Unit I

1. What are the different kinds of waste? Explain the classification of waste in details.
Human society produces some unwanted and discarded materials which are called wastes.
Wastes are produced from different activities such as household activities, agricultural
activities industrial activities, hospitals, educational institutions, mining operations, and so on.
These sources general different types of wastes, many of which are hazardous in nature. They
cause spread of many diseases.
In general, the wastes maybe categorized as follows:
Solid wastes:
The solid wastes are the useless and unwanted substances discarded by human society. These
include urban wastes, industrial wastes, agricultural wastes, biomedical wastes and radioactive
wastes. The term refuse is also used for solid waste.
Liquid wastes:
Wastes generated from washing, flushing or manufacturing processes of industries are called
liquid wastes. Such a waste is called sewage. The most common practice is to discharge it on
the ground, nallahs, rivers and other water bodies, often without any treatment.
Gaseous wastes:
These wastes are released in the form of gases from automobiles, factories, burning of fossil
fuels etc. and get mixed in the atmosphere. These gases include carbon monoxide, CO2, sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, methane, etc.
Sources of Wastes:
Wastes produced from different sources, are classified as follows:
1. Municipal Solid Waste
2. Industrial wastes
3. Hazardous waste
4. Agricultural wastes
1. Municipal Solid Waste
The wastes, collected from the residential houses, markets, streets and other places mostly in
the urban areas and disposed of by municipal bodies are called municipal solid wastes (MSW).
In general, the urban solid wastes are called refuse. The Municipal solid wastes are a mixture
of paper, plastic, clothes, metals, glass, organic matter etc. generated from households,
commercial establishments and markets.
The proportions of different constituents vary from season to season and place to place
depending on the life style, food habits, standard of living and the extent of commercial and
industrial activities in the area. Municipal solid wastes are collected locally and the amount
collected depends upon the size and consumption of the population.
2. Industrial Wastes:
Industrial solid waste in the Asian and Pacific Region, as elsewhere, encompasses a wide range
of materials of varying environmental toxicity. Typically, this range would include paper,
packaging materials, waste from food processing, oils, solvents, resins, paints and sludges,
glass, ceramics, stones, metals, plastics, rubber, leather, wood, cloth, straw, abrasives, etc.

3. Agricultural Waste and Residues

Agro-waste is defined as waste which is produced from various agriculture activities. These
agro-wastes include manures, bedding, plant stalks, hulls, leaves, and vegetable matter. Agro-
waste is usually produced through farming activities. Agricultural waste refers to waste
produced from agricultural operations, including waste from farms, poultry houses, and
slaughterhouses. In addition to being potentially damaging to the environment, agricultural
waste may expose workers to harmful biological material (biohazards). Storing agricultural
waste can multiply the hazards associated with it since stored waste can release harmful gases.

4. Hazardous wastes:
Many chemical, biological, explosive or radioactive wastes, which are highly reactive and
toxic, pose a severe danger to human, plants or animal life and are called hazardous wastes.
They are highly toxic in nature. Hazardous wastes, when improperly handled, can cause
substantial harm to human health and to the environment. Hazardous wastes may be in the form
of solids, liquids, sludges or gases.

2. What is Agro based waste? Discuss the Agro based waste briefly.
Agricultural residues include all wastes coming from crops such as bagasse, rice husk, straw,
stem, leaves, shell, stover, peel, and pulp. Significant amounts of these waste materials are left
in the fields. Some crops produce multiple types of waste. Rice produces both straw and husks.
Coconut produces husk, shell, fronds, and coir dust. Corn stover often remains in the fields
when corn is harvested.
Agricultural waste refers to waste produced from agricultural operations, including waste from
farms, poultry houses, and slaughterhouses. These wastes are potentially damaging to the
environment. Some of the agricultural waste may expose workers to harmful biological
material (biohazards). Storing agricultural waste can multiply the hazards associated with it
since stored waste can release harmful gases. Specific biohazards related to agricultural waste
include:
Fungi
Molds
 Bacteria
Viruses
Animal-borne diseases (zoonoses)
• Removal of waste products such as manure from animal and poultry houses can
potentially expose workers to agricultural dusts, resulting in respiratory problems, such as
occupational asthma. Exposure to waste-containing pesticides and other agrochemicals poses
additional risks. Personal protective equipment (PPE) and personal respiratory equipment
(PRE) can protect workers from many types of exposure.
• Many agricultural wastes are economically productive resources. Agricultural slurry,
for example, can be converted to fertilizer. This incentivizes waste storage as an economic
activity. Safety hazards involved in waste storage include exposure to environments containing
carbon dioxide (CO2), ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and methane gas. At unsafe levels, these
gases can be toxic, flammable, and potentially explosive. Waste storage environments may also
produce low-oxygen environments that can endanger workers who enter without proper
protection.
• Employers have a duty to provide employees with the equipment and training necessary
for safely handling agricultural wastes.
• Workplaces are required to have first aid supplies available for treating injuries on-site
and plans for addressing accidents or spills involving agricultural waste. Workplace risk is also
reduced via requirements for a minimum safe distance between worker camps and
environments containing agricultural waste.
• Agriculture is an important part of the economy in all of the RWEDP member countries.
• Besides the crops itself, large quantities of residues are generated every year. Rice,
wheat, sugar cane, maize (corn), soybeans and groundnuts are just a few examples of crops that
generate considerable amounts of residues.
• These residues constitute a major part of the total annual production of biomass residues
and are an important source of energy both for domestic as well as industrial purposes.

3. a) What is Forest residue?

Forests play an important role in the purification of the atmospheric air. During the day, trees
and plants absorb carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and give out oxygen. As such, they help
in the purification of the air that we breathe. Forest residues consist of small trees, branches,
tops and un-merchantable wood left in the forest after the cleaning, thinning or final felling of
forest stands, used as fuel without any intermittent applications.
b) What are the Sources and Types of Solid Wastes?
4. What is Industrial Waste? What are the effects of industrial waste? What are the management
of industrial waste?
The waste materials generated by industries or industrial processes, is called industrial waste.
It includes chemicals, trash, oils, solvents, dirt and gravel, many harmful gases etc. These are
dumped in seas, rivers or land without adequate treatment. Thus, it has become a large source
of environmental pollution.
Types of industrial wastes
Industrial waste can be divided into following two types –
Biodegradable industrial waste
Non – biodegradable industrial waste
Biodegradable Wastes – Those waste materials which can be decomposed into simpler
unharmful substances by the action of microorganisms are called biodegradable wastes. Some
industries such as the paper industry, food industry, sugar industry, wool industry etc. mostly
produce biodegradable industrial wastes. Management of these wastes can be done at low cost
and easily.
Non-biodegradable Wastes – Non-biodegradable waste cannot be further decomposed via the
action of the microorganisms. Such waste is the major source of toxins in the landfills.
Chemicals, metals, plastics, paints, rubber etc. are examples of non-biodegradable wastes.
Effects of Industrial Waste
Industrial waste is very harmful for us and our environment. Few impacts are stated below –
 Liquid industrial waste which is thrown into the sea is at an alarmingly dangerous level
for marine ecosystems.
 Industries release many harmful gases such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides etc. which cause air pollution.
 In industrial wastewater nitrates and phosphates are there which often cause
eutrophication.
 Generally, air around industries is highly polluted and causes skin, eyes, throat, nose
and lungs diseases.
  Industries use large quantities of water and also release a huge quantity of wastewater
which contain many harmful chemicals and heavy metals. This wastewater pollutes
natural sources of water and ultimately our health and environment.
 It is one of the main causes of global warming.
 Industrial wastewater destroys useful bacteria and other microorganisms present in soil.
 Some industries cause sound pollution as well.
 Industrial wastes and industries are destroying the natural habitat of many species and
are responsible for wildlife extinction.
Proper disposal and treatment is the only solution of prevention from effects of industrial
wastes.
Management of Industrial Waste
Management of industrial solid waste is not the responsibility of local bodies or governments.
Industries which are generating these solid wastes should manage such wastes by themselves.
They need to take authorization from the pollution control board as well. Different procedures
and methods are used to manage industrial waste. Although some basic steps involved in all
processes are the same. Those basic steps are as follows –
 Analysis or Segregation
 Collection
 Transportation
 Recovery
 Recycling
 Disposal
Analysis or Segregation – Industrial waste is segregated or analysed, and some biodegradable
wastes or recyclable material are kept separately. Industries should segregate waste materials
in different categories such as biodegradable, non-biodegradable, hazardous waste etc.
Collection and Transportation – Industrial waste must be collected and transported to waste
management plants.
Recovery – In waste management plants recovery should be done. It means useful materials
should be recovered from industrial wastes during treatment in waste management plants.
Recycling and Disposal – If during recovery we get any useful materials then recycling should
be done and disposal should be done of waste and harmful materials.
5. What is MSW? Explain solid waste management.
The wastes, collected from the residential houses, markets, streets and other places mostly in
the urban areas and disposed of by municipal bodies are called municipal solid wastes (MSW).
Solid Waste Management (SWM)
A SWM system refers to a combination of various functional elements associated with the
management of solid wastes. The system, when put in place, facilitates the collection and
disposal of solid wastes in the community at minimal costs, while preserving public health and
ensuring little or minimal adverse impact on the environment. The functional elements that
constitute the system are:
(i) Waste generation: Wastes are generated at the start of any process, and thereafter, at every
stage as raw materials are converted into goods for consumption.
(ii) Waste storage: Storage is a key functional element because collection of wastes never takes
place at the source or at the time of their generation. The heterogeneous wastes generated in
residential areas must be removed within 8 days due to shortage of storage space and presence
of biodegradable material. Onsite storage is of primary importance due to aesthetic
consideration, public health and economics involved. Some of the options for storage are
plastic containers, conventional dustbins (of households), used oil drums, large storage bins
(for institutions and commercial areas or servicing depots), etc.
(iii) Waste collection: This includes gathering of wastes and hauling them to the location, where
the collection vehicle is emptied, which may be a transfer station (i.e., intermediate station
where wastes from smaller vehicles are transferred to larger ones and also segregated), a
processing plant or a disposal site. Collection depends on the number of containers, frequency
of collection, types of collection services and routes. Typically, collection is provided under
various management arrangements, ranging from municipal services to franchised services,
and under various forms of contracts.
(iv) Transfer and transport: This functional element involves:

 the transfer of wastes from smaller collection vehicles, where necessary to overcome
the problem of narrow access lanes, to larger ones at transfer stations;
 the subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distances, to disposal sites.
The factors that contribute to the designing of a transfer station include the type of transfer
operation, capacity, equipment, accessories and environmental requirements.
(v) Processing: Processing is required to alter the physical and chemical characteristics of
wastes for energy and resource recovery and recycling. The important processing techniques
include compaction, thermal volume reduction, manual separation of waste components,
incineration and composting.
(vi) Recovery and recycling: This includes various techniques, equipment and facilities used
to improve both the efficiency of disposal system and recovery of usable material and energy.
Recovery involves the separation of valuable resources from the mixed solid wastes, delivered
at transfer stations or processing plants. It also involves size reduction and density separation
by air classifier, magnetic device for iron and screens for glass. The selection of any recovery
process is a function of economics, i.e., costs of separation versus the recovered-material
products. Certain recovered materials like glass, plastics, paper, etc., can be recycled as they
have economic value.
(vii) Waste disposal: Disposal is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, be they residential wastes,
semi-solid wastes from municipal and industrial treatment plants, incinerator residues,
composts or other substances that have no further use to the society. Thus, land use planning
becomes a primary determinant in the selection, design and operation of landfill operations. A
modern sanitary landfill is a method of disposing solid waste without creating a nuisance and
hazard to public health. Generally, engineering principles are followed to confine the wastes to
the smallest possible area, reduce them to the lowest particle volume by compaction at the site
and cover them after each day’s operation to reduce exposure to vermin. One of the most
important functional elements of SWM, therefore, relates to the final use of the reclaimed land.

6. Write short notes on conversion devices with respect to waste management

There are few processes available for Waste to Energy (WTE) conversion namely thermal
(incineration, fast/slow pyrolysis, gasification), biological conversion (composting,
vermicomposting, anaerobic digestion).
THERMAL CONVERSIONS
Thermal conversion of MSW is done to produce heat energy, fuel oil or gas. It is mostly used
for organic waste having low moisture content. Thermal treatment of MSW is done through
incineration, gasification and pyrolysis. The major difference among these thermal processes
is the atmospheric condition i.e. presence of oxygen and the operating temperature. Below table
shows the typical reaction conditions required in the thermal conversion process. From the
environmental impact and energy recovery prospective, pyrolysis and gasification processes
are more favorable the incineration.
INCINERATION
Incineration, or ‘mass-burn’ is the common term given to the direct thermal conversion of
waste via combustion in an environment with an excess of oxygen, at temperatures typically
exceeding 850 0C.
 Parameters Incineration Pyrolysis Gasification
Principle Full oxidative Thermal degradation Partial oxidation
combustion of organic material in
the absence of oxygen
Operating 850–1200 400–800 800–1600
temperature (°C)
Atmosphere Presence of Absence of Controlled
sufficient oxygen oxygen supply of
oxygen
Reaction Solid Bottom ash, fly Ash, char Ash, slag
products ash, slag, other (Combination
non-combustible of non-combustible
substances like and carbon)
metals and glass
Liquid Condensate of
pyrolysis gas
(Pyrolysis oil,
wax, tar)
Gas CO2, H2O, O2, N2 Pyrolysis gas (H2, CO, Syngas (H2, CO, CO2,
hydrocarbons, H2O, CH4, H2O, N2)
N2)

GASIFICATION
There are many forms of gasification-based WTE technologies, waste typically requires some
form of pre-treatment to produce a consistent (shape and size) feedstock, which normally
involves the removal of glass, metals and rubble. The feedstock is then converted in a partial
oxidation process (i.e. in the presence of limited oxygen/air), with typical conversion
temperatures of 900-1100 0C in the presence of air and 1000 - 1400 0C in the presence of
oxygen.
The conversion process is relatively efficient, with ~ 80% of the chemical energy in the waste
(carbon and hydrogen) being converted to chemical energy in gas. This gas is referred to as
syngas (synthesis gas) and can be used in a range of applications, such as providing energy for
steam boilers or gas engines and subsequent conversion to heat and/or energy.
PYROLYSIS
Pyrolysis involves the thermal degradation of MSW in an oxygen free environment. As with
gasification, MSW pyrolysis plants would likely require some form of pre-treatment to produce
a consistent feedstock (removal of glass, metals, rubble etc.), but the global, commercial scale
gasification of waste is currently limited. Pyrolysis plants require an external heat source and
for the combustion temperature to be maintained at 400-850 0C; they produce syngas, pyrolysis
oil (both fuels), a solid reside (char) and bottom ash/metal residues.
BIOCHEMICAL CONVERSIONS
An environmentally suitable technology for energy recovery from waste which is based on the
microbial activity for the decomposition of organic matter present in the wastes. The wastes
with higher amount of biodegradable organic matter and moisture content are preferred. The
main biological conversion technologies for the energy recovery are anaerobic digestion (bio
methanation), fermentation and composting.
 Stages in Anaerobic Digestion Process

7. (a)Define incinerator?
Incineration, or ‘mass-burn’ is the common term given to the direct thermal conversion of
waste via combustion in an environment with an excess of oxygen, at temperatures typically
exceeding 850 0C.
(b) Explain the following incinerators briefly
(i) Moving Grate (ii) Fluidized Bed (iii) Rotary Kiln
Moving grate incinerator
A moving grate is a typical combustion design of a municipal solid waste incinerator. Waste is
dropped by a crane on to the descending grate, which moves into the combustion chamber and
eventually moves down to drop the burnt residuals into an ash pit at the other end of the grate.
The moving grate is a metallic porous bed, allowing primary combustion air to flow through
from the bottom. Secondary combustion air is supplied by nozzles from above the grate,
facilitating a complete combustion by the introduction of turbulence.
Fluidized bed
Fluidized bed combustion has recently increased in application in municipal solid waste
incinerators, although it is still mainly used for the combustion of hazardous waste. There are
different types of fluidized bed combustors (bubbling, rotating and circulating fluidized bed),
but the principle of the design remains the same: waste particles are suspended by the upward
flow of combustion air injected from beneath so that it seems like a fluid, by which the
turbulence created enhances uniform mixing and heat transfer hence an increased combustion
efficiency. The advantage of fluidized bed technology is the enhanced combustion efficiency,
however the pre‐condition of that is the homogenization of waste inputs in size as well as in
heat value, which requires extensive pre‐treatment of waste including typically size reduction
and mixing.
Rotary kiln incinerator
A rotary kiln is commonly used for combusting industrial and hazardous wastes, but is also
used in some municipal solid waste incinerators. The principal design consists of two thermal
treatment chambers: a slightly inclined primary chamber where waste is fed in (together with
inlet of hot exhaust air with oxygen), rotated and thermally decomposed by the heat radiation
from the secondary chamber: the re‐combustion chamber positioned at the rear of the kiln
where the decomposition air and the rest waste are completely burnt with the supply of
secondary air. Rotary kiln have the advantage of producing a low level of NOx and thermal
destruction of hazardous chemicals.

The primary combustion chamber (minimum 800°C) is slightly inclined. Complete combustion
occurs as waste is inserted while the chamber rotates. Primary ash is eliminated while off‐gases
go to the secondary combustion chamber (minimum 1000°C). Any remaining off‐gases are
directed toward controlled emissions.
8. Explain the following gasifies with neat sketches
(i) Updraft (ii) Down draft gasifier
Updraft
• A fixed bed of carbonaceous fuel (e.g. coal or biomass) through which the "gasification agent"
(steam, oxygen and/or air) flows in counter-current configuration.
• The ash is either removed in the dry condition or as a slag. The slagging gasifiers have a lower
ratio of steam to carbon, achieving temperatures higher than the ash fusion temperature.
• The nature of the gasifier means that the fuel must have high mechanical strength and must
ideally be non-caking so that it will form a permeable bed, although recent developments have
reduced these restrictions to some extent.
• The throughput for this type of gasifier is relatively low. Thermal efficiency is high as the
temperatures in the gas exit are relatively low. However, this means that tar and methane
production is significant at typical operation temperatures, so product gas must be extensively
cleaned before use. The tar can be recycled to the reactor.
• In the gasification of fine, undensified biomass such as rice hulls , it is necessary to blow air
into the reactor by means of a fan. This creates very high gasification temperature, as high as
1000 C. Above the gasification zone, a bed of fine and hot char is formed, and as the gas is
blow forced through this bed, most complex hydrocarbons are broken down into simple
components of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
Co-current fixed bed ("down draft") gasifier
 Similar to the counter-current type, but the gasification agent gas flows in co-current
configuration with the fuel (downwards, hence the name "down draft gasifier"). Heat needs
to be added to the upper part of the bed, either by combusting small amounts of the fuel or
from external heat sources.

 The downdraft gasifier design is a reactor where the solid material is inserted in the top and
the oxidizing gas enters the reactor laterally above the grid. The gasifying agent is
introduced directly into the combustion zone, then flows into the reduction zone, and is
extracted from the gasifier. The synthesis gas exits the gasifier after passing through the
hot zone, allowing partial cracking of the tars formed during gasification, which provides
a gas with low tar. However, the gases leave the gasifier at high temperatures (900–1000
◦C), leading to low efficiencies, due to the high heat content carried by the hot gas. This
reactor is suitable to convert biomass with high volatile content, but it is limited in scale. It
also needs specific biomass conditions and is not suitable for various types of biomass.

 The produced gas leaves the gasifier at a high temperature, and most of this heat is often
transferred to the gasification agent added in the top of the bed, resulting in an energy
efficiency on level with the counter-current type. Since all tars must pass through a hot bed
of char in this configuration, tar levels are much lower than the counter-current type.
9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of gasification? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of incineration?

Gasification
Advantages:

o Production of fuel gas/oil, which can be used for a variety of applications.

o Compared to incineration, control of atmospheric pollution can be dealt with in a
superior way, in technoeconomic sense.

Disadvantages:
o Net energy recovery may suffer in case of wastes with excessive moisture.
o High viscosity of pyrolysis oil may be problematic for its transportation and burning.

Incineration
Advantages:
 Most suitable for high calorific value waste, pathological wastes, etc.
 Units with continuous feed and high through-put can be set up.
 Thermal energy recovery for direct heating or power generation.
 Relatively noiseless and odorless.
 Low land area requirement.
 Can be located within city limits, reducing the cost of waste transportation.
 Hygienic.
Disadvantages

 Least suitable for aqueous/high moisture content/low calorific value and chlorinated
waste.
 Excessive moisture and inert content affects net energy recovery; auxiliary fuel support
may be required to sustain combustion.
  Concern for toxic metals that may concentrate in ash, emission of particulates, SOx,
NOx, chlorinated compounds, ranging from HCl to dioxins.
 High capital and operation and maintenance costs.
 Skilled personnel required for O&M.
 Overall efficiency low for small power stations.

10. Explain biogas digestor for waste management briefly

The installation for the production and collection of biogas is called biogas digester plant. The
biogas production process is conducted in a vessel known as digester in which the fermentation
process is performed (anaerobic digestion). The digester is a technological alternative for the
treatment of wastewater and cattle dung. For the smoothness and efficiency of fermentation
material chosen, its combination with water is needed, since it is necessary to generate a mud
or silt to methanogen bacteria can make the process easier. The two main products of the
biodigester treatment plant are biogas and fertilizer, called biol, which can be used as a natural
nutrient in agriculture. Biodigesters have a variety of classifications and typologies depending
on different parameters, in particular the operational that are: temperature, agitation
(mechanical methods) and retention time. Considering the simple technology, without added
active methods for performing anaerobic digestion, retention time extensive adaptation and
passive temperature control, there are three main types of digesters:
• Plant ball

• Plant of Fixed Dome

• Floating Bell Plant

Each of these plants has its own characteristics, according to the analysis, the choice of the
treatment plant the following factors are considered:
1. Objective: What is the purpose?
2. Operating System: The way of filling the biodigester treatment plant, temperature ranges
with which operates, capacity.
3. Technical Resources: Training you have to design and build the biodigester.
4. Economic Resources: Funding, heritage to make the investment for the construction of the
plant.
5. Materials Zone: Block, Partition, pipes and materials needed for the design and construction
of the biodigester treatment plant.
6. Type of organic matter: Excreta, remains of silos or animal feed. Depending on which to be
treated is the type of plant that is chosen.