the soil can have several negative effects on
agriculture:
•Reduced water availability to plants due to increased osmotic pressure.
•Reduced nutrient uptake by plants because of ion imbalances.
•Decreased soil structure and drainage, leading to waterlogging and root damage.
•Reduced crop yields and quality.
.
47
Managing salt-affected soils involves strategies like leaching
Soil amendments (e.g., gypsum for sodium displacement), proper irrigation management, salt-
tolerant crop selection, and land drainage improvement.
These practices aim to improve soil quality and make it suitable for agriculture while
minimizing the adverse effects of salt accumulation

Sodium Exchangeable Typical soil

Salt-affected soil Electrical
adsorption Ratio sodium physical condition
classification conductivity (EC)
(SAR) percentage (ESP) (soil structure)b
None Below 4 Below 13 Below 15 Flocculated
Saline Above 4 Below 13 Below 15 Flocculated
Sodic Below 4 Above 13 Above 15 Dispersed
Saline-sodic Above 4 Above 13 Above 15 Flocculated
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 Reclamation of salt-affected soils
Here are some strategies and techniques for addressing salt-affected soils and conserving
water:
1. Soil Testing: Before implementing any reclamation strategy, it's crucial to assess the
extent and type of soil salinity. Soil testing can help determine the salt levels, pH, and
specific ions present in the soil.
2. Proper Irrigation Management:
Drip Irrigation: Drip irrigation systems deliver water directly to the plant roots, minimizing
water loss due to evaporation and reducing the risk of salt buildup in the soil.
Mulching: Applying mulch to the soil surface helps retain soil moisture, reducing the need
for frequent irrigation.
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3. Leaching: Leaching involves applying excess water to wash salts out of the root zone. It can
be an effective way to reduce soil salinity, but it should be done carefully to prevent
waterlogging.
4. Select Salt-Tolerant Crops: Choose crop varieties that are more tolerant to salinity. Some
crops, such as barley, quinoa, and certain types of rice, are better suited to saline soils.
5.Soil Amendments:
Gypsum (Calcium Sulfate): Gypsum can be added to the soil to replace sodium ions with
calcium ions, improving soil structure and reducing sodium-induced salinity.
Organic Matter: Incorporating organic matter like compost or well-rotted manure into the soil
can improve soil structure and water-holding capacity
6. Crop Rotation: Rotate crops that are salt-tolerant with those that are less tolerant to help
break the cycle of salt buildup.
7. Drainage: Proper land drainage systems can help manage excess water and prevent salt
accumulation in the root zone.

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8. Avoid Over-Irrigation: waterlogging
9. Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting and storing rainwater for irrigation can reduce the
dependence on saline groundwater sources.
10. Salt-Affected Soil Monitoring
11. Soil Salinity Mapping: Use modern technologies like satellite imagery and soil sensors to
create detailed soil salinity maps, enabling precision management.
12. Research and Education: Stay informed about the latest research and technologies related to
soil reclamation and water conservation.
13. Government Support: Seek government assistance and incentives for implementing water-
efficient and soil reclamation practices.
14. Sustainable Land Use: Consider long-term land-use planning and avoid activities that may
exacerbate soil salinity, such as improper waste disposal and excessive groundwater extraction.
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Types of Water Resources
Groundwater Resources
Surface Water Resources
The water in lakes and rivers is known as surface water. Potable water, recreation, industry,
agriculture, transportation, livestock, and hydroelectric energy are all uses for this water.
Though earth is called the water planet as it is occupied by 75 percent of water, this water
cannot be used for domestic purposes.
Ocean water is saline in nature and is not fit for human consumption.
Freshwater is just around 2.7 percent of the total water on the earth. Issues such as global
warming and perpetuating water pollution have made a considerable amount of impact on making
freshwater unfit for human consumption.
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Ponds
Ponds are defined as small water bodies between 1m2 and 2ha (a water body having a surface
area larger than 2ha is termed a lake) that hold water for more than four months in a year.
Ponds can be formed naturally in depressions created by glacial activity, natural subsidence
or river activity.
They can also be manmade, in gardens and village greens, or be created by landowners for
fishing, shooting, livestock watering, aesthetic or amenity purposes. Ponds also tend to be
much shallower than lakes.

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Chilika Lake

54
Lakes can be described in the most practical and evident sense as a water body which is a
localized water resource. The lakes are surrounded by land. The lake gets its water supply from
the drainage of the river. Lakes are not any part of the ocean while it forms a major part of the
earth’s water cycle, just like the huge oceans.

The uses of lakes are mentioned as below:

Helps in Carrying Loads
Lakes is the Pathway to Economic and Industrial Development
Water Storage
Name of Some Famous Lakes of India
Advantages of Lakes and Rivers
Help to develop the fisheries.

The famous Wular Lake in Jammu and Kashmir is the largest freshwater lake in India. 55
56
Reservoir
A reservoir is a natural lake or a man-made outdoor storage space where water is collected and
stored in a limited quantity for later use.
Reservoirs are an integral part of many water supply systems worldwide, which play an
important role in supplying water to domestic, industrial, and agricultural demands. In this post,
we will discuss different types of reservoirs.

Purpose Of Reservoir
Sometimes weather fluctuations cause the natural flow of streams and rivers to change over
time.
The excess water flow and valley floods can vary according to short flow or drought.
The main purpose of water storage or reservoirs is to store the excess water during periods of
higher flow.
This way, floods can be controlled, and the stored water can be released gradually for longer
periods. This stored water can be used for domestic, industrial, and agricultural purposes.

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Types Of Reservoir
1. Valley Dammed Reservoir
Valley-dammed reservoirs are formed in valleys in the middle of the mountains. There is often an
existing lake or water, and the sides of the mountain are used as reservoir walls to hold water
2. Flood Control Reservoir
This type of reservoir, also known as a flood mitigation reservoir, is built to store the floodwater
from a high flow water stream to reduce flooding in protected areas or populated areas.
1.Storage Reservoir
2.Retarding Reservoir
i) Storage Reservoir
A reservoir where gates and valves are installed at its spillways and sluice outlets is known as a
storage reservoir. This reservoir requires a manual operation to open and close the gate, which
gives complete control over the amount of water discharged.
ii) Retarding Reservoir
A reservoir that has ungated outlets and the flow is uncontrolled is known as retarding reservoir or
retarding basin.
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3. Distribution Reservoir or Service Reservoir
Distribution Reservoir connected to the main water supply channels(pipelines). The main
purpose of this type of reservoir is to serve or supply water to consumers according to changing
demands or requirements of the local population.
It also serves as local storage in the event of an emergency..
Multi-purpose Reservoirs
As the name suggests, these reservoirs are built to store and supply the water to meet more than
one purpose; hence they are known as Multipurpose Reservoirs.
For Example, multi-purpose reservoirs are designed for irrigation, flood control, power
generation, etc. In India, Bhakra Dam and Nagarjun Sagar Dam are examples of important
multi-purpose projects that serve more than two purposes
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60
 Reservoir
Dam
1. It is impounding of water of a flowing
1. It is a concrete barrier designed to
river.
control the flow of a river and to store
2. It is integral part of dam.
water for various purposes.
3. It is used for irrigation and domestic
2. It is built across a stream, a river, or an
water supply.
estuary to retain water.
4. It might be natural or artificial lake,
storage pond or impoundment created using
3. It is used for generation hydro power.
a dam or lock to store water.
5. It is designed to accommodate to store
4. It is an artificial wall in the reservoir, is
the Silt expected in the inflow.
built at the narrowest point to hold in the
Despite of differences, dams and reservoirs
water.
serve a number of different functions but
5. It is designed and constructed to stop
one of the largest is to maintain an area’s
the flowing water completely.
water supply.
Underground system
 Subsurface water can be mainly divided into two zones
1. Zone of Aeration
2. Zone of Saturation.
1. Zone of Aeration:
In this zone the soil pores are partially filled with
water. The space between the ground surface and the
water table is the zone of aeration.
It is subdivided into :
 Soil zone
 Intermediate zone
 Capillary fringe

2. Zone of Saturation or Ground Water Zone:

Voids are fully saturated with water. This zone may
include loose, unconsolidated deposits of sand and
gravel as well as porous rock formations like limestone
and sandstone
 Occurrence of Ground Water
Aquifers
• An aquifer is a wet underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or
unconsolidated materials from which groundwater can be usefully extracted using a
water well.
1) Aquifer
An aquifer is an saturated geological formation, underground layer of water-bearing permeable
and porous or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater can be
extracted using a water well.

2) Aquiclude
These are the geological formations which, are highly porous but non-permeable. Hence water
cannot be extracted from these types of geological formations.
e.g. Clay
3) Aquitard
These are the geological formations, which are porous but possess very less permeability.
Hence water does not readily flow out of these formations, but instead water seeps out.
e.g. Sandy Clay

4) Aquifuge
These are geological formations, which are neither porous nor permeable.
e.g. Granite
Type of aquifer
1. Un-Confined aquifer
2. Perched aquifer
3. Confined aquifer

1) Un-confined aquifer
Boundary of Un-confined aquifer extended
from water table (water surface which is
under atmospheric pressure) to impermeable
bed strata.
Not subjected to any confining pressure and
Water in Un-confined aquifer is under
atmospheric pressure.
Un-confined aquifer are recharged by
directly rainfall over the surface and water
body.
This aquifer is also called non-artesian
aquifer.
Perched aquifer

Perched aquifer is small water body

which is situated in unsaturated zone of
soil above the main ground water table or
main unconfined aquifer, separated
by impervious strata.
 Well Hydrology

A water well is a hole, shaft, or

excavation used for the purpose
of extracting ground water from
the subsurface. Water may flow
to the surface naturally after
excavation of the hole or shaft.
Such a well is known as a
flowing artesian well.
Important terms Cone of depression
Cone of depression represent the water table during the
drawdown of water with the help
of well through homogeneous and isotropic aquifer.

In un-confined aquifer cone of depression represent the

drawdown water table but in confined aquifer it represent
the pressure drop (change in piezometric head) around
the well.
Radius of influence
It is the maximum distance up to the effect of
drawdown is detected.
In other word, radius of influence represent the
radial extent of cone of depression. And areal
extent represent by area of influence.

Drop in water table from previous static water

table is termed as drawdown depth or
simply drawdown.
 Runoff ( Flow over or away from surface)

 Runoff means the draining off precipitation from a catchment area through the surface channels.

Total runoff of a catchment is divided into four parts

1. Precipitati 4. Ground
on on 2. Surface 3. Inter water flow
stream Runoff/ flow
Overland
flow

Prompt. interflow

Delayed interflow

Based on time delay between the precipitation and the runoff the runoff is classified as

1. Direct Runoff 2. Base Flow

 Factors affecting runoff
1. Rainfall Characteristic
2. Catchment Factor

Types of precipitation
Slope of catchment area
Rain
Steeper slope
Snow
Vegetation
Rainfall Intensity
Geology
Uniform
Drainage Network
Intense
Size Of Catchment
Rainfall Duration
Shape Of Catchment
Soil Moisture deficiency
 Rainfall Runoff Relationship
Inglis Formula
• As a result of careful stream gauging in 53 sites in Western India, Inglis and DeSouza
(1929) evolved two regional formulae, between annual runoff R in cm and annual
rainfall P in cm as follows:
• 1.For Ghat regions of western India
R= 0.85P-30.5
• Whre R is runoff P is precipitation both in cm

• For Deccan plateau( no ghat area ):

• R= (P-17.8 )P/254

74
 Khosla’s Formula
Khosla (1960) analyzed the rainfall, runoff and temperature data for various
catchments in India and USA to arrive at an empirical relationship between
runoff and rainfall. The time period is taken as a month. His relationship for
monthly runoff is
• Rm = Pm –Lm
• Lm= 0.48 Tm for T> 4.5 0c

• where Rm= monthly runoff in cm and Rm ≥ 0; Pm =monthly rainfall in cm;

Lm= monthly losses in cm; Tm= mean monthly temperature of the catchment in
°C
• For, Tm ≤ 4.5 the loss may provisionally be assumed as

75
• Rational formula
• The runoff increases as more and more flow from remote areas of the catchment reach the outlet. Designating the time

taken for a drop of water from the farthest part of the catchment to reach the outlet as tc= time of concentration, it is

obvious that if the rainfall continues beyond tc, the runoff will be constant and at the peak value. The peak value of the

runoff is given by:

• Where C is coefficient of runoff = (runoff/rainfall), A is area of the catchment and i is intensity of rainfall. This is the

basic equation of the rational method:

• WhereQp= peak discharge (m3/s); C = coefficient of runoff; (itc,p) = the mean intensity of precipitation (mm/h) for a

duration equal to tc and an exceedence probability P; A= drainage area in km2. The use of this method to compute

Qprequires three parameters: tc,(itc,p) and C.

76
 Runoff coefficient (C)
The coefficient C represents the integrated effect of the catchment losses and hence
depends upon the nature of the surface, surface slope and rainfall intensity. Some typical
values of C are indicated in Table 19.4 (a and b).

77
 Time of Concentration(tc)
Kirpich Equation (1940)
• This is the popularly used formula relating the time of concentration of the length of travel
and slope of the catchment as

• Wheretc is time of concentration (minutes); L is maximum length of travel of water (m) and S
is slope of the catchment = ΔH/Lin which ΔH is difference in elevation between the most
remote point on the catchment and the outlet.
• Rainfall Intensity (itc,p)
• The rainfall intensity corresponding to a duration and the desired probability of exceedenceP,
(i.e. return period T = 1/P) is found from the rainfall-frequency-duration relationship for the
given catchment area. This relationship is given as

• Where K, a, x and n are coefficients, specific to a given area. 78

World water balance
Importance of Water Harvesting
Technology used for collecting and storing rainwater for human use from rooftops, land surfaces or rock

catchments using simple techniques such as jars and pots as well as engineered techniques.

Rainwater harvesting has been practiced for more than 4,000 years, owing to the temporal and spatial variability of

rainfall.

It is an important water source in many areas with significant rainfall but lacking any kind of conventional,

centralised supply system.

It is also a good option in areas where good quality fresh surface water or ground water is lacking. Water

harvesting enables efficient collection and storage of rainwater, makes it accessible and substitute for poor quality

water.
There are a number of ways by which water harvesting can benefit a community.

•Improvement in the quality of ground water,

•Rise in the water levels in wells and bore wells that are drying up,
•Mitigation of the effects of drought and attainment of drought proofing,
•An ideal solution in areas having inadequate water resources,
•Reduction in the soil erosion as the surface runoff is reduced,
•Decrease in the choking of storm water drains and flooding of roads and
•Saving of energy to lift ground water.
Types of Water Harvesting
Rainwater Harvesting: Rainwater harvesting is defined as the method for
inducing, collecting, storing and conserving local surface runoff for agriculture in arid and
semi-arid regions. Three types of water harvesting are covered by rainwater harvesting.
•Water collected from roof tops, courtyards and similar compacted or treated surfaces is used
for domestic purpose or garden crops.
•Micro-catchment water harvesting is a method of collecting surface runoff from a small
catchment area and storing it in the root zone of an adjacent infiltration basin. The basin is
planted with a tree, a bush or with annual crops.
•Macro-catchment water harvesting, also called harvesting from external catchments is the
case where runoff from hill-slope catchments is conveyed to the cropping area located at foot
hill on flat terrain.
Flood Water Harvesting: Flood water harvesting can be defined as the collection and
storage of creek flow for irrigation use.
Flood water harvesting, also known as ‘large catchment water harvesting’ or ‘Spate
Irrigation’,
•In case of ‘flood water harvesting within stream bed’, the water flow is dammed and as a
result, inundates the valley bottom of the flood plain.
• The water is forced to infiltrate and the wetted area can be used for agriculture or pasture
improvement.
Groundwater Harvesting: Groundwater harvesting is a rather new term and employed to
cover traditional as well as unconventional ways of ground water extraction.
Qanat systems, underground dams and special types of wells are a few examples of the
groundwater harvesting techniques.
Groundwater dams like ‘Subsurface Dams’ and ‘Sand Storage Dams’ are other fine
examples of groundwater harvesting.
They obstruct the flow of ephemeral streams in a river bed; the water is stored in the
sediment below ground surface and can be used for aquifer recharge.
Benefits of Rain Water Harvesting;

1. Availability of water for drinking, water for live stock,water for irrigation etc.
2. Recharge of ground water table.
3. Increase in greenery in urban areas

4. system can be simple to construct from inexpensive local materials.

5. It is environment friendly.
6. Prevents soil erosion and flooding in urban areas.

7. Inculcates a culture of water conservation in the people.

8. Community water resources act as social temples.

Components of roof top rain water harvesting system
The various components of roof top rain water harvesting system are
1. Roof/ catchment area

2. Gutters and downpipes

3. Filter unit or leaf screen

4. Storage tank

5. Delivery system

6. Water treatment unit

 1. Roof/catchment area:
The terrace of a building act as a catchment area for collecting
water in this system.

A flat roof is usually made of RCC.

If tiles are fixed on the top of the roof,good quality of

water can be obtained.
 2.Gutters and Downpipes
Water from roof/ catchment area is collected into gutters.
Commonly two types of gutters are used
1. Eaves gutter
2. Box gutter
 3.Filter unit or Leaf screen
 The rain water collected from the roof should be allowed to

reach the storage tank only through a filter unit.

 Rubble, sand and charcoal, as used the traditional three-pot

filtration, can be adopted here

 4. Storage Tank
Water from filter unit is stored in the storage tank. Mainly three types of storage
tanks are constructed for roof water harvesting.
They are as ;
1. under ground,
2. on the ground
3. above ground tanks.

The under ground tanks are usually made of masonry or Rcc. The overhead
tanks are made of PVC or masonry
5.Delivery system :
The water from the storage tank is delivered to the treatment
unit through delivery pipe system.
 6. Water treatment unit :
The water stored in the storage tank should be treated if it is to
be used for drinking.

Normally, filtration, sedimentation, disinfection, etc. processes

are followed for the treatment of water.
 Design of storage :

The design of storage tank depends upon

(i) Average annual rainfall
(ii) Size of catchment
(iii) Drinking water requirements
 Recharge Techniques :
Direct surface techniques
• This method of groundwater recharge is very simple and most widely used. Under this method
stored surface water is directly conveys into an aquifer without infiltration and water percolates
naturally through the unsaturated zones of soil profile and join the groundwater table.
1. Flooding/water spreading
• This is a very common method of groundwater recharge .
• This method is suitable for relatively flat topography.
• Water is spread as a thin sheet.
• Higher rate of vertical infiltration is obtained.
• Potential area for this method is alluvial region of country. 97
flooding

98
2. Percolation tank/basin

• A percolation tank can be defined as an artificially created surface water body in a highly permeable land submerged
area so that the surface runoff is made to percolate and recharge the groundwater storage.

• It is the most prevalent structures in India because it is used to measure the recharge the groundwater reservoir in
highly permeable land areas.

• It is applicable in both alluvial as well as hard rock formations regions.

• Its efficacy and feasibility is more in hard rock formation regions than alluvial regions.

• Percolation tank for water storage.

3. Stream augmentation (Check dams/Nala bund/ gabions)

• It is feasible to construct across small streams having gentle slope (less than 6 percent) .

• It is applicable in both hard rock as well as alluvial formation region.

• It is mainly confined to stream course and its height is normally very less (less than 2 m).

• To harness the maximum run off in the stream, series of such check dams can be constructed.

• A nala bund acts like a mini percolation tank. 99

Stream augmentation

100
 Direct sub-surface techniques

1. Dug well recharge

• It is suitable in alluvial as well as hard rock areas having depth upto 50 meters .

• The ground water reservoir, storm water, tank water, canal water etc. can be diverted into
these structures to directly recharge the dried aquifer.

• Ordinary dug wells, borewell and tube wells can be used for recharging of gw recharge takes
place by gravity flow.

• Suitable in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala.

101
Dug well

102
 2. Injection wells
• It is made with the purpose of augmenting the ground water storage of a confined aquifer by pumping-in treated surface water under
pressure.

• The aquifer to be replenished is generally over-exploited.

• It is suitable in coastal regions to capture sea water and also to withstand the land subsidence problems in the regions where confined
aquifers are over-pumped.

• Water available for groundwater recharging is to be fairly treated for elimination of suspended material, chemical stabilization and
bacterial manipulation.

• Injection well for groundwater recharge.

• Subsurface dykes

• It is a sub-surface barrier across a stream which slows down the natural sub-surface /groundwater flow of the system and capture water
beneath ground surface to meet the water demand .

• The main cause of groundwater dam is to capture the flow of groundwater out of the sub-basin and increase the storage capacity of the
aquifer.

• Suitable in hard rocks or alluvium forested area. 103

Injection well

104
3. Recharge pit and shaft

• These are the most efficient and cost effective structures to recharge the aquifer directly .

• In area where impervious layer is encountered at shallow depth.

• Where phreatic aquifer is not hydraulically in connection with surface water.

• The diameter of shaft should be more than 2 m for recharging rate 7–14 lps.

• These structures are common in the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra

• Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu& Kashmir.

105
Induced recharge Indirect method
• It is an indirect method of artificial recharge.

• In this method water is pumped from the aquifer hydraulically connected to the surface water sources
like stream, river or lake. Due to pumping, a reverse gradient is formed and water from the surface
water source enters into the aquifer and thus the aquifer is recharged.

• This method is good, especially when quality of the surface water is poor.

• The filtration of surface water through soil strata removes the impurities of the water.

• Thus the quality of the water receives in the wells is much better than the surface water

106
CHECK DAM

107
 Check Dams
"Check dams" are small barriers built across the direction of water flow on shallow rivers and streams for the
purpose of water harvesting.
The main objectives of the check dam projects were to recharge ground water reserves and increase the
availability of water for agricultural purposes.
The water entrapped by the dam, surface and subsurface, is primarily intended for use in irrigation during the
monsoon and later during the dry season, but can also be used for livestock and domestic needs.
Check dams are built in a range of sizes using a variety of materials, including clay, stone and cement.
Earthen check dams, or embankments, can easily be constructed by the farmers themselves. Masonry and
reinforced cement concrete (RCC) structures, on the other hand, require some degree of advanced construction
experience and monetary inputs. Earthen dams do not allow for overflow of water, in contrast to masonry and
RCC structures which allow excess water to flow over the spillway.

108
Advantages Disadvantages
- Water speed is slowed, which reduces erosion and - If designed incorrectly, may block fish
prevents unwanted gully formation during a flood
passage
- No trench design required, just uses existing gully
- They can silt up and will need
drainage pattern
- Can assist recharge of shallow wells maintenance
- Can reduce salinity in groundwater - Unclear land tenure can result in
- Allows groundwater recharge and sediment to settle ownership of the structure
out (reduces sediment transport)
- Cost effective – these dams can use locally
available materials

109
 Site Selection for check dam

• Prior to the construction of any check dam, the following criteria were considered by
Development Alternatives with respect to site selection.

• 1. The structure should be able to store a high volume of rainwater

2. The check dam should provide a long length of stored water.
3. There should be a high percentage of cropped area, or potential crop area, on either side
of the length of the
stored water.
4. Risk of submergence of cropped lands during flash floods should be minimal.
5. It should have a high cost-benefit ratio.

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 Check dams improve the quality of life

 The check dams have served to increase the quality of life in beneficiary communities by:

Increasing the availability of water for domestic use.

Decreasing women’s workloads
Improving diets

 Check dams increase livelihood adaptation

Increased the number of months when water is available

Increased the number and continuity of working days

Improved food security

 Check dams enhance natural resource base

Recharging groundwater reservoirs and wells
Increasing soil humidity
Promoting growth of surface vegetation
Capturing runoff rainwater and silt 111