BE Practical-1

Purva Patel
BDA21
Arshavi Patel BATCH 15
CLASS B
BDA25 BE PRACTICAL 1
Batch-15
Class-B

• Multimeter

• A multimeter is a versatile electronic measuring instrument used by electricians,

engineers, and hobbyists to measure various electrical properties. It typically
consists of a digital or analog display screen, a rotary dial or buttons for selecting
measurement functions, and input jacks for connecting test leads.
• The multimeter can perform several essential functions, including measuring
voltage (AC and DC), current, resistance, continuity, capacitance, and sometimes
even temperature. It helps in diagnosing electrical issues, testing components, and
verifying circuit conditions.
• To use a multimeter, the user selects the desired measurement mode, connects the
test leads to the appropriate jacks, and then probes the circuit or component under
 examination. The multimeter displays the measured value on the screen, making it
easy to read and interpret the results.
• Overall, the multimeter is an indispensable tool for anyone working with
electrical systems, allowing for accurate and efficient troubleshooting and
analysis of circuits and devices.
(source - pixabay.com and Wikipedia )

• Breadboard (with Connections)

• A breadboard is a device used for creating temporary electrical circuits. It features a

white plastic board with holes where electronic components can be inserted and
interconnected using wires. Below the board, there are metal strips that connect the
holes on the top side. This allows easy and temporary assembly of electronic circuits
without soldering.
• Originally, breadboards were made of copper wires or terminal strips, but modern
versions are made of white plastic. These solderless breadboards come in two types of
strips: terminal strips for holding electronic components and bus strips for distributing
power to the components.
• Engineers and hobbyists in electrical engineering use breadboards to quickly prototype
and test circuit designs. They provide a cost-effective and reusable way to experiment
with different electronic components and circuit configurations.
• Solderless breadboards have become an essential tool for testing a wide range of
circuits, from simple analog and digital designs to complex CPUs. Manufacturers offer
various types of breadboards, some selling the terminal and bus strips separately, while
others offer them together as a complete kit. Overall, breadboards have revolutionized
 the process of circuit testing and prototyping, making it efficient and accessible to all
electronics enthusiasts.
• The above diagram shows how the holes of a breadboard are connected. The bottom
and the top rows are connected horizontally across as the red and the black line denote.
The power supply is connected to both the black and red rows. The other rows are
connected in a vertical manner which consists of five rows each without any links across
the center. In this way there are separate blocks of connections to each of the ICs pins.
Now this was the connection in a small breadboard.
• (source - electronics hub.org)

• R-L-C component

• The R-L-C components, also known as passive components, are fundamental elements
used in electrical and electronic circuits. Each component represents a specific passive
element:
• Resistor (R): A resistor is a two-terminal device that resists the flow of electric
current. It is used to control the current in a circuit and reduce the voltage. Resistors
are commonly used for current limiting, voltage division, and to set biasing
conditions in electronic circuits.
• Inductor (L): An inductor is a coil of wire that stores energy in the form of a magnetic
field when current passes through it. It resists changes in current, and its behavior is
 characterized by inductance, which is measured in Henrys (H). Inductors are used in
filters, transformers, and energy storage applications.
• Capacitor (C): A capacitor is a two-terminal device that stores electrical energy in an
electric field between its plates when it is charged. It resists changes in voltage and
passes AC signals while blocking DC signals. Capacitance, measured in Farads (F),
determines the amount of charge a capacitor can store. Capacitors are used in
timing circuits, filtering, coupling, and energy storage applications.
• R-L-C components are often combined in various configurations to form more complex
circuits, such as RLC circuits. These circuits exhibit different behaviors based on the
values of the components and their arrangement. RLC circuits are widely used in
electronic systems, such as filters, oscillators, and resonant circuits.
• (source – Wikipedia)

• AC/DC Signals (difference and need DC power source)

• Alternating Current (AC) is a type of electric current that reverses direction periodically.
It is widely used for power distribution in residential, commercial, and industrial settings.
The voltage and current in an AC circuit oscillate sinusoidally, completing cycles within a
specific time frame, typically measured in hertz (Hz). AC is advantageous for
long-distance power transmission due to its ability to be easily transformed to different
voltage levels using transformers. Its widespread adoption is attributed to its efficiency,
adaptability, and the ease of voltage regulation. AC plays a crucial role in powering
electrical devices and appliances, making it the backbone of modern electrical systems
worldwide.

• Direct Current (DC) is a type of electric current that flows continuously in one direction.
Unlike Alternating Current (AC), which reverses direction periodically, DC maintains a
constant polarity. It is commonly used in battery-powered devices and electronic circuits.
DC power is stable and consistent, making it suitable for applications that require a
steady and uninterrupted flow of electricity. DC is used in electronics,
 telecommunication systems, battery charging, and various low-voltage applications.
While not as easily transformed for long-distance transmission as AC, DC has its niche in
providing reliable power for portable and localized electrical needs.

• AC is steady while DC is steady.

• AC can travel long distances while DC can’t.
• DC has zero frequency while AC has non-zero frequency.
• Usually AC is available in large voltages compared to DC.
• Usually AC signal is continuous while DC can be or can’t be continuous
• (discreet) (w.r.t Digital Electronics).
• In terms of safety AC is safer than DC.
• AC is used in both electrical and electronics while DC is used mostly in
• electronics only.
• DC have fixed polarity while AC does not have it’s polarity fixed.
• Electronic Devices: Many electronic devices, such as smartphones, laptops, tablets, and
other portable gadgets, require DC power to operate. Batteries, which provide DC
power, are widely used to power these devices, making them portable and independent
of a continuous AC power supply.
• Stability and Precision: Some sensitive electronic equipment and systems, such as
microcontrollers, sensors, and precision instrumentation, require a stable and constant
power supply to function accurately. DC power sources offer the required stability and
precision for such applications.
• Energy Storage and Backup: DC power sources like batteries and supercapacitors are
crucial for energy storage and backup solutions. They store electrical energy in a
chemical form, enabling usage during power outages or as an alternative power source.
• Electric Vehicles: Electric vehicles (EVs) rely on DC power sources (batteries) to store and
deliver energy to the electric motor, powering the vehicle's movement.
• Renewable Energy Sources: Renewable energy sources such as solar panels and wind
turbines generate DC power. This DC power needs to be converted to AC power for
integration into the electrical grid or for direct use in DC-powered appliances.
• Telecommunications and Data Centers: Modern telecommunications and data centers
often use DC power distribution to improve energy efficiency and reduce power losses in
the transmission and conversion processes.
• Portable and Remote Applications: In remote locations or areas without access to a
stable AC power grid, DC power sources (e.g., solar-powered
• Specific Industrial Applications: Certain industrial processes, such as electroplating,
electrolysis, and semiconductor manufacturing, require a constant and precise DC power
supply.
• (source - electronics club.info, Wikipedia )
• CRO/DSO and Function Generator

AIM:
To study about various function of CRO and Function Generator

APPARATUS:
1. CRO

2. BNC Probe

3. Power Supply

4. Crocodile Pin Probe

5. Function Generator

THEORY:

The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is probably the most versatile tool for deployment of electronic
circuits and systems. The CRO allows the amplitude of the electronic signals where they are
voltage, current or power to be displayed as a function of time. The CRO depends on the
moments of an electron beam which is being bombarded (impinged) on a screen coated with a
fluorescent light to produce a visual spot. If the electron is being deflected along the
conventional axes, i.e., x-axis & y-axis, two different displays are produced.
The Digital Storage Oscilloscope Series provides you with affordable performance in a compact design.
Packed with standard features - including USB connectivity, 34 automated measurements, limit testing,
data logging, frequency counter.
Key performance specifications:
• 200MHz, 150 MHz, 100 MHz, 70 MHz, 50 MHz, and 30 MHz bandwidth models

• 2-channel models

• Up to 2 GS/s sample rate on all channels

• 2.5k point record length on all channels

• Advanced triggers including pulse and line-selectable video triggers

Key features:
• 7 inch WVGA (800X480) Active TFT Color Display

• 34 automated measurements

• Dual window FFT, simultaneously monitors both the time and frequency domains

• Built-in waveform limit and TrendPlotTM testing

• Dual channel frequency counter

• Zoom Function

• Automated, extended data logging feature

 • Autoset and auto-ranging functions

• Built-in context-sensitive help

• Multiple-language user interface

• Small footprint and lightweight - Only 4.9 in. (124 mm) deep and 4.4 lb. (2 kg)

Connectivity:
• USB 2.0 host port on the front panel for quick and easy data storage

• USB 2.0 device port on rear panel for easy connection to a PC

Critical tools for troubleshooting your device:

The TBS1000B oscilloscope comes standard with a variety of advanced triggers used to debug
today's complex circuitry. Flexible options for utilizing rising or falling edges, pulse widths and
video trigger set-ups enable users to quickly isolate their signals of interest.

The pulse trigger function can easily capture critical events:

Once signals are captured, the TBS1000B offers advanced math and measurement capabilities
making it easy to evaluate signal quality. Users can add, subtract and multiply waveforms or use
any one of 34 automated measurements to quickly and reliably calculate important signal
characteristics such as frequency, rise time or overshoot.

Quickly analyze signals with the standard 34 automated

measurements:

A dedicated front panel button provides quick access to the FFT function that is capable of
showing both frequency and time domain waveforms simultaneously, which provides a
convenient way to see the relationship between signals and the FFT results.
Quickly perform an FFT with a dedicated front panel button:

For accurate frequency measurements the TBS1000B also comes with built-in dual channel
frequency counters. Independent control of each counter's trigger level provides an easy way to
monitor two different signal frequencies simultaneously.

Dual channel - 6 digit frequency counters come standard with all

TBS1000 models:
Help when you need it, where you need it The built-in Help menu provides you with important
information about your oscilloscope's features and functions. Help is provided in the same
languages as the user interface.

Function Generator - The Arbitrary Function Generator provides a waveform generation tool
with the best price performance ratio. It includes two models with dual channels, up to 60 MHz
bandwidth and up to 10 𝑉௉ି௉ output amplitude. The four run modes, 50 built-in
frequently-used waveforms and the built-in 200 MHz frequency counter cover most waveform
generation needs in your experiment and test jobs. The 3.95-inch TFT LCD, short-cut buttons,
USB interface and PC software provide the most intuitive ways to configure the instrument.
Key performance specifications:
• Dual-channel, 25 MHz or 60 MHz sine waveforms, 12.5 MHz or 30 MHz square

• waveforms

• 14 bits, 125 MS/s or 300 MS/s arbitrary waveforms with 8 k points or 1 M points
record

• length

• Amplitude 1 m𝑉p-p to 10 𝑉p-p into 50 Ω loads

Key features:
• Continuous, sweeping, burst, and modulation modes (AM, FM, PM, ASK, FSK,
PSK,

• PWM) covers most requirements for students and other users to get the
experiments/test

• job done

• 64-MByte internal non-volatile memory for arbitrary waveform storage

• Built-in 200 MHz counter with 6-digit resolution offers an easy and precise way
of
 • frequency/period/pulse width/duty cycle measurement

• Standard USB host/device for memory expansion and remote control

• Free Arb Express makes user defined waveforms editing extremely easy through
an

• external USB memory stick

• Compatible with Tek Smart LabTM for easy teaching and learning

• Standard 5-year warranty

Applications:
• Electric and electronics experiments

• Communications experiments

• Sensor simulation

• Functional test

Software and solutions:

• The user-defined arbitrary waveforms generated by the free ArbExpress

software can

• easily be loaded on the

• AFG1000 with a USB memory stick.

CRO Output:
 Observation Table:

Sr. Set Value Manual Method Error Cursor Method Error

No Amplit Frequen Amplitude Frequency V 𝒇 Ampl frequ V 𝒇
. ude cy No. of 𝑽 V No. of 𝑻 𝒇 itude ency (H
(𝑉pp ) (kHz) Div Div.
𝑫𝒊𝒗 𝑫𝒊𝒗
1 5 5 2.5 2 5 0.4 500us 5x10^3 0 0 5.2 5 0.2
2 7.5 10 3.8 2 7.6 1 100us 1x10^4 0.1 0 7.6 10 0.1
3 11 8.5 5.6 2 11.2 1.2 100us 12x10^3 0.2 1 11.2 8.6 0.2 0
4

• Color code of resistor (4 band system)

Colour Digit 1 Digit 2 Multiplier Tolerance
Black 0 0 1 -
Brown 1 1 10 ±1%
Red 2 2 100 ±2%
Orange 3 3 1000
Yellow 4 4 10000
Green 5 6 100000 ±0.5%
Blue 6 6 1000000 ±0.25%
Violet 7 7 10000000 ±0.1%
Gray 8 8 - ±0.05%
White 9 9 - -
Gold - - 0.1 ±5%
Silver - - 0.01 ±10%
Purva Patel Class B
Batch 15 BE BDA21

Practical-2
Electrical voltage and Current (DC circuits only)
Ohm’s Law: -
The amount of current is proportional voltage applied to the circuit and inversely proportional to the
resistance of the circuit

Mathematically, Ohm's Law is represented by the equation:

V=I*R

Where:

• V represents the voltage across a resistor or a circuit element (measured in volts, V).
• I represents the current flowing through the resistor or circuit element (measured in
amperes or amps, A).
• R represents the resistance of the resistor or circuit element (measured in ohms, Ω).

KVL: - Kirchhoff Voltage Law

The algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero
Purva Patel Class B
Batch 15 BE BDA21

Aim: To verify Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the given circuit.

Apparatus Required:

Sl.No. Apparatus Range Quantity

1 RPS (regulated power supply) 0-20 1

2 Resistance
3 Ammeter
4 Voltmeter
5 Bread Board & Wires -- Required

Statement:

KVL: In any closed path / mesh, the algebraic sum of all the voltages is zero.

Precautions:
1. Voltage control knob should be kept at minimum position.
2. Current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position.

Procedure for KVL:

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set a particular value in RPS.
3. Note all the voltage reading
4. Repeat the same for different voltages

HARDWARE SETUP:

Circuit for KVL verification:

Purva Patel Class B
Batch 15 BE BDA21

KVL - Practical Values

Sl.No. RPS Voltage KVL

E1 E2 V1 V2 V3 E1=V1+V2
V V V V V V
1 5 0.001 2 2.999 5
2
3 10 0.002 3.999 5.999 10
4
5 15 0.002999 5.999 8.998 14.999

KVL – Theoretical Values

Sl.No. RPS Voltage KVL

E1 E2 V1 V2 V3 E1=V1+V2
V V V V V V
1 5.1 2.894 1.92 0.285 5.099
2
3 10 5.669 3.762 0.599 10.03
4
5 15.1 8.625 5.723 0.851 15.199
Purva Patel Class B
Batch 15 BE BDA21

KCL: - Kirchhoff Current Law

Total current or charge entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as
it has no other place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within the node

Aim:
To verify Kirchhoff’s current law for the given circuit.

Apparatus Required:
Sl.No. Apparatus Range Quantity
1 RPS (regulated power supply) (0-30V) 2
2 Resistance 330 Ω, 220 Ω 1k Ω 6
3 Ammeter (0-30mA)MC 3
4 Voltmeter (0-30V)MC 3
5 Bread Board & Wires -- Required

Statement:

KCL: The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a node/junction is equal to zero.

Precautions:
1. Voltage control knob should be kept at minimum position.
2. Current control knob of RPS should be kept at maximum position.

Procedure for KCL:

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set a particular value in RPS.
3. Note down the corresponding ammeter reading
4. Repeat the same for different voltages

HARDWARE SETUP:

Circuit for KCL verification:

 Purva Patel Class B
Batch 15 BE BDA21

KCL - Practical Values:

Sl. Voltage Current I1=I2+I3

No. E I1 I2 I3
Volts mA mA mA mA
1 5 1 0.500 0.249
2
3 10 2 0.998 0.499
4
5 15 3 1.499 0.747

KCL - Theoretical Values:

Sl. Voltage Current I1=I2+I3

No. E I1 I2 I3
Volts mA mA mA mA
1
2
3
Purva Patel Class B
Batch 15 BE BDA21

Common Voltage and Current Concepts

In the realm of electrical circuits, voltage and current are foundational concepts that drive the
operation of a wide array of electronic devices and systems. These concepts underpin the flow of
electric charge and the behaviour of circuit components, making them fundamental to the study
of electrical engineering. Let's delve into the common voltage and current concepts that are
crucial for understanding and working with electrical circuits.

Voltage:

1. Electric Potential Difference: Voltage, often referred to as electric potential difference, is the
driving force that propels electric charges to move. It represents the energy required to move a
unit charge from one point to another within a circuit. This potential difference is analogous to
the pressure difference in fluid flow systems and is measured in volts (V).

2. Voltage Sources: Devices such as batteries and power supplies are voltage sources that provide
the necessary energy to establish a potential difference in a circuit. They serve as the starting
point for the movement of charges, facilitating the flow of current.

3. Voltage Drop: As electric current traverses through resistors or other circuit elements with
resistance, a voltage drop occurs across these components. Ohm's Law (V = I * R) precisely
quantifies this relationship between voltage, current, and resistance.

4. Ground Reference: The concept of a ground reference, often denoted as GND, provides a point
of reference with zero voltage. It is a foundational reference for measuring voltages within a
circuit and is crucial for establishing voltage levels.

Current:

1. Electric Current: Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor. It is
measured in amperes (A) and signifies the rate of movement of charges, typically electrons.
Current is the dynamic essence of electrical circuits, enabling the transfer of energy and
information.

2. Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC): Direct current flows consistently in a single
direction, making it suitable for powering electronics such as cell phones and computers.
Alternating current, on the other hand, periodically reverses its direction, a characteristic that
makes it ideal for long-distance power transmission in our homes and industries.

3. Current Density: Current density refers to the concentration of current within a given cross-
sectional area of a conductor. It plays a vital role in determining how much current a material can
handle without overheating.
Purva Patel Class B
Batch 15 BE BDA21

4. Series and Parallel Currents: In series circuits, the same current flows through all components,
while in parallel circuits, the current divides among multiple paths. Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
ensures that the total current entering a junction is equal to the total current leaving it.

Key Relationships:

1. Ohm's Law: The cornerstone of electrical circuits, Ohm's Law (V = I * R) establishes the
relationship between voltage, current, and resistance. It forms the basis for countless calculations
and analyses in circuit design and troubleshooting.

2. Power Dissipation: The power dissipated in a circuit element, often as heat, is given by P = V * I.
Joule's Law (P = I^2 * R) reveals the relationship between power, current, and resistance.

3. Kirchhoff's Laws: Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) and Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) provide
fundamental principles for analyzing complex circuits. KVL states that the sum of voltages around
any closed loop is zero, while KCL ensures that the total current entering and leaving a junction is
balanced.

In summary, voltage and current concepts form the backbone of electrical circuits, shaping the
functionality of electronic devices and systems. Their intricate interplay and relationships enable
engineers and technicians to design, analyse, and innovate in various fields, from microelectronics
to power distribution networks. A grasp of these concepts empowers us to harness the potential
of electricity to fuel technological advancement and improve our daily lives.

Ohm’s Law Pie Chart

Purva Patel Class B
Batch 15 BE BDA21

POST LAB QUESTIONS Of KVL:

1) Illustrate Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL):

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) is a fundamental principle in circuit analysis that states that
the sum of voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is zero. This law is a consequence of
the conservation of energy. To illustrate KVL:

Imagine a simple circuit with a loop consisting of resistors and voltage sources. As you
traverse the loop in a clockwise or counter clockwise direction, assign polarities (+/-) to the
voltage sources based on their orientation. As you encounter each resistor or voltage source,
apply the sign conventions for voltage drops and rises (positive for drop, negative for rise).

Write down the algebraic sum of the voltages as you move around the loop. According to
KVL, this sum should be equal to zero. Mathematically, it can be represented as ΣV = 0,
where ΣV is the sum of all voltages encountered.

2) Express the Limitations of Ohm's Law:

Ohm's Law (V = I * R) is a useful and widely applicable relationship between voltage,

current, and resistance in many electrical circuits. However, it has certain limitations:

a) Nonlinearity: Ohm's Law is valid only for linear resistors, where the current is directly
proportional to the voltage. In some materials or components, such as diodes and transistors,
the relationship between voltage and current is nonlinear.

b) Temperature Effects: Ohm's Law assumes constant temperature. In reality, temperature

changes can alter a resistor's resistance, affecting the accuracy of Ohm's Law.

c) Complex Circuits: Ohm's Law may not be directly applicable to complex circuits with
changing components or varying conditions. Kirchhoff's Laws are better suited for solving
such circuits.

d) High Frequencies: At high frequencies, the behaviour of circuits and components can
deviate from the predictions of Ohm's Law due to factors like inductance and capacitance.

3) What is the Practical Application of Kirchhoff’s Law?

Kirchhoff's Laws (KVL and KCL) find practical application in various areas of electrical
engineering:

a) Circuit Analysis: Engineers use Kirchhoff's Laws to analyse and solve complex electrical
circuits, predicting voltage and current distributions and aiding in designing efficient circuits.

b) Electronics Design: Kirchhoff's Laws help in designing and optimizing electronic circuits,
ensuring proper current flow and voltage levels.
Purva Patel Class B
Batch 15 BE BDA21

c) Power Systems: Kirchhoff's Laws are essential for analyzing power distribution networks,
optimizing power transmission, and ensuring load balancing.

d) Signal Processing: In signal processing, Kirchhoff's Laws assist in understanding and

controlling the flow of signals in circuits and systems.

4) Difference Between Series and Parallel Connection of Batteries:

a) Series Connection: When batteries are connected in series, their voltages add up. The
positive terminal of one battery is connected to the negative terminal of the next battery,
creating a chain. The total voltage is the sum of individual battery voltages. However, the
capacity (ampere-hour rating) remains the same.

b) Parallel Connection: When batteries are connected in parallel, their voltages remain the
same, but their capacities add up. The positive terminals are connected together, and the
negative terminals are connected together. This configuration increases the overall capacity
while keeping the voltage constant.

In summary, series connection increases voltage, parallel connection increases capacity, and
both configurations have different effects on the resulting battery bank's characteristics.

POST LAB QUESTIONS Of KCL:

1) Illustrate Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL):

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) is a fundamental principle in circuit analysis that states that
the sum of currents entering a junction (or node) in a circuit is equal to the sum of currents
leaving that junction. To illustrate KCL:

Imagine a simple circuit with multiple current paths meeting at a junction. Assign polarities
(+/-) to the current directions based on their orientations. As you approach the junction, write
down the algebraic sum of the currents entering the junction, considering currents flowing
into the junction as positive and those leaving as negative.

According to KCL, the sum of these currents should be zero. Mathematically, it can be
represented as ΣI = 0, where ΣI is the sum of all currents entering or leaving the junction.

2) Express the Limitations of Ohm's Law:

Ohm's Law (V = I * R) is a valuable tool for understanding the relationship between voltage,
current, and resistance in various electrical circuits. However, it has its limitations:
Purva Patel Class B
Batch 15 BE BDA21

a) Nonlinearity: Ohm's Law holds true only for linear elements, where the current is directly
proportional to the voltage. In reality, many components exhibit nonlinear behavior, such as
diodes and transistors.

b) Temperature Effects: Ohm's Law assumes a constant temperature. Changes in

temperature can alter the resistance of a resistor, affecting the accuracy of Ohm's Law.

c) Complex Circuits: Ohm's Law may not be directly applicable to intricate circuits with
changing components or varying conditions. Kirchhoff's Laws provide a more comprehensive
framework for analyzing such circuits.

d) Frequency Dependence: At high frequencies, the behavior of circuits can deviate from
Ohm's Law due to factors like inductance and capacitance.

3) What is the Practical Application of Kirchhoff’s Law?

Kirchhoff's Laws (KCL and KVL) find practical applications in various areas of electrical
engineering:

a) Circuit Analysis: Engineers use Kirchhoff's Laws to analyze and solve complex electrical
circuits, predicting current and voltage distributions, aiding in circuit design, and
troubleshooting.

b) Electronics Design: Kirchhoff's Laws help design and optimize electronic circuits,
ensuring proper current paths, voltage drops, and component behavior.

c) Power Systems: In power distribution networks, Kirchhoff's Laws are crucial for load
balancing, fault analysis, and ensuring consistent current and voltage levels.

d) Signal Processing: Kirchhoff's Laws are fundamental for understanding signal flows,
ensuring accurate signal processing, and maintaining signal integrity.

4) Compare Series and Parallel Circuits:

Series Circuits:

• Components are connected end-to-end in a single path.

• The current remains the same throughout the circuit.
• The total resistance is the sum of individual resistances (R_total = R1 + R2 + ...).
• Voltage drops across components add up.
• If one component fails (open circuit), the entire circuit may be affected.

Parallel Circuits:

• Components are connected across common junction points.

• The voltage remains the same across all components.
• The reciprocal of total resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of individual resistances
(1/R_total = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + ...).
• Currents split among branches; the total current is the sum of individual currents.
• If one component fails (open circuit), other components continue to operate.
Purva Patel Class B
Batch 15 BE BDA21
PURVA PATEL BE BDA21
BATCH 15 CLASS B

Practical-3
Semiconductor theory, Diodes, PN junction and Zener Diodes with
theories

1. Matter and its classification

2. classification of materials bases on electrical properties

1. INSULATORS

• The material which does not readily conduct electricity because the
forbidden gap (band gap) in an insulator is very high, approx. 15 eV
(electron volt). Insulators are also called poor conductors of electricity.
• Normally, in insulators, the valence band is fully occupied with electrons
and the conduction band is empty; there is no electron present in the
conduction band.
• In order to move electrons from valence band to conduction band a
large amount of external energy is required which must be equal to the
forbidden gap, only then current will flow.
• For examples: Rubber, wood, plastic, pharmocol, glass etc.

2. CONDUCTORS
• The material which easily allows electric current to flow through them
are called conductors. In conductor’s valence band and conduction band
overlap each other. Therefore, there is no forbidden gap in conductors.
• Normally, in conductor’s valence band is partially occupied with
electrons and in conduction band large numbers of electrons are
present.
• In order to move electrons from valence band to conduction band a
small amount of external energy is enough. Therefore, more electrons
can easily move to the conduction band. When valence band electrons
move to conduction band, they become free electrons.
• For example: Metal such as aluminium, iron, copper, silver etc.

3. SEMICONDUCTOR
• The first semiconductor device was invented by Jagadis Chandra Bose in
1901 named as “Cat whiskers”, it was a point-contact semiconductor
rectifier used for detecting radio waves. A transistor is a device or
electronic component composed of semiconductor material. William
Shockley, John Bardeen & Walter Brattain all three co-invented the
transistor in 1947 at Bell Labs.
 PURVA PATEL BE BDA21
BATCH 15 CLASS B

• The material which behaves like both conductor as well as insulator is

called semiconductor, because, In an insulator small forbidden gap is
present, approx 1.3 eV (electron volt) unlike conductor which has no
forbidden gap and insulator which has large forbidden gap.
• At low temperature, the valence band is completely filled by electrons
and the conduction band is empty, that’s why it behaves like an insulator
at room temperature.
• At room temperature, electrons in the valence band get enough energy
in the form of heat and few electrons move from valence band to
conduction band.
• So, when the temperature goes up, the number of electrons moving
from the valence band to the conduction band also increases. This
shows that electrical conductivity of semiconductor increases with
increase in temperature or any form of energy in the material.
• Pure semiconductor can’t flow much current but with such a small gap,
the presence of a small percentage of a doping material can increase the
conductivity dramatically.
• Example: Silicon, germanium, graphite etc.

3. Difference between conductor, Semi-conductor and Insulator

Characteristics Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

A conductor is a material A semiconductor is a An insulator is a
that allows the flow of material whose material that does not
Definition charge when applied with conductivity lies between allow the flow of
a voltage. conductor & insulator current.

The resistance of a The resistance of a Insulator has very high

conductor increases with semiconductor decreases resistance but it still
an increase in with increases in decreases with
Temperature temperature. temperature. Thus, it acts temperature.
Dependence as an insulator at
absolute zero.
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Semiconductors are used

The metals like iron & The insulators are used
every day electronic
copper etc. that can for protection against high
devices such as cell phone,
Application conduct electricity are made voltages & prevention of
computer, solar panel etc
into wires and cable for electrical short between
as switches, energy
carrying electric current. cables in circuits.
converter, amplifiers, etc.

The conduction in The conduction in There are no free

Conduction conductors is due to the
free electrons in metal
bonding.
There is no or low
energy gap between the
conduction & valance
band of a conductor. It
Band gap does not need extra
energy for the conduction
state.
semiconductor is due to
the movement of electron
& holes.
The band gap of
semiconductor is greater
than the conductor but
smaller than an insulator
i.e. 1 eV. Their electrons
need a little energy for
conduction state.
electrons or holes thus,
there is no conduction.
The band gap in
insulator is huge (+5
eV), which need an
enormous amount of
energy like lightning to
push electrons into the
conduction band.

Resistivity Low (10-5 Ω/m) Normal (10-5Ω/m to Very High (105 Ω/m)
105 Ω/m)
It has positive It has negative The coefficient of
Coefficient of coefficient of resistivity coefficient of resistivity. resistivity of an insulator
Resistivity i.e. its resistance is also negative but it
increase with has very huge
temperature resistance.

4. Diodes
Diodes are used to protect circuits by limiting the voltage and to also transform AC into DC.
Semiconductors like silicon and germanium are used to make the most of the diodes. Even
though they transmit current in a single direction, the way with which they transmit differs.

There are 12 types of main diodes

1. P-N Diodes
2. Photo Diode
3. Gun Diode
4. PIN Diode
5. Tunnel Diode
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6. LED Diode
7. Varactor Diode
8. Schottky Diode
9. Vacuum Diode
10. Laser Diode
11. Zenner Diode
12. Avalanche Diode

• P-N Junction Diode

The P-N junction diode is also known as rectifier diodes. These diodes are used for
the rectification process and are made up of semiconductor material. The P-N
junction diode includes two layers of semiconductors. One layer of the
semiconductor material is doped with P-type material and the other layer with N-
type material. The combination of these both P and N-type layers form a junction
known as the P-N junction. Hence, the name P-N junction diode.

• Photo Diode
A photo-diode can identify even a small amount of current flow resulting from the
light. These are very helpful in the detection of the light. This is a reverse bias diode
and used in solar cells and photometers. They are even used to generate electricity.

• Gunn Diode
A Gunn diode, also known as a transferred electron device (TED), is a form of diode,
a two-terminal semiconductor electronic component, with negative resistance, used
in high-frequency electronics.
Commonly used at microwave frequencies and above, Gunn diodes are found in
high-reliability systems such as oscillators, or ultra-low phase noise systems such as
those deployed in transceivers, radars, radiometers and instrumentation.

• PIN Diode
The Diodes having P-N junction are the most popular types of diode used so far in
various applications. One of those types of circuits is the PIN diode. This diode is
used in a wide range of areas. It is very good in the applications of RF switching, and
the structure is useful in photodiodes.

• Tunnel Diode
A tunnel diode is also known as Esaki diode which is named after Leo Esaki for his
work on the tunnelling effect. The operation of tunnel diode depends on the
quantum mechanics principle known as “Tunnelling”. In electronics, tunnelling
means a direct flow of electrons across the small depletion region from n-side
conduction band into the p-side valence band.

• Light Emitting Diode (LED)

When an electric current between the electrodes passes through this diode, light is
produced. In other words, light is generated when a sufficient amount of forwarding
current passes through it. In many diodes, this light generated is not visible as there
are frequency levels that do not allow visibility. LEDs are available in different
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colours. There are tricolour LEDs that can emit three colours at a time. Light colour
depends on the energy gap of the semiconductor used.

• Varactor Diode
Varactor diodes or Varicap diodes are semiconductor devices that are widely used in
the electronics industry. They are also used within the RF design arena. In this article,
we will learn about the characteristics and applications of the varactor diode.
Varactor diode is a type of diode whose internal capacitance varies with respect to
the reverse voltage. It always works in reverse bias conditions and is a voltage-
dependent semiconductor device. Several names know varactor diode as Varicap,
Voltcap, Voltage variable capacitance, or Tunning diode.

• Schottky Diode
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that mainly conducts electricity in
one direction. As we know, an ideal diode will have zero resistance in one direction,
and infinite resistance in the reverse direction. There are many types of diodes,
namely light-emitting diodes, Zener diodes, photodiodes, Schottky-diode, avalanche
diodes, PN junction diodes, and many more. In this article, let us learn in detail about
the Schottky-diode.

• Vacuum Diode
The diode which allows the current flow from cathode to anode and blocks the
current from anode to cathode is known as vacuum diode. Simplest form of a
vacuum tube is a vacuum diode. It includes two electrodes an anode and a cathode
where the cathode generates the free electrons into the vacuum whereas the anode
collects free electrons from the cathode. So free electrons will leave the cathode to
enter the anode. These two electrodes are enclosed within an empty envelope of
glass.

• Laser Diode
It is a different type of diode as it produces coherent light. It is highly used in CD
drives, DVDs and laser devices. These are costly when compared to LEDs and are
cheaper when compared to other laser generators. Limited life is the only drawback
of these diodes.

• Zener Diode
It is the most useful type of diode as it can provide a stable reference voltage. These
are operated in reverse bias and break down on the arrival of a certain voltage. If
current passing through the resistor is limited, a stable voltage is generated. Zener
diodes are widely used in power supplies to provide a reference voltage.

• Avalanche Diode
This diode belongs to a reverse bias type and operates using the avalanche effect.
When voltage drop is constant and is independent of current, the breakdown of
avalanche takes place. They exhibit high levels of sensitivity and hence are used for
photo detection.
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5. P-N Junction Diode

A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor material types,

namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.
In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by the method of doping. The p-side or the
positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes, and the n-side or the negative side
has an excess of electrons. The process of doping is explained in further detail in the next
section.

PN junction construction

• There are two types of semiconductor material; Intrinsic and Extrinsic

semiconductor. An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor in which hole
and electrons are available in equal numbers at room temperature. In an extrinsic
semiconductor, impurities are added to increase the number of holes or the number
of electrons. These impurities are tri-valent (boron, indium, aluminium) or
pentavalent (phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony).

• A semiconductor diode has two layers. One layer is made of a P-type semiconductor
layer and the second layer is made of an N-type semiconductor layer.

• If we add trivalent impurities in silicon or germanium, a greater number of holes are

present and it is a positive charge. Hence, this layer is known as the P-type layer.
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• If we add pentavalent impurities in silicon or germanium, a greater number of

electrons are present and it is a negative change. Hence, this layer is known as the N-
type layer.

• The diode is formed by joining both N-type and P-type semiconductors together. This
device is a combination of P-type and N-type semiconductor material hence it is also
known as PN Junction Diode.

• A junction is formed between the P-type and N-type layers. This junction is known as
PN junction.

• A diode has two terminals; one terminal is taken from the P-type layer and it is
known as Anode. The second terminal is taken from the N-type material and it is
known as Cathode.

PN junction regarding majority and minority charge carriers

• Majority and minority charge carriers in n-type semiconductor - When the

pentavalent atoms such as Phosphorus or Arsenic are added to the intrinsic
semiconductor, an n-type semiconductor is formed. In n-type
semiconductor, large number of free electrons is present. Hence, free
electrons are the majority charge carriers in the n-type semiconductor. The
free electrons (majority charge carriers) carry most of the electric charge or
electric current in the n-type semiconductor.
• In n-type semiconductor, very small number of holes is present. Hence, holes
are the minority charge carriers in the n-type semiconductor. The holes
(minority charge carriers) carry only a small amount of electric charge or
electric current in the n-type semiconductor.
• The total number of negative charge carriers (free electrons) in n-type
semiconductor is greater than the total number of positive charge carriers
(holes) in the n-type semiconductor.
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• When the trivalent atoms such as Boron or Gallium are added to the intrinsic
semiconductor, a p-type semiconductor is formed. In p-type semiconductor,
large number of holes is present. Hence, holes are the majority charge
carriers in the p-type semiconductor. The holes (majority charge carriers)
carry most of the electric charge or electric current in the p-type
semiconductor.
• In p-type semiconductor, very small number of free electrons is present.
Hence, free electrons are the minority charge carriers in the p-type
semiconductor. The free electrons (minority charge carriers) carry only a
small amount of electric current in the p-type semiconductor.
• The total number of negative charge carriers (free electrons) in p-type
semiconductor is less than the total number of positive charge carriers
(holes) in the p-type semiconductor.

6. Biasing of diode (PN junction diode)

Biasing of a PN junction diode refers to the process of applying an external voltage
across the diode to control its electrical behaviour. By applying a specific bias
voltage, you can manipulate the diode's conductivity and make it function in various
ways. There are three primary modes of diode biasing: forward bias, reverse bias,
and zero bias.

Forward Bias:

• In forward bias, a positive voltage is applied to the P-side of the diode

relative to the N-side.
• This positive voltage repels the holes in the P-region and the electrons in the
N-region, reducing the width of the depletion region (space charge region).
• As the depletion region narrows, the diode becomes conductive, allowing
current to flow from the P-side to the N-side.
• The diode is in its "ON" state, and it conducts current easily in the forward
direction.
• The voltage across the diode in forward bias is typically greater than the
diode's forward voltage drops (approximately 0.6 to 0.7 volts for silicon
diodes).

Reverse Bias:

• In reverse bias, a negative voltage is applied to the P-side of the diode

relative to the N-side.
• This negative voltage increases the width of the depletion region, making it
even wider.
• As a result, the diode becomes highly resistive to the flow of current in the
reverse direction.
• Very little to no current flows through the diode in reverse bias.
• The voltage across the diode in reverse bias is referred to as the "reverse
bias voltage."
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PN junction in forward bias

Supply (V) Current Voltage across diode

0 0 0
0.1 97.145 nA 99.99 mV
0.2 832.667 nA 199.917 mV
0.3 6.772 uA 299.235 mV
0.4 50.682 uA 394.934 mV
0.5 265.232 uA 473.475 mV
0.6 763.611 uA 523.643 mV
0.7 1.457 mA 554.312 mV
0.8 2.25 mA 574.966 mV
0.9 3.098 mA 590.167 mV
0.10 3.979 mA 602.072 mV
1.485 8.469 mA 638.082 mV
2.1 14.802 mA 664.823 mV
2.6 19.616 mA 678.379 mV
3.1 24.46 mA 689.045 mV
3.3 26.078 mA 692.152 mV
3.6 29.322 mA 697.846 mV
4.1 34.197 mA 705.342 mV
4.6 39.081 mA 711.877 mV
5.5 47.782 mA 721.771 mV
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60

50

40
Current through diode

30
(mA)

20

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6

-10
Applied Voltage
(V)

PN junction in reverse bias

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Supply (V) Current Voltage across diode (V)

0 0 0
22.50 0 22.5
37.5 0 37.5
45 0 45
48.750 0 48.75
50.625 3.375 mA 50.288
52.875 25.345 mA 50.341
59.625 92.477 mA 50.377
65.250 148.582 mA 50.392
69.750 193.495 mA 50.4
75 245.912 mA 50.409
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300

250

200
Current through diode

150
(mA)

100

50

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

-50
Applied Voltage
(V)

7. Zener diode
A Zener diode is a specialized type of diode designed to operate in the reverse-biased mode.
Unlike regular diodes, which are typically used for rectification and allow current to flow in
the forward-biased direction, Zener diodes are engineered to exhibit a specific and highly
stable breakdown voltage in the reverse-biased mode. This breakdown voltage is known as
the "Zener voltage" or "Zener knee voltage."
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The Zener diode is constructed in a few different ways such as the diffused structure,
diffused and passivated structure, and alloy diffused structure. Generally, we use the diffused
structure of Zener diode whose figure is given below.

• In this design, two N and P-type substrates are diffused together. On both sides, a
metallic layer is used to form the cathode and anode terminals. Silicon oxide SiO2 layer
is used to cover the junction regions and to prevent the contamination of the junction.
• The structure of passivated Zener diode has its junction’s edges covered with a SiO2
layer. While the structure of alloy diffused Zener diode has all its junctions covered by
SiO2 layer. The passivated structure offers better performance at higher voltage while
the passivated structure offers better performance at lower voltages.
• The Zener diode can operate in both forward and reverse bias. In forward bias, it acts
as a normal diode with nominal forward voltage drop and a large current flow. While
in reverse bias, it blocks current flow until the applied voltage reaches the Zener
breakdown voltage. This region is known as the Zener breakdown region and the
Zener diode is specifically designed to operate in this region. The current starts to
increase with an increase in the applied voltage while the voltage across the Zener
remains the same.
• The Zener voltage of the diode depends on the doping level which can be adjusted
during the manufacturing of the Zener diode. The sudden increase in reverse current
in a Zener diode is due to either one or both of the following effects.
• The reverse breakdown of a Zener diode occurs when a specific reverse voltage,
known as the Zener voltage (Vz), is applied across the diode. In this breakdown region:
• The diode allows a controlled, stable current to flow in the reverse-biased direction.
• It maintains a nearly constant voltage, Vz, across its terminals, even as the reverse
current varies.
• This behavior is crucial for creating a precise voltage reference or regulator in
electronic circuits.

8. Zener diode in forward and reverse bias

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Supply (V) Current Voltage across diode (V)

0 0 0
2 0 2
6 4.59 5.541
8 24.163 5.584
10 44.008 5.599 ≈ 5.6
12 63.912 5.609
14 83.84 5.616
16 103.785 5.621
18 123.74 5.626
20 143.701 5.63
22 163.667 5.633
25 193.623 5.638
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250

200

150
Current through diode
(mA)

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

-50
Applied Voltage
(V)

Reference – Wikipedia, digikey.in, byjus.com, electricaltechnology.org, pijaeducation.com,

physics-and-radio-electronics.com, principle of electronics - V k Mehta

PURVA PATEL
BATCH 15
CLASS B
BDA21
EXPERIMENT 4
A.C to D.C by rectifiers

4.1: What is AC power? (in details).

=> AC is the form of current that is mostly used in different appliances. Some
of the examples of alternating current include audio signal, radio signal, etc. An
alternating current has a wide advantage over DC as AC is able to transmit
power over large distances without great loss of energy.

4.2: Transformers: Construction, Types of transformers, Step-up and

Step-down Transformers.

=> Transformer Construction Labels :-

Transformers are often constructed in such a way that it is not obvious which
wires lead to the primary winding and which lead to the secondary. One
convention used in the electric power industry to help alleviate confusion is the
use of “H” designations for the higher-voltage winding (the primary winding in
a step-down unit; the secondary winding in a step-up) and “X” designations for
the lower-voltage winding. Therefore, a simple power transformer will have
wires labeled “H1”, “H2”, “X1”, and “X2”. It is usually significant to the
numbering of the wires (H1 versus H2, etc.), which we’ll explore a little later in
this chapter.

Step-up and Step-down Transformers :-

This is a very useful device, indeed. With it, we can easily multiply or divide
voltage and current in AC circuits. Indeed, the transformer has made the long-
distance transmission of electric power a practical reality, as AC voltage can be
“stepped up” and current “stepped down” for reduced wire resistance power
losses along power lines connecting generating stations with loads.

At either end (both the generator and at the loads), voltage levels are reduced
by transformers for safer operation and less expensive equipment.

A transformer that increases the voltage from primary to secondary (more

secondary winding turns than primary winding turns) is called a step-up
transformer.

Conversely, a transformer designed to do just the opposite is called a step-

down transformer.
4.3: what is Rectifier?
The primary application of the rectifier is to derive DC power from AC power.
Rectifiers are used inside the power supplies of almost all electronic
equipment. In power supplies, the rectifier is normally placed in series
following the transformer, a smoothing filter, and possibly a voltage regulator.
Below, we have discussed a few rectifier applications:

A rectifier is used for powering appliances

As we know, all electrical appliances use a DC power supply to function. Using a

rectifier in the power supply helps in converting AC to DC power supply. Bridge
rectifiers are widely used for large appliances, which can convert high AC
voltage to low DC voltage.

4.4: Halfwave rectifier.

Half-wave rectifiers transform AC voltage to DC voltage. A halfwave rectifier
circuit uses only one diode for the transformation. A halfwave rectifier is
defined as a type of rectifier that allows only one-half cycle of an AC voltage
waveform to pass while blocking the other half cycle. In this session, let us
know in detail about the half-wave rectifier.

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit :-

A half-wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier and requires only one
diode for the construction of a halfwave rectifier circuit.

A halfwave rectifier circuit consists of three main components as follows:

A diode

A transformer

A resistive load

Given below is the half-wave rectifier diagram:

Working of Half Wave Rectifier:-
In this section, let us understand how a half-wave rectifier transforms AC into
DC.

A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down transformer.

The obtained secondary low voltage is applied to the diode.
The diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage and
reverse biased during the negative half cycle.
The final output voltage waveform is as shown in the figure below:

Half Wave Rectifier Waveform :-

The halfwave rectifier waveform before and after rectification is shown below
in the figure.
Half Wave Rectifier Capacitor Filter
The output waveform of a halfwave rectifier is a pulsating DC waveform. Filters
in halfwave rectifiers are used to transform the pulsating waveform into
constant DC waveforms. A capacitor or an inductor can be used as a filter.
The circuit diagram below shows how a capacitive filter is used with halfwave
rectifier to smoothen out a pulsating DC waveform into a constant DC
waveform.

4.5: Full Wave rectifier- center tap and Bridge rectifier

A full wave rectifier is an electronic circuit which converts an alternating
current (AC) input signal into a direct current (DC) output signal. It does this by
using diodes to only allow the positive portion of the AC signal to pass through,
effectively converting the signal into a series of positive pulses. Compared to a
half-wave rectifier, which only allows the positive half of the AC signal to pass
through, a full wave rectifier produces a more constant DC output voltage with
less ripple.

Types of Full Wave Rectifier

There are two main types of full wave rectifiers: the center-tapped full-wave
rectifier and the bridge rectifier.
1) Centre-tapped Full Wave Rectifier
A center-tapped full wave rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses a
center-tapped transformer as its input. The transformer has a center-tapped
secondary winding, with two diodes connected to the ends of the winding and
the other ends of the diodes connected to the load resistor.

Working of the Center-tapped Full Wave Rectifier

Steps of working of the center tapped full wave rectifier
During the first half of the AC cycle, the voltage across the upper half of the
secondary winding is positive, and the voltage across the lower half is negative.
The diode connected to the upper half of the winding becomes forward-biased
and conducts, allowing the current to flow through the diode and the load
resistor.
Advantages of Center-tapped Full Wave Rectifier
The main advantage of the center-tapped full-wave rectifier is that it produces
a higher DC output voltage than a half-wave rectifier, while still being relatively
simple and inexpensive. It also has a lower ripple voltage than a half-wave
rectifier, which can be important for some applications.
Disadvantages of Center-tapped Full Wave Rectifier
There are also some disadvantages to using a center-tapped full-wave rectifier.
One is that it requires a center-tapped transformer, which can be more
expensive and difficult to find than a regular transformer. Additionally, it can
waste power since only half of the secondary winding is being used at any
given time.
2) Bridge Rectifier
A bridge rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four diodes in a bridge
configuration to convert an alternating current (AC) input signal into a direct
current (DC) output signal.

Working of the Bridge Rectifier

Steps of working of the bridge rectifier
During the first half of the AC cycle, the voltage across the upper two diodes is
positive, while the voltage across the lower two diodes is negative. The two
diodes connected to the upper side become forward-biased and conduct,
allowing current to flow through the diodes and the load resistor.
The two diodes connected to the lower side become forward-biased and
conduct, allowing the current to flow in the opposite direction through the
load resistor.
At the same time, the two diodes connected to the upper side become reverse-
biased and block the current from flowing in that direction.
Advantages of the Bridge Rectifier
The main advantage of the bridge rectifier is that it produces a higher DC
output voltage than a half-wave rectifier or a center-tapped full-wave rectifier.
It also has a lower ripple voltage than a half-wave rectifier, making it suitable
for many electronic applications. Another advantage is that it does not require
a center-tapped transformer, making it more flexible and easier to use in a
variety of applications.
Disadvantages of the Bridge Rectifier
It requires four diodes, which are more expensive than the two diodes used in
a half-wave rectifier or the two diodes used in a center-tapped full wave
rectifier. It also has a higher peak inverse voltage (PIV) than a half-wave
rectifier, which can require a higher voltage rating of diodes in high-voltage
applications.

4.6: Filters: bridge rectifier with L,C and P.I filter. to obtain pure DC.
A Bridge rectifier is an Alternating Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC) converter
that rectifies mains AC input to DC output. Bridge Rectifiers are widely used in
power supplies that provide necessary DC voltage for the electronic
components or devices. They can be constructed with four or more diodes or
any other controlled solid-state switches.
Half Wave Rectifier :-

Half Wave Rectifier With Filter :-

Full Wave Rectifier :-

Full Wave Rectifier With Filter :-

Bridge Rectifier :-

Bridge Rectifier With Filter :-

Purva patel
Batch 15
Class b
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Practical-5
DC voltage Regulator and Voltage clipper

What is DC voltage regulators?

A voltage regulator is a component of the power supply unit that ensures a steady constant
voltage supply through all operational conditions. It regulates voltage during power
fluctuations and variations in loads. It can regulate AC as well as DC voltages.

• Types of DC Voltage Regulators:-

A dc voltage regulator generally employs electronic devices to achieve this objective. The
various types of dc voltage regulators are :

▪ Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

▪ Transistor Series Voltage Regulator
▪ Series Feedback Voltage Regulator
▪ Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator
▪ Shunt Feedback Voltage Regulator
▪ Glow Tube Voltage Regulator
▪ Series Triode Voltage Regulator
▪ Series Double Triode Voltage Regulator
▪ IC Voltage Regulator

Zener as voltage regulator- 1 circuit only using 4733 diode

78xx as positive voltage regulator - 1 circuit only using lC7805

79xx as (-)ve voltage Reg. -1 circuit only using lC7905

What is clipper circuits? What are types of clippers?
The Diode Clipper, also known as a Diode Limiter, is a wave shaping circuit that takes an input
waveform and clips or cuts off its top half, bottom half or both halves together. This clipping of the
input signal produces an output waveform that resembles a flattened version of the input. For
example, the half-wave rectifier is a clipper circuit, since all voltages below zero are eliminated.

But Diode Clipping Circuits can be used a variety of applications to modify an input waveform using
signal and Schottky diodes or to provide over-voltage protection using zener diodes to ensure that
the output voltage never exceeds a certain level protecting the circuit from high voltage spikes. Then
diode clipping circuits can be used in voltage limiting applications.

Positive Diode Clipping Circuits :-

The output voltage which is taken across the diode can never exceed 0.7 volts during the positive half
cycle.
Negative Diode Clipping Circuits :-
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased has no effect on the negative half
of the sinusoidal voltage which passes to the load unaltered.

Here the reverse is true. The diode is forward biased during the negative half cycle of the
sinusoidal waveform and limits or clips it to –0.7 volts while allowing the positive half cycle
to pass unaltered when reverse biased. As the diode limits the negative half cycle of the
input voltage it is therefore called a negative clipper circuit.
Clipping of Both Half Cycles :-
For ideal diodes the output waveform above would be zero. However, due to the forward
bias voltage drop across the diodes the actual clipping point occurs at +0.7 volts and –0.7
volts respectively.
Biased Diode Clipping Circuits
To produce diode clipping circuits for voltage waveforms at different levels, a bias voltage, VBIAS is
added in series with the diode to produce a combination clipper as shown. The voltage across the
series combination must be greater than VBIAS + 0.7V before the diode becomes sufficiently forward
biased to conduct. For example, if the VBIAS level is set at 4.0 volts, then the sinusoidal voltage at the
diode’s anode terminal must be greater than 4.0 + 0.7 = 4.7 volts for it to become forward biased.
Any anode voltage levels above this bias point are clipped off.

• Positive Bias Diode Clipping –

Likewise, by reversing the diode and the battery bias voltage, when a diode conducts the negative
half cycle of the output waveform is held to a level –VBIAS – 0.7V as shown.
• Negative Diode Clipping Circuits –
Diode Clipping of Different Bias levels –
When the voltage of the positive half cycle reaches +4.7 V, diode D1 conducts and limits the
waveform at +4.7 V. Diode D2 does not conduct until the voltage reaches –6.7 V. Therefore,
all positive voltages above +4.7 V and negative voltages below –6.7 V are automatically
clipped.

Conclusion: - DC voltage regulators maintain a stable output voltage while Diodes

in clipping circuits limit voltage levels, protect against overvoltage.
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Practical-6
Amplifier and Oscillator

What is transistor ?
A transistor is a type of semiconductor device that can be used to conduct and insulate electric
current or voltage. A transistor basically acts as a switch and an amplifier. In simple words, we can
say that a transistor is a miniature device that is used to control or regulate the flow of electronic
signals.
Transistors are one of the key components in most of the electronic devices that are present today.
Developed in the year 1947 by three American physicists, John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William
Shockley, the transistor is considered one of the most important inventions in the history of science.
A typical transistor is composed of three layers of semiconductor materials or, more specifically,
terminals which help to make a connection to an external circuit and carry the current. A voltage or
current that is applied to any one pair of the terminals of a transistor controls the current through
the other pair of terminals. There are three terminals for a transistor. They are listed below:

• Base: This is used to activate the transistor.

• Collector: It is the positive lead of the transistor.
• Emitter: It is the negative lead of the transistor.
Types of transistors
There are many types of transistors in use. Each transistor is specialized in its application. The main
classification is as follows.

The primary transistor is the BJT and FET is the modern version of transistor.

1. Bipolar Junction Transistor :-

A Bipolar junction transistor, shortly termed as BJT is called so as it has two PN junctions for
its function. This BJT is nothing but a normal transistor. It has got two types of
configurations NPN and PNP. Usually NPN transistor is preferred for the sake of convenience.
The following image shows how a practical BJT looks like.
The types of BJT are NPN and PNP transistors. The NPN transistor is made by placing a ptype material
between two n-type materials. The PNP transistor is made by placing an ntype material between two
p-type materials.

BJT is a current controlled device. A normal transistor which we had discussed in the previous chapters
come under this category. The functionality, configurations and applications are all the same.

2. Field Effect Transistor :-

An FET is a three-terminal unipolar semiconductor device. It is a voltage controlled device unlike a

bipolar junction transistor. The main advantage of FET is that it has a very high input impedance, which
is in the order of Mega Ohms. It has many advantages like low power consumption, low heat
dissipation and FETs are highly efficient devices. The following image shows how a practical FET looks
like.
The FET is a unipolar device, which means that it is made using either p-type or n-type
material as main substrate. Hence the current conduction of a FET is done by either electrons
or holes.

➢ Advantages of FET
To prefer a FET over BJT, there should be few advantages of using FETs, rather
than BJTs. Let us try to summarize the advantages of FET over BJT.

FET BJT

It is an unipolar device It is a bipolar device

Voltage driven device Current driven device

High input impedance Low input impedance

Low noise level High noise level

Better thermal stability Less thermal stability

Gain is characterized by
Gain is characterized by voltage gain
transconductance
 Application of transistors

• Advantages of using Transistors

Transistor has been proven as a very important invention in science. It has many uses and
advantages:

• It is small in size and is very cost-efficient.

• It needs very low voltage to function.

• It has a long life and requires no power to operate.

• A single integrated circuit can be developed using the transistor.

• Current switches fast in the terminals.

• Uses of Transistor :-

1) As Amplifier Circuit: A transistor can be used to amplify current. V biasing voltage

produced in the base-emitter junction. Due to the forward biasing of the base-
emitter junction, the electrons start flowing from emitter to recombine with holes
in the base, the base becomes negatively charged. If the base current Ib is increased
by a small amount, hole-electron recombination will get neutralised, the collector
current Ic will be increased. Therefore, a small change in current Ib in the base.

2) Microphone: The microphone is a transducer that converts our voice or sound wave
to an electronic signal. As the sound wave doesn't have a constant value, the
magnitude of the sound wave varies with time according to our voice.

The electrical output of the microphone varies according to the sound waves as the base
current Ib is varying because of the small alternating voltage produced by the microphone
which means a small change in Ib can cause a large change in Ic.

When this output of the microphone is given to the transistor as an input. The varying
collector current Ic flows into the loudspeaker, and we know that if there are changes in
the input of the transistor there will be a large change in the output of the transistor. Thus,
the transistor amplifies the electronic signal of the microphone.

The frequency remains constant but the amplitude of the sound wave from the loudspeaker
is higher than sound waves fed into the microphone.

3) Oscillator Circuit: An electronic oscillator is a device that generates continuous

electrical oscillations. In a simple oscillator circuit, a parallel LC circuit is used as a
resonant circuit and an amplifier is used to feed energy to the resonant circuit. The
 frequency gets resonantly amplified, and the output acts as a source of an
alternating voltage of that frequency.

4) Transistor Used as a Switch: BJT Transistors can be used as a switching device to

control DC power to a load. The switched (controlled) current goes between
emitter and collector, and the controlling current goes between emitter and base.

Transistor as an Amplifier

A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak signal. The DC bias voltage
applied to the emitter base junction, makes it remain in forward biased condition. This
forward bias is maintained regardless of the polarity of the signal. The below figure shows
how a transistor looks like when connected as an amplifier.

The low resistance in input circuit, lets any small change in input signal to result in an
appreciable change in the output. The emitter current caused by the input signal
contributes the collector current, which when flows through the load resistor R L, results in
a large voltage drop across it. Thus a small input voltage results in a large output voltage,
which shows that the transistor works as an amplifier.
Amplifier Circuit - single circuit
 What is Oscillator ?

An oscillator is a circuit which produces a continuous, repeated, alternating waveform

without any input. Oscillators basically convert unidirectional current flow from a DC source
into an alternating waveform which is of the desired frequency, as decided by its circuit
components.

The basic principle behind the working of oscillators can be understood by analysing the
behaviour of an LC tank circuit shown in Figure below, which employs an inductor L and a
completely pre-charged capacitor C as its components. Here, at first, the capacitor starts to
discharge via the inductor, which results in the conversion of its electrical energy into the
electromagnetic field, which can be stored in the inductor. Once the capacitor discharges
completely, there will be no current flow in the circuit.

However, the oscillations which arise due to the inter-conversion between the two energy-
forms cannot continue forever as they would be subjected to the effect of energy loss due
to the resistance of the circuit. As a result, the amplitude of these oscillations decreases
steadily to become zero, which makes them damped in nature.

Type of Oscillator

There are many types of oscillators, but can broadly be classified into two main categories
– Harmonic Oscillators (also known as Linear Oscillators) and Relaxation Oscillators.

In a harmonic oscillator, the energy flow is always from the active components to the
passive components and the frequency of oscillations is decided by the feedback path.

Whereas in a relaxation oscillator, the energy is exchanged between the active and the
passive components and the frequency of oscillations is determined by the charging and
discharging time-constants involved in the process. Further, harmonic oscillators produce
low-distorted sine-wave outputs while the relaxation oscillators generate non-sinusoidal
(saw-tooth, triangular or square) wave-forms.
The main types of Oscillators include:

• Wien Bridge Oscillator

• RC Phase Shift Oscillator
• Voltage Controlled Oscillator
• Colpitts Oscillator
• Clapp Oscillators
• Crystal Oscillators
• Tuned Collector Oscillator
• Gunn Oscillator
• Cross-Coupled Oscillators
• Ring Oscillators
• Meissner Oscillators
• Pierce Oscillators
• Robinson Oscillators
• Delay-Line Oscillators
• Multi-Wave Oscillators
Oscillator Applications

Oscillators are a cheap and easy way to generate specific Frequency of a signal. For
example, an RC oscillator is used to generate a Low Frequency signal, an LC oscillator is
used to generate a High Frequency signal, and an Op-Amp based oscillator is used to
generate a stable frequency.

The frequency of oscillation can be varied by varying the component value with
potentiometer arrangements.

Some common applications of oscillators include:

• Quartz watches (which uses a crystal oscillator)

• Used in various audio systems and video systems
• Used in various radio, TV, and other communication devices
• Used in computers, metal detectors, stun guns, inverters, ultrasonic and
radio frequency applications.
• Used to generate clock pulses for microprocessors and micro-controllers
• Used in alarms and buzzes
• Used in metal detectors, stun guns, inverters, and ultrasonic
• Used to operate decorative lights (e.g. dancing lights)
Colpit Oscillator- single circuit
Difference between Amplifier and Oscillator.

Basis of Amplifier Oscillator

Difference

An electronic circuit that generates an

An electronic circuit that increases
AC signal of definite frequency having
Definition the magnitude of a weak signal is
either sinusoidal or nonsinusoidal
called an amplifier.
waveform is called an oscillator.

The main function of an amplifier

The main function of an amplifier is to
is to increase the intensity of a
Primary increase the intensity of a signal.
signal. Therefore, the amplifiers
function & Therefore, the amplifiers are
are repetitively used in a circuit
location in repetitively used in a circuit because
because the signal losses its
circuit the signal losses its energy while
energy while travelling over long
travelling over long distances.
distances.

Acts as Amplifier acts as a multiplier. Oscillator acts as a source.

The output of an amplifier is just

an amplified signal of same nature Oscillator always generates an
Output signal
as the input. It may be period or oscillatory, i.e. periodic signal.
aperiodic.

Presence of An amplifier necessarily has both

An oscillator has only an output.
input & output input and output.

An amplifier can never perform We may use an oscillator itself in place

Substituting
the function of an oscillator. of amplifier to produce a strong signal.

In amplifiers, the negative

Feedback Oscillators use positive feedback.
feedback is used.

For the operation, an amplifier

necessarily requires an input Oscillator does not require input signal
Need of input
signal to generate an amplified to generate an oscillatory output
signal
output signal. Without input signal signal.
it does nothing.

Oscillators are extensively used in

Amplifiers are widely used in computers, laptops, and many other
Applications audio systems to increase the electronic devices and systems to
intensity of audio signals. generate the clock pulses for
synchronization.