GUITAR AMPLIFIER :  Tremolo means the rapid reiteration of a

musical tone or of alternating tones to

Phase shift oscillators are most commonly used in produce a tremulous effect
tremolo circuits in guitar amplifiers. They are used
as the low-frequency oscillator (LFO) that
generates the sinusoidal waveform which
amplitude modulates the guitar signal to produce
the characteristic tremolo amplitude variations.

TREMOLO CIRCUITS:

 The tremolo pedal has a circuit that

changes the volume of your signal at a
certain frequency; the highest level of the
volume is controlled by whatever you
choose to feed into the tremolo pedal.
ANALAYSIS :

R-C phase shift oscillator using op-amp uses an op-amp in inverting amplifier mode. Thus it introduces the phase
shift of 180° between input and output. The feedback network consists of 3 RC sections each producing 60° phase
shift.

The output of the amplifier is given to the feedback network. The output of the feedback network drives the
amplifier. The total phase shift around a loop is 180° of the amplifier and 180° due to 3 RC section, thus 360°. This
satisfies the required condition for positive feedback and circuit works as an oscillator.

Fig –(iv) : RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR USING OP-AMP

Let us find the transfer function of the RC feedback network :

Fig – (v) : Feed back network of RC phase shift oscillator

Applying KVL to various loops we get,

Replacing jω by s and writing the equations in the matrix form,

Using the Crammer’s rule to obtain I3

The following determinant can be formed for finding the value of ‘β’
This is the frequency with which circuit oscillates

At this frequency,

The negative sign indicates a phase shift of 180°

Now to have the oscillations,

Thus circuit will work as an oscillator which will produce a sinusoidal waveform if the gain is 29 and total phase
shift around a loop is 360°. This satisfies the Barkhausen criterion for the oscillator. These oscillators are used over
the audio frequency range i.e. about 20 Hz up to 100 kHz.

I. PROPOSED WORK

o RC phase shift oscillator is also called as low frequency oscillator which is used in tremolo circuit in
guitar amplifiers.
 o The RC phase shift oscillator frequency lies between 20 hz to 20 khz.frequency of guitar amplifier in
tremolo circuits lies between 70 hz to 6 khz.
o Therefore by observing about two conditions we can decide the frequency range.hence we can
consider the frequency range between 1 khz to 25 khzwhich generates a Sinusodial waveform which
amplitude modulated the guitar signal to produce characteristic tremolo amplitude variations.
o The oscillating frequency of RC phase shift oscillator is given by

1
f=
2 πRC √ 6

Let assume f=5khz,c=0.01 μ f

1
5000=
2∗3.14∗R∗0.01∗10 ∗√ 6
−6

1
R= −3
5∗2∗3.14∗01∗10 ∗√ 6

R=1.3kΩ

∴R1=R2=R3=R=1.3kΩ

Therefore, Rf>=29Ri

Rf>29*1.3kΩ

Rf>37.7kΩ => Rf=45.5kΩ

II. RESULT

For making circuit diagram we should consider the variable resistantance R1=R2=R3=1.3kΩ as feedback resistors
and capacitors C1=C2=C3=0.01 μf and Rf=45.5Kω ;Vcc=12v Vee=-12v and GND as per required in circuit
diagram.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
OUTPUT WAVEFORM:

Calculation from output waveform:

i) If variable resistance is of 1.3kΩ at 65%, we get

T=183.635 μs

T=183.635*10−6s

T=0.183635*10−3

T=0.183ms

1 1 1
f = = −3 = *10−3
T 0.183∗10 0.183

= 5.46*103

¿> ¿ f=5.46khz
ii) If variable resistance is of 1.3kΩ at 50%,

T1=163.772 μs

T1=163.772*10−6s

T1=0.163772*10−3 s

T1=0.163ms

1 1 1
f1 = = −3 = *10−3
T1 0.163∗10 0.163

= 6.134*103hz

Therefore, f1=6.134khz

iii) If variable resistance is of 1.3kΩ at 75%, we get

 T2=191.067 μs

T2=191.067*10−6s

T2=0.191067*10−3 s

T2=0.191ms

1 1 1
f2 = = −3 = *10−3
T2 0.191∗10 0.191

= 5.235*103hz

Therefore, f2=5.235khz

iv) if variable resistance is of 1.3kΩ at 100%, we get

T3=225.806 μs

T3=225.806*10−6s

T3=0.225*10−3 s

T3=0.225ms

1 1 1
f3 = = −3 = *10−3
T3 0.225∗10 0.225

= 4.44*103 hz

Hence, f3=4.44khz

Using NI Multisim,For designing low frequency oscillator (LFO) which is used in tremolo circuits in guitar
amplifiers. This generates a sinusoidal waveform which amplitude modulates the guitar signal to produce the
characteristic tremolo amplitude variations.
  Above diagram shows about the schematic of low frequency oscillator.

 The figure shows about the PCB Layout of the low frequency oscillator.

Using PCB layout ,we have designed a low frequency oscillator (LFO) which is used in tremolo circuits in guitar
amplifiers.Here, the components are placed and the circuit is connected properly and layout has been designed.

 The below layouts show the low frequency oscillator (LFO) with require specifications.
III. CONCLUSION

 The low frequency oscillator (LFO) has been designed according to the required specifications.
 The characteristics of the designed low frequency oscillator has been observed in the oscilloscope which is
a sinusoidal waveform and time period of one cycle can be found under the sinusoidal waveform and by
using the time period we found the frequency. We checked frequencies at different time period therefore,
the frequency is oscillating from 1kHz to 5kHz.
Question:

Design an astable multivibrator with f 0=30 KHz and D (%) = 60% by using 555 timer. The timing accuracy of the
555 astable approaches 1%, with a temperature stability of 0.005%/ºC and a power supply stability of 0.05%/V.

Abstract:
The 555 timer is widely used as IC timer circuit and it is the most commonly used general purpose linear integrated
circuit. It can run in either one of the two modes: Monostable (one stable state) or A stable (no stable state). In the
Monostable mode it can produce accurate time delays from microseconds to hours. In the Astable mode it can
produce rectangular waveforms with a variable Duty cycle. The simplicity and ease with which both the
multivibrator circuits can be configured around this IC is one of the main reasons for its wide use. The state of the
art presented in the paper is the design and implementation of an Astable multivibrator using 555 timer IC,
generating non-sinusoidal waveform in the form of rectangular waveform as well as capacitor voltage waveform in
the form of ramp waveform.

Keywords: A stable multivibrator, Duty cycle, Ramp waveform, rectangular waveform, 555timer.

Introduction
Oscillators are broadly classified into two categories namely sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal oscillators. Sinusoidal
oscillators produce a sine wave output and the non-sinusoidal oscillators produce a square or pulsed output. A
multivibrator circuit is basically a non-sinusoidal oscillator with regenerative feedback. A multivibrator circuit is a
two- state circuit that has zero, one or two stable output states. Depending on the number of stable output states
there are three basic types of multivibrator circuits namely Bistable multivibrator having two stable states,
Monostable multivibrator having one stable state and Astable multivibrator having zero stable states. In the case of
Monostable and Bistable multivibrator an external trigger pulse is required for their operation whereas in the case of
A stable multivibrator it has automatic built in triggering which switches it continuously between its two unstable
states both SET and RESET. There are two main components in every multivibrator namely the bistable circuit and
the two passive networks that are connected in a basic feedback loop. The networks in the circuit can be
Monostable (resistive), A stable (resistive-capacitive) or bistable. Astable multivibrator is built of two amplifying
stages that are connected in a positive feedback loop using two resistive-capacitive coupling networks. The
elements used for amplification may be junction field effect transistors, bipolar junction transistors, vacuum tubes,
operational amplifiers or any other type of amplifier. They are essentially used in wide variety of systems where a
timed interval or a square wave is required.
The 555 timer can be connected to run as an Astable multivibrator. When used in this way, the 555 timer has no
stable states, which implies that it cannot remain indefinitely in either state. Stated in another way, it oscillates
when operated in the Astable mode and produces a square or rectangular output signal.

Astable Multivibrator Using Timer IC 555 Overview

The basic 555 timer based Astable multivibrator circuit is depicted in fig 1. Initially, capacitor C is fully discharged,
which forces the output to go to the HIGH state. An open discharge transistor allows capacitor C to charge from
+Vcc through resistors R1 and R2. When the voltage across C exceeds +2V cc /3, the output enters the LOW state and
the discharge transistor is switched ON at the same time. Capacitor C starts to discharge through R 2 and the
discharge transistor inside the IC. When the voltage across C falls below + V cc /3, the output enters the HIGH state.
The charge and discharge cycles repeat and the circuit behaves as a free running multivibrator. Terminal-4 of the IC
is the RESET terminal. Usually, it is connected to +V cc. If the voltage at this terminal is driven below 0.4, the output
is forced to the LOW state overriding command pulses at terminal-2 of the IC. HIGH state and LOW state time
periods are governed by the charge (+ V cc /3 to +2Vcc /3) and discharge (+2Vcc /3 to +Vcc /3) timings. These are
given by (1) and (2) respectively.

HIGH state time period, THIGH= 0.69 x (R1+R2) x C (1)

LOW state time period, TLOW= 0.69 x R2 x C (2)

Fig. 1 Astable multivibrator circuit using 555 timers.

The HIGH state time period is also known as Turn ON time (T ON) and the LOW state time period is also
known as Turn OFF time (TOFF). The relevant waveforms are shown in fig 2.
 (a)

(b)
Fig.2 Astable multivibrator
(a) waveforms (b) circuit diagram

The time period (T) and frequency (f) of the output waveforms are given by (3) and (4) respectively.

Time period, T= 0.69 x (R1+2R2) x C (3)

Frequency f= 1/0.69 x (R1+2R2) x C (4)

Solution :
Given frequency= 30KHz and duty cycle= 60% (0.6)

Time period T= 1/f= TON+TOFF= 0.0000333sec (5)

Where TON is the time, the output is high and T OFF is the time, the output is low. From the concept of A stable
Multivibrator using 555 timers, we have

THIGH= TON= 0.693RBC (6)

TLOW= TOFF= 0.693 (RA +RB) C (7)

T= TON+TOFF (8)

T= 0.693 RBC+0.693 (RA +RB) C

T= 0.693 (RA +2RB) C (9)

Duty cycle D= [TON/ (TON+ TOFF)] (10)

D= [TON/T] (1)

0.6= TON/T

TON= 0.6*0.000333= 0.00001998sec (12)

From (8), TOFF= T- TON (13)

TOFF= 0.0000333sec -0.00001998sec = 0.0001332sec (14)

Let C= 0.001µf and substituting in (6) and (7) we get RB= 2.8KΩ and RA= 2.7KΩ

THIGH= TON= 0.693RBC

0.0001998=0.693*0.1*10−6* R B

19980
=R
0.0693 b
R B=28831.16883 R B=28.831169 kΩ

TLOW= TOFF= 0.693 (RA +RB) C (7)

0.00001332=0.693(RA+28831.16883 )* 0.1*10−6

4.620001103*10−4=0.693 RA

−4
RA=
4.620001103∗10 RA=6.6666666254*10−4 RA=66 Ω
0.693
The circuit schematic for the Astable multivibrator using 555 timer is depicted in fig 3.
 Fig 4 : internal circuit design of a Ic 555 timer and waves forms of a IC 555 timer

3.2 System specifications

The system specifications are illustrated in TABLE 1

TABLE 1. System Specifications in the software

Sl. No Specifications

1. Domain: Analog electronics,

Electronic circuits.

2. Timer IC: LM 555

3. Resistors: 66Ω, 25KΩ

4. Capacitors : 0.1µF, 0.001 µF

5. DC regulated power supply: +5

V

6. Multimeter

7. Applications: Non-sinusoidal
waveform generation
such as Rectangular, square and
ramp waveform etc.

8. Simulation Software: Multisim

12.
Timer I.C 555 overview
The 555 monolithic timing IC is a highly stable controller capable of generating accurate time delays, or oscillation.
In the time delay mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For a
stable operation as an oscillator, the free running frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately controlled with
two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the
output structure can source or sink upto 200mA.

The sailent features of this IC are

i) Can be operated in both A stable and Monostable modes.

ii) Maximum operating frequency greater than 500 KHz.

iii) Has Turn-OFF time less than 2µs.

iv) High output current

v) Adjustable duty cycle

vi) TTL compatible.

Fig. 4 shows the pin diagram of 555 timer. It is an 8 pin IC packed in dual in line package. Different pins of the 555
timers are designated as Ground (pin no.1), Trigger (pin no.2), Output (pin no.3), Reset (pin no.4), Control (pin
no.5), Threshold (pin no.6), Discharge (pin no.7) and +VCC (pin no.8).

Fig. 5 Timer I.C 555 pin diagram

Fig. 3 shows the internal schematic of timer IC 555. It comprises of two op-amp comparators, a SR flip flop, a
discharge transistor, a reset transistor, three identical resistors and an output stage.

The resistors set the reference voltage levels at the non-inverting input of the lower comparator and inverting inputs
of the upper comparator at +Vcc /3 and +2Vcc /3, respectively. Outputs of the two comparators feed SET and RESET
inputs of the SR flip flop and thus decide the logic status of its output and subsequently the final output
The flip flops complementary outputs feed the base of the discharge transistor and the output stage.
This ensures that when the output is HIGH, the discharge transistor is OFF and when the output is
LOW, the discharge transistor is ON.

Verification :
We got RA=66Ω ,RB=28kΩ ,C=0.001 µF

Frequency (F) = 1.44 / ( R A +2× R B) × C

= 1.44/((66+2∗25∗10−3 ¿ *(0.001*10−6 ¿ ¿

Frequency (F) = 28.822khz

T1
Duty Cycle = *100
T
−6
17.371∗10
= −6 −6
*100
17.371∗10 + 17.325∗10
Duty Cycle (D) =55.0066%

4.1 Simulation Results

The Astable multivibrator using 555 timer is designed and implemented using Multisim Simulation package.
The Simulation circuit and the output waveforms for the simulation circuit are shown in fig.6 and 7respectively.

Fig. 6 Simulation circuit schematic

Question:
1.Suppose that the design requirement is for an amplifier with an input voltage of ±1 volt that
corresponds to an output signal between 0 and +5 volts. The lever diagram for an inverting design is
shown in figure a, and for a non-inverting design in figure b. Find which design is better and why?

Int
roduction:
An operational amplifier (often op amp or op amp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic
voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. The OP-AMP
Figure is as shown below.

Non-Inverting Amplifier:
A non-inverting op amp is an operational amplifier circuit with an output voltage that is in phase with
the input voltage. Its complement is the inverting op amp, which produces an output signal that is
180o out of phase.
For Non inverting OP-AMP:

Voltage Gain ( AV ):

Rf
AV =1+
R1
Inverting Amplifier:
The inverting op-amp or operational amplifier is an essential op-amp circuit configuration that uses a
negative feedback connection. As the name suggests, the amplifier inverts the input signal and
changes it.
For inverting OP-AMP:

Voltage Gain ( AV ):
 −Rf
AV =
R1
Solution:
From the graphs:
From Figure(a);
Inverting:

Output Voltage (V o ) Input Voltage (V i ) Voltage Gain ( AV )

5 -1 -5
0 1 0

We know that,
−Rf
AV =
R1
−Rf −5
=
R1 1
Therefore,

Rf=5. R 1
Let us take,

R1 Rf
1KΩ 5KΩ

Circuit Designed from the above analysis:

From the graphs:
From Figure(b):
Non-Inverting:

Output Voltage (V o ) Input Voltage (V i ) Voltage Gain ( AV )

5 1 5
0 -1 0

We know that,
Rf
AV =1+
R1
Rf
5=1+ R 1
Rf
4= R 1
Therefore,
Rf=4. R 1
Let us take,

R1 Rf
1KΩ 4KΩ
Circuit Designed from the above analysis:

Result: The Non-Inverting design is easy to implement since, inverting design requires a negative
potential as input.