Chapter 5

University of Baghdad/College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

Soil Mechanics-Third Year
Flow in Soils
5
15. Permeability of soil
Permeability is the measure of the soil’s ability to permit water to flow through its pores or
voids. Due to the existence of the inter-connected voids, soils are permeable.
¾ The permeable soils will allow water flow from points of high energy to points of low
energy.
¾ It's necessary for estimating the quantity of underground seepage, solving dewatering
problems and stability analyses of earth structures and earth retaining walls subjected
to seepage forces.
¾ The permeability influences the rate of settlement of a saturated soil under load.
16. Bernoulli’s equation

The total pressure in terms of water head is formed from: pressure head; velocity head; and
elevation head. This is known as the Bernoulli’s equation:
࢛ ࢜૛
ࢎൌ ൅ ൅ࢆ
ࢽ࢝ ૛ࢍ
h: total head;
u: water pressure;
γw: unit weight of water;
ν: velocity of water;
g: gravity acceleration;
Z: elevation head.
The term containing the velocity head can be neglected because the seepage velocity is small,
so:
࢛
ࢎൌ ൅ࢆ
ࢽ࢝
The loss of head between A & B is:
࢛஺ ࢛஻
οࢎ ൌ ࢎ࡭ െ ࢎ࡮ ൌ ൬ ൅ ࢆ࡭ ൰ െ ൬ ൅ ࢆ࡮ ൰
ࢽ࢝ ࢽ࢝
οࢎ
࢏ൌ
ࡸ
i: is the hydraulic gradient, L is the distance between A & B and Δh is the head loss between
A & B.
72 | P a g e
Piezometer tube
Figure 5.1: Pressure, elevation, and total heads for flow of water through soil.
The variation of the velocity ν with the hydraulic gradient i is shown in Figure. This figure is
divided into three zones:
1. Laminar flow zone (Zone I)
2. Transition zone (Zone II)
3. Turbulent flow zone (Zone III)
Figure 5.2: Nature of variation of v with hydraulic gradient, i.
17. Darcy’s law

In 1856, Darcy published an empirical relationship for the laminar flow of water through
saturated porous media known as Darcy’s Law:
࢜ ൌ ࢑࢏
ࢗ ൌ ࢜࡭ ൌ ࢑࢏࡭
ν= discharge velocity of water based on the gross cross-sectional area of the soil
73 | P a g e
q = flow rate
k = coefficient of permeability
A = cross-sectional area
i= hydraulic gradient
A relationship between the discharge velocity and the seepage velocity can be derived as
follows:
Discharge velocity and seepage velocity
Figure 5.3: Discharge velocity and seepage velocity.
ࢗ ൌ ࢜࡭ ൌ ࡭࢜ ࢙࢜
where
νs = seepage velocity
Av = area of void in the cross section of the specimen.
࡭ ൌ ࡭࢜ ൅ ࡭࢙
where
As = area of soil solids in the cross section of the specimen.
ࢗ ൌ ࢜ሺ࡭࢜ ൅ ࡭࢙ ሻ ൌ ࡭࢜ ࢙࢜
࢜ሺ࡭࢜ ൅ ࡭࢙ ሻ ࢜ሺ࡭࢜ ൅ ࡭࢙ ሻࡸ ࢜ሺࢂ࢜ ൅ ࢂ࢙ ሻ

࢙࢜ ൌ ൌ ൌ
࡭࢜ ࡭࢜ ࡸ ࢂ࢜
where
Vv = volume of voids in the specimen
Vs = volume of soil solids in the specimen.
ࢂ࢜
ቀ૚ ൅ ቁ ૚൅ࢋ ࢜
ࢂ࢙
࢙࢜ ൌ ࢜ ൦ ൪ ൌ ࢜൬ ൰ ൌ
ࢂ࢜ ࢋ ࢔
ࢂ࢙
18. Coefficient of permeability (Hydraulic conductivity)

¾ The coefficient of permeability is also known as the hydraulic conductivity.
¾ Hydraulic conductivity of soils depends on several factors such as (fluid viscosity; pore-
size distribution; grain-size distribution; void ratio; and degree of soil saturation).
74 | P a g e
Table 5.1: Typical values of hydraulic conductivity of soil.

Soil Type k (cm/sec)
Clean gravel 1.0-100
Coarse sand 0.01-1.0
Fine sand 0.001-0.01
Silty clay 0.00001-0.001
Clay ˂0.000001
The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is also related to the properties of the fluid flowing
through it by the equation:
ࢽ࢝
࢑ൌ ഥ
ࡷ
ࣁ
where
γw = unit weight of water
η = viscosity of water
ഥ = absolute permeability

The absolute permeability ࡷ ഥ is expressed in unite of L2. The hydraulic conductivity is a

function of the unit weight and the viscosity of water, which is in turn a function of the
temperature at which the test is conducted.
࢑ࢀ૚ ࣁࢀ૛ ࢽ࢝ሺࢀ૚ሻ
ൌ൬ ൰ቆ ቇ
࢑ࢀ૛ ࣁࢀ૚ ࢽ࢝ሺࢀ૛ሻ
where
kT1, kT2 = hydraulic conductivity at temperatures T1 and T2.
ηT1, ηT2 = viscosity of water at temperatures T1 and T2.
γw(T1), γw(T2) = unit weight of water at temperatures T1 and T2.
It is conventional to express the value of k at a temperature of 20ºC:
ࣁࢀԨ ࢽ࢝ሺ૛૙Ԩሻ
࢑૛૙Ԩ ൌ ൬ ൰ቆ ቇ ࢑ࢀԨ
ࣁ૛૙Ԩ ࢽ࢝ሺࢀԨሻ
ߟ்Ԩ is the water viscosity at temperature T.
Table 5.2. Properties of Distilled Water (η = absolute)

Temperature, ºC Density, g/cm3 Viscosity, Poise
4 1.00000 0.01567
16 0.99897 0.01111
17 0.99880 0.01083
18 0.99862 0.01056
19 0.99844 0.01030
20 0.99823 0.01005
75 | P a g e
21 0.99802 0.00981
22 0.99780 0.00958
23 0.99757 0.00936
24 0.99733 0.00914
25 0.99708 0.00894
26 0.99682 0.00874
27 0.99655 0.00855
28 0.99627 0.00836
29 0.99598 0.00818
30 0.99568 0.00801
19. Laboratory determination of hydraulic conductivity

Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the hydraulic conductivity.
c) Constant head test

¾ The constant head test is used primarily for coarse-grained soils;
¾ The test is based on the assumption of laminar flow where k is independent of i;
¾ ASTM D 2434;
ࡽ ൌ ࡭࢚࢜ ൌ ࡭ሺ࢑࢏ሻ࢚
ࢎ
࢏ൌ
ࡸ
ࢎ ࡽࡸ
ࡽ ൌ ࡭ ൬࢑ ൰ ࢚ ฺ ࢑ ൌ
ࡸ ࡭ࢎ࢚
Q is volume of water collected; A is cross sectional area of soil specimen; t is duration of water
collection and L is specimen length.
76 | P a g e
Figure 5.4: Constant head test of hydraulic conductivity.
Example 5.1
For the constant-head permeability test, calculate the hydraulic conductivity in cm/sec. A test
gives these values:
• L = 30 cm
• A = area of the specimen = 177 cm2
• Constant-head difference, h = 50 cm
• Water collected in a period of 5 min = 350 cm3
Solution
Example 5.2
A permeable soil layer is underlain by an impervious layer, as shown in Figure. With k = 5.3
x 10-5 m/sec for the permeable layer, calculate the rate of seepage through it in m3/hr/m width
if H = 3 m and α = 8r.
Solution
77 | P a g e
d) Falling head test (Variable head test)

¾ The falling head test is used both for coarse-grained soils as well as fine- textured soils;
¾ Same procedure in constant head test except:
1) Record initial head difference, h1 at t = 0.

2) Allow water to flow through the soil specimen.
3) Record the final head difference, h2 at time t = t2.
4) Collect water at the outlet, Q (in ml) at time t ≈ 60 sec.
Figure 5.5: Falling head test of hydraulic conductivity.
The rate of flow of the water through the specimen at any time t can be given by:
ࢎ ࢊࢎ
ࢗ ൌ ࢑ ࡭ ൌ െࢇ
ࡸ ࢊ࢚
78 | P a g e
where
q = flow rate
a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
A = cross-sectional area of the soil specimen.
ࢇࡸ ࢊࢎ
ࢊ࢚ ൌ ൬െ ൰
࡭࢑ ࢎ
ࢇࡸ ࢎ૚
࢑ൌ ࢒࢔ ൬ ൰
࡭࢚ ࢎ૛
Example 5.3
For a falling-head permeability test, the following values are given:
• Length of specimen = 8 in.
• Area of soil specimen = 1.6 in2.
• Area of standpipe = 0.06 in2.
• Head difference (at time t = 0) = 20 in.
• Head difference at (time t = 180 sec) = 12 in.
Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in in./sec.

Solution
20. Empirical relations for hydraulic conductivity

There are several empirical equations for estimating hydraulic conductivity:
¾ Hazen’s approximation (1930), (for loose & clean filter sand)
: ⁄ ;L p
Where c is a constant varies from 1.0 to 1.5 and D10 is the effective size in mm.
¾ Chapuis (2004),(for natural, uniform sand and gravel)
Æ
: ⁄ ;L Hp I
E
79 | P a g e
where D10 = effective size (mm).
Example 5.4
The hydraulic conductivity of a sand at a void ratio of 0.5 is 0.02 cm/sec. Estimate its hydraulic
conductivity at a void ratio of 0.65.
Solution
¾ Taylor (1948) for clayey soils
ࢋ࢕ െ ࢋ
‫ ࢑ ܏ܗܔ‬ൌ ‫ ࢕࢑ ܏ܗܔ‬െ
࡯࢑
where
ko = in situ hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio eo.
k = hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio e.
Ck = hydraulic conductivity change index≈0.5 eo.
¾ Samarasinghe, Huang and Drnevich (1982) for NC clays
ࢋ࢔
࢑ ൌ ࡯૜
૚ାࢋ
Where C3 and n are constants to be determined experimentally.
Example 5.5
For a normally consolidated clay soil, the following values are given:
Void ratio k (cm/sec)

1.1 0.302 x 10-7
0.9 0.12 x 10-7
Solution
80 | P a g e
21. Equivalent permeability in stratified soils

In a stratified soil deposit, the hydraulic conductivity for flow in a given direction changes
from layer to layer.
Directional (Anisotropic) Variation of Permeability

Heterogeneity is the variation with respect to position. Anisotropy is the variation with
respect to direction.
Figure 5.6: Directional flow of water.

࢘ L t ⁄
where rk is the anisotropy ratio.
The equivalent hydraulic conductivity for flow parallel and normal to soil layers is:
81 | P a g e
࢑ࢋࢗ ൌ ඥ࢑ࡴ ࢑ࢂ
a) Horizontal Flow
Assume n layers of soil with flow in the horizontal direction (horizontal flow & constant
hydraulic gradient).
Figure 5.7: Flow through horizontal stratified soil.
L
L E E fi E
L t: ; L t L t
L L L fi L
t: ; L :w t t E w t t E w t t E fi E w t t ;
t
where
ν = the average discharge velocity.
ν 1, ν 2, ν 3, . . . , ν n = discharge velocities of flow in layers.
b) Vertical Flow
Assume n layers of soil with flow in the vertical direction (vertical flow & constant flow
velocity).
L L L fi L
L L L fi L
L E E fi E
: ; l pL L L fi L
t
: ; l pL L
L fi L
t t t t
t
: ; L
t t t t
@w A E @
w A E @w A E fi E @w A
82 | P a g e
Figure 5.8: Flow through vertical stratified soil.
Example 5.6
Figure 7.20 shows three layers of soil in a tube that is 100 mm x 100 mm in cross section.
Water is supplied to maintain a constant-head difference of 300 mm across the sample. The
hydraulic conductivities of the soils in the direction of flow through them are as follows:
Soil A B C
k (cm/sec) 10-2 3x10-3 4.9x10-4
Solution
83 | P a g e
22. Permeability test in field by pumping from wells

In the field, the average hydraulic conductivity of a soil deposit in the direction of flow can be
determined by performing pumping tests from wells.
¾ During the test, water is pumped out at a constant rate from a test well that has a perforated
casing.
¾ Several observation wells at various radial distances are made around the test well.
¾ The steady state is established when the water level in the test and observation wells
becomes constant.
c) Unconfined aquifer
The expression for the rate of flow of groundwater into the well, which is equal to the rate of
discharge from pumping, can be written as:
ࢗ L l p ˚
˚
– L l p–
L l p
˚k F o
84 | P a g e
Figure 5.9: Unconfined aquifer.
d) Confined aquifer
The average hydraulic conductivity for a confined aquifer can also be determined by
conducting a pumping test from a well with a perforated casing that penetrates the full depth
of the aquifer.
Figure 5.10: Confined aquifer.
Because water can enter the test well only from the aquifer of thickness H, the steady state of
discharge is:
85 | P a g e
ࢊࢎ
ࢗ ൌ ࢑ ൬ ൰ ૛࣊࢘ࡴ
ࢊ࢘
࢘૚
ࢊ࢘ ૛࣊࢑ࡴ ࢎ૚
න ൌ൬ ൰ න ࢊࢎ
࢘૛ ࢘ ࢗ ࢎ૛
ࢗ ࢘૚
࢑ൌ ࢒࢔ ൬ ൰
૛࣊ࡴሺࢎ૚ െ ࢎ૛ ሻ ࢘૛
23. Laplace equation

The flow in porous media occurs in 3-D. Laplace equation is the combination of the continuity
equation and the Darcy’s law.
Figure 5.11: Flow around sheet piles in soil.

Flow in are:
L m
Æ Æ
Flow out are:
86 | P a g e
ࣔ࢜࢞ ࣔ࢜࢟ ࣔ࢜ࢠ

൬࢜࢞ ൅ ࢊ࢞൰ ࢊ࢟ࢊࢠǡ ቆ࢜࢟ ൅ ࢊ࢟ቇ ࢊ࢞ࢊࢠǡ ൬࢜ࢠ ൅ ࢊࢠ൰ ࢊ࢞ࢊ࢟
ࣔ࢞ ࣔ࢟ ࣔࢠ
Flow in = Flow out
ࣔ࢜࢞ ࣔ࢜࢟ ࣔ࢜ࢠ

൬࢜࢞ ൅ ࢊ࢞൰ ࢊ࢟ࢊࢠ ൅ ቆ࢜࢟ ൅ ࢊ࢟ቇ ࢊ࢞ࢊࢠ ൅ ൬࢜ࢠ ൅ ࢊࢠ൰ ࢊ࢞ࢊ࢟
െ ൣ࢜࢞ ࢊ࢟ࢊࢠ ൅ ࢜࢟ ࢊ࢞ࢊࢠ ൅ ࢜ࢠ ࢊ࢞ࢊ࢟൧ ൌ ૙
The equation of continuity is:
ࣔ࢜࢞ ࣔ࢜࢟ ࣔ࢜ࢠ

ࢊ࢞ࢊ࢟ࢊࢠ ൅ ࢊ࢟ࢊ࢞ࢊࢠ ൅ ࢊࢠࢊ࢞ࢊ࢟ ൌ ૙
ࣔ࢜࢞ ࣔ࢜࢟ ࣔ࢜ࢠ
൅ ൅ ൌ૙
Darcy's Law:
ࣔࢎ ࣔࢎ ࣔࢎ
࢜࢞ ൌ െ࢑࢞ ǡ ࢜࢟ ൌ െ࢑࢟ ǡ ࢜ࢠ ൌ െ࢑ࢠ
Apply Darcy's law to the equation of continuity:
ࣔ૛ ࢎ ࣔ૛ ࢎ ࣔ૛ ࢎ
࢑࢞ ൅ ࢑࢟ ൅ ࢑ࢠ ൌ ૙
ࣔ࢞૛ ࣔ࢟૛ ࣔࢠ૛
For isotropic soil:

L L L
Laplace Equation is:
E E L
” L
L ”
” L
1-D solution of the Laplace equation
In the case of vertical flow, Laplace equation can be simplified to:
L
"
The solution of this equation is:
L Æ L m Æ L m Em
87 | P a g e
The constants A1 and A2 can be determined by applying the following boundary conditions:
Z=0
K1
Z=H1
K2
Z=H1+H2
Figure 5.12: Flow through a two-layered soil.
For Soil 1:
Condition 1: ݄ ൌ ݄ଵ ܽ‫ ݖݐ‬ൌ Ͳ
Condition 2: ݄ ൌ ݄ଶ ܽ‫ ݖݐ‬ൌ ‫ܪ‬ଵ
ࢎ ൌ ࡭૚ ࢠ ൅ ࡭૛
࡭૛ ൌ ࢎ૚
ࢎ૛ ൌ ࡭૚ ࡴ૚ ൅ ࢎ૚
ࢎ૚ െ ࢎ૛
ࢎ ൌ െ൬ ൰ ࢠ ൅ ࢎ૚ ࢌ࢕࢘૙ ൑ ࢠ ൑ ࡴ૚
ࡴ૚
For Soil 2:
Condition 1: ݄ ൌ ݄ଶ ܽ‫ ݖݐ‬ൌ ‫ܪ‬ଵ
Condition 2: ݄ ൌ Ͳܽ‫ ݖݐ‬ൌ ‫ܪ‬ଵ ൅ ‫ܪ‬ଶ
࡭૛ ൌ ࢎ૛ െ ࡭૚ ࡴ૚
࡭૚ ࡴ૚ ൅ ࡭૚ ࡴ૛ ൅ ࢎ૛ െ ࡭૚ ࡴ૚ ൌ ૙
ࢎ૛
࡭૚ ൌ െ
ࡴ૛
88 | P a g e
t
ࢎ L Fl p E l E p t Q Q t Et
t t
The flow in soil 1 and soil 2 must be equal:
L L
F F
L l pm L l pm
t t
or
L
t @ E A
t t
Now we can predict the head in soil 1 and soil 2 if we know the hydraulic conductivities in soil
1 and soil 2.
L l F p Q Q t
t E t
L d h:t E t F ; t Q Q t Et
t E t
Example 5.7
Given: H1 = 12 in, H2 = 20 in, h1 = 24 in, h = 20 in, z = 8 in, k1 = 0.026 in/sec, and diameter of
the soil specimen is D = 3 in. Determine the rate of flow of water through the two-layered soil
(in3/hr).
Solution
89 | P a g e
24. Flow nets
In an isotropic porous medium:
࢑ ൌ ࢑࢞ ൌ ࢑࢟ ൌ ࢑ࢠ
Laplace Equation
ࣔ૛ ࢎ ࣔ૛ ࢎ ࣔ ૛ ࢎ
൅ ൅ ൌ૙
ࣔ࢞૛ ࣔ࢟૛ ࣔࢠ૛
Represents two orthogonal families of curves:

1-Flow line: the line along which a water particle will travel from upstream to the downstream
side in the permeable soil medium;
2-Equipotential line: the line along which the potential (pressure) head at all points is equal;
Flow net: is the combination of flow lines and equipotential lines, which is the graphical
solution of Laplace equation.
90 | P a g e
Figure 5.13: Components of flow net.
Drawing a flow net takes several trials. While constructing the flow net, keep the boundary
conditions in mind. For the flow net shown in Figure, the following four boundary conditions
apply:
Condition 1: The upstream and downstream surfaces of the permeable layer (lines ab and de)
are equipotential lines.
Condition 2: Because ab and de are equipotential lines, all the flow lines intersect them at
right angles.
Condition 3: The boundary of the impervious layer (line fg and the surface of the impervious
sheet pile, line acd are flow lines).
Condition 4: The equipotential lines intersect acd and fg at right angles.
Figure 5.14: Boundary conditions of flow net.

25. Seepage calculation from a flow net
91 | P a g e
In a flow net, the strip between any two adjacent flow lines is called a flow channel.
The drop in the piezometric level between any two adjacent equipotential lines is the same and
is called the potential drop.
The rate of seepage through the flow channel per unit length can be calculated as follows.
Because there is no flow across the flow lines,
οࢗ૚ ൌ οࢗ૛ ൌ οࢗ૜ ൌ ‫ ڮ‬ൌ οࢗ
ࢎ૚ െ ࢎ૛ ࢎ૛ െ ࢎ૜ ࢎ૜ െ ࢎ૝
οࢗ ൌ ࢑ ൬ ൰ ࢒૚ ൌ ࢑ ൬ ൰ ࢒૛ ൌ ࢑ ൬ ൰ ࢒૜ ൌ ‫ڮ‬
࢒૚ ࢒૛ ࢒૜
t
¿ L F L F L F L
z
t
¿ L
z
Figure 5.15: Seepage through a flow channel with square elements.
where H = head difference between the upstream and downstream sides; and Nd = number of
potential drops.
z
L t
z
Nf = number of flow channels in a flow net.
One can draw a rectangular mesh for flow channel, as shown in Figure, with constant ratios
of width-to-length for all the rectangular elements in the flow net. In this case, the rate of flow
is:
F F F
¿ L l p L l p L l p L fi
⁄ L ⁄ L ⁄ L fi L
¿ L t
z
92 | P a g e
ࡺ
ࢗ ൌ ࢑ࡴ ࡺ ࢌ n
ࢊ
Figure 5.16: Seepage through a flow channel with rectangular elements.
Example 5.8
A flow net for flow around a single row of sheet piles in a permeable soil layer is shown in
Figure. Given that kx = kz = k = 5x10-3 cm/sec, determine:
a) How high (above the ground surface) the water will rise if piezometers are placed at points
a and b.
b) The rate of seepage through the permeable layer per unit length.
c) The approximate average hydraulic gradient at c.
Solution
93 | P a g e
26. Uplift pressure under hydraulic structures

Flow nets can be used to determine the uplift pressure at the base of a hydraulic structure. The
necessary flow net also has been drawn (assuming that kx = kz = k).
94 | P a g e
Figure 5.17: Calculation of uplift pressure on the base of dam from flow net.
(Nd=7) in the flow net, and the difference in the water levels between the US and DS sides is
H = 7 m. The head loss for each potential drop is H/7 = 7/7 = 1 m.
At point a:
The uplift pressure at a is ൌ ሾሺ͹ ൅ ʹሻ െ ͳሿߛ௪ ൌ ͺߛ௪
At point b:
The uplift pressure at b is ൌ ሾͻ െ ሺʹሻሺͳሻሿߛ௪ ൌ ͹ߛ௪
At point f:
The uplift pressure at f is ൌ ሾͻ െ ሺ͸ሻሺͳሻሿߛ௪ ൌ ͵ߛ௪
27. Seepage through an earth dam on an impervious base

The seepage through a homogeneous earth dam resting on an impervious base of hydraulic
conductivity equal to k.
I- Schaffernak’s Solution
The free surface of the water passing through the dam is given by abcd. It is assumed that aʹbc
is parabolic. The slope of the free surface can be assumed to be equal to the hydraulic gradient.
95 | P a g e
Figure 5.19: Seepage through an earth dam.
ࢊࢠ
࢏ൎ Dupuit assumption
ࢊ࢞
Considering the triangle cde,

ࢗ ൌ ࢑࢏࡭
ࢊࢠ
࢏ൌ ൌ ‫ࢻ ܖ܉ܜ‬
ࢊ࢞
࡭ ൌ ࡸ࢙࢏࢔ࢻ
ࢗ ൌ ࢑ࡸ࢚ࢇ࢔ࢻ࢙࢏࢔ࢻ
Again, the rate of seepage (per unit length of the dam) through the section bf is:
ࢊࢠ ࢊࢠ
ࢗ ൌ ࢑࢏࡭ ൌ ࢑ ሺࢠ ൈ ૚ሻ ൌ ࢑ࢠ
ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞
Now
ࢊࢠ
࢑ࢠ ൌ ࢑ࡸ࢚ࢇ࢔ࢻ࢙࢏࢔ࢻ
ࢊ࢞
So,
ࢊ ࢊ૛ ࡴ૛
ࡸൌ െඨ െ
ࢉ࢕࢙ࢻ ࢉ࢕࢙૛ ࢻ ࢙࢏࢔૛ ࢻ
II- L. Casagrande’s Solution

Casagrande suggested that:
96 | P a g e
࢏ L L »
L ¥ E
L x » L» x »
t
xL F¤ F
»
L ¥ Et
xL ¥ Et F¥ Ft »
Example 5.9
Given that β = 45°, α = 30°, B = 10 ft, H = 20 ft, height of dam = 25 ft, and k = 2 x 10-4 ft/min,
calculate the seepage rate, q, in ft3/day/ft length by using Schaffernak’s and Casagrande's
solutions.
Solution
97 | P a g e
28. Problems
Problem 5.1
A permeable soil layer is underlain by an impervious layer as shown in Figure below.
Knowing that k = 4.8 × 10-3 cm/sec for the permeable layer, calculate the rate of seepage
through this layer in m3/hr/m width. Given: H = 4.2 m and α = 6°.
Solution
98 | P a g e
Problem 5.2
Find the rate of flow in m3/sec/m (at right angles to the cross section shown in Figure below
through the permeable soil layer. Given: H = 4 m, H1 = 2 m, h = 2.75 m, S = 30 m, α = 14°,
and k = 0.075 cm/sec.
Solution
Problem 5.3
99 | P a g e
The hydraulic conductivity of a sand at a void ratio of 0.62 is 0.03 cm/sec. Estimate its
hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio of 0.48.
Solution
Problem 5.4
For a sandy soil, the following are given:
• Maximum void ratio = 0.68
• Minimum void ratio = 0.42
• Effective size, D10 = 0.4 mm
Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the sand at a relative density of 52%.
Solution
100 | P a g e
Problem 5.5
For a sand, the following are given: porosity (n) = 0.36 and k = 0.072 cm/sec. Determine k
when n = 0.48.
Solution
Problem 5.6
The cross section of a levee that is 500 m long and is underlain by a 2-m-thick permeable sand
layer is shown in figure below. It was observed that the quantity of water flowing through the
sand layer into the collection ditch is 250 m3/day. What is the hydraulic conductivity of the
sand layer?
Solution
101 | P a g e
Problem 5.7
Consider the setup shown in Figure below (similar to Example 7.13) in which three different
soil layers, each 200 mm in length, are located inside a cylindrical tube of diameter 150 mm.
A constant-head difference of 470 mm is maintained across the soil sample. The porosities and
hydraulic conductivities of the three soils in the direction of the flow are given in the following
Table:
Soil n k (cm/sec)
I 0.5 5×10-3
II 0.6 4.2×10-2
III 0.33 3.9×10-4
Perform the following tasks:

a) Determine the quantity of water flowing through the sample per hour.
b) Denoting the downstream water level (Y-Y) to be the datum, determine the elevation head
(Z), pressure head (u/γw), and the total head (h) at the entrance and exit of each soil layer.
c) Plot the variation of the elevation head, pressure head and the total head with the horizontal
distance along the sample axis (X-X).
d) Plot the variations of discharge velocity and the seepage velocity along the sample axis.
e) What will be the height of the vertical columns of water inside piezometers A and B installed
on the sample axis?
Solution
102 | P a g e
Problem 5.8
A ditch is required for a utility line near an ephemeral canal, which at the time of excavation
was filled with water, as shown in Figure below. The average vertical and horizontal hydraulic
conductivities are 1 × 10-5 cm/s and 2 × 10-4 cm/s, respectively. Assuming a 1-m length of
ditch, determine the flow rate of water into it.
103 | P a g e
Solution
Problem 5.9
Determine the pressure head, elevation head, and total head at A, B, and C for the
arrangement shown in Figure below. Take the water level at exit as datum.
Solution
104 | P a g e
Problem 5.10
A canal is dug parallel to a river, as shown in Figure below. A sandy-silt seam of average
thickness 0.5 m cuts across the otherwise impermeable clay. The average vertical and
horizontal hydraulic conductivities are 1.5 × 10-5 cm/s and 15 × 10-5 cm/s, respectively.
Assuming a 1-m length of canal, determine the flow rate of water from the canal to the river.
Solution
105 | P a g e
Problem 5.11
Draw a flow net for the weir shown in Figure below. Calculate the rate of seepage under the
weir.
106 | P a g e
107 | P a g e

Chapter 5

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Chapter 5

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 5

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

University of Baghdad/College of Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

16. Bernoulli’s equation

Figure 5.2: Nature of variation of v with hydraulic gradient, i.

17. Darcy’s law

Discharge velocity and seepage velocity

Figure 5.3: Discharge velocity and seepage velocity.

࢜ሺ࡭࢜ ൅ ࡭࢙ ሻ ࢜ሺ࡭࢜ ൅ ࡭࢙ ሻࡸ ࢜ሺࢂ࢜ ൅ ࢂ࢙ ሻ

18. Coefficient of permeability (Hydraulic conductivity)

Table 5.1: Typical values of hydraulic conductivity of soil.

The absolute permeability ࡷ ഥ is expressed in unite of L2. The hydraulic conductivity is a

It is conventional to express the value of k at a temperature of 20ºC:

ߟ்Ԩ is the water viscosity at temperature T.

Table 5.2. Properties of Distilled Water (η = absolute)

19. Laboratory determination of hydraulic conductivity

c) Constant head test

Figure 5.4: Constant head test of hydraulic conductivity.

d) Falling head test (Variable head test)

1) Record initial head difference, h1 at t = 0.

Figure 5.5: Falling head test of hydraulic conductivity.

Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in in./sec.

20. Empirical relations for hydraulic conductivity

¾ Hazen’s approximation (1930), (for loose & clean filter sand)

¾ Chapuis (2004),(for natural, uniform sand and gravel)

where D10 = effective size (mm).

¾ Taylor (1948) for clayey soils

¾ Samarasinghe, Huang and Drnevich (1982) for NC clays

Where C3 and n are constants to be determined experimentally.

Void ratio k (cm/sec)

21. Equivalent permeability in stratified soils

Directional (Anisotropic) Variation of Permeability

Figure 5.6: Directional flow of water.

Figure 5.7: Flow through horizontal stratified soil.

Figure 5.8: Flow through vertical stratified soil.

22. Permeability test in field by pumping from wells

Figure 5.9: Unconfined aquifer.

Figure 5.10: Confined aquifer.

23. Laplace equation

Figure 5.11: Flow around sheet piles in soil.

Flow out are:

ࣔ࢜࢞ ࣔ࢜࢟ ࣔ࢜ࢠ

Flow in = Flow out

ࣔ࢜࢞ ࣔ࢜࢟ ࣔ࢜ࢠ

The equation of continuity is:

ࣔ࢜࢞ ࣔ࢜࢟ ࣔ࢜ࢠ

Apply Darcy's law to the equation of continuity:

For isotropic soil:

Figure 5.12: Flow through a two-layered soil.

24. Flow nets

In an isotropic porous medium:

Represents two orthogonal families of curves:

Figure 5.13: Components of flow net.

Figure 5.14: Boundary conditions of flow net.

οࢗ૚ ൌ οࢗ૛ ൌ οࢗ૜ ൌ ‫ ڮ‬ൌ οࢗ

Figure 5.15: Seepage through a flow channel with square elements.

Figure 5.16: Seepage through a flow channel with rectangular elements.

26. Uplift pressure under hydraulic structures

27. Seepage through an earth dam on an impervious base