SPE-173840-MS

CFD Analysis and Model Comparison of Annular Frictional Pressure

Losses While Circulating Yield Power Law Fluids
Oney Erge, Evren M. Ozbayoglu, Stefan Z. Miska, Mengjiao Yu, and Nicholas Takach, University of Tulsa;
Arild Saasen, Det Norske Oljeselskap ASA and University of Stavanger; Roland May, Baker Hughes

Copyright 2015, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Bergen One Day Seminar held in Bergen, Norway, 22 April 2015.

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Abstract
A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis is conducted on the flow of Newtonian and non-
Newtonian fluids in annuli including the effect of inner pipe rotation. A practical numerical model is
proposed that accurately estimates the annular frictional pressure losses with and without the inner pipe
rotation. Experiments are conducted at a 91 ft. long flow loop using various fluids that can be
characterized as Yield Power Law (YPL). A commercial CFD software is used to validate the proposed
numerical approach. A comprehensive comparison of the proposed model, CFD results, experimental
results, the published experimental results and most widely used models from the literature is presented.
The experimental setup simulates horizontal wellbore applications, which are increasingly prevalent
due to recent shale plays. Today, since most drilling fluids show YPL behavior, YPL fluids with a wide
range of rheological properties are used as test fluids in this study. The numerical model is coupled with
a stability criterion that determines the onset and offset of the transitional flow between laminar and
turbulent regions. The velocity profiles of a wide range of diameter ratios, Taylor and Reynolds numbers
are presented. Various degrees of eccentricity are analyzed in terms of pressure profile and flow stability
with the proposed method.
The results from the experiments show significantly reduced pressure drops in fully eccentric annuli
compared to concentric geometry. An increase in pressure loss is observed as the pipe is rotated while it
is eccentric. The comparisons between the models indicate that the slot approximation can result in large
errors especially when the diameter ratio is low. A 3D wellbore can be evaluated with grids using the
proposed numerical method and the local stability criterion, which leads to accurate pressure loss
estimations. Grid analysis can show the flow state profile and the pressure loss profile of a wellbore, which
has potential to optimize operations in real-time or in the design phase.
This study contributes to a better understanding of flow in annuli. The results obtained from this study
are useful to predict the transition and the annular frictional pressure loss profiles more accurately than
existing methods. Potential applications include risk avoidance and optimized operations.
2 SPE-173840-MS

Introduction and Literature Review

During drilling, drilling fluids is in direct contact with the formation in the open hole section of the
annulus. The pressure exerted on the formation in dynamic conditions, such as while rotating or
reciprocating the pipe, can induce a fracture that will result in a circulation lost to the formation. In the
case, the pore pressure is lower than the static or circulating pressure, an influx will occur from the
formation into the wellbore. An influx can have catastrophic consequences, if not controlled. This safe
window between the pore and fracture pressure is commonly referred as the operating window. Accurately
estimating the pressure in the annulus is crucial to stay in between the window. It is critical for deep-water
operations that have a narrow operating window and equivalent circulating density (ECD) needs to be
closely monitored to conduct a safe operation.
The operating window in dynamic conditions should be accurately estimated as well as the ECD to
avoid any risk. The loss circulation is related to the effect of fluid properties on the fracture gradient
(Kinik et al. 2014; Chen et al. 2014). Dynamic conditions and fluid properties should be considered to
avoid overestimating the fracture pressure. An instant correlation between the pore pressure and the
surface measurements (Akbari 2014) can help to mitigate risks due to the sudden changes in the formation
properties.
Measuring the downhole pressure can give a feedback to the surface in real-time and the flow rate can
be monitored to stay in the operating margin, such as while using pressure while drilling (PWD) or a near
real-time system (Chen 2010). Comparison of measured and calculated ECD is helpful to diagnose hole
problems. For example, when measured ECD trend increases compared to the calculated ECD, it can
indicate a possible hole cleaning problem. Also, measurement of the downhole pressure can be utilized
to understand the change of the rheological properties with the temperature. Karimi Vajargah and van Oort
(2015) proposed a method for real-time automated measurement of drilling fluid rheological parameters
under downhole conditions by using downhole pressure sensor data. Considering these various areas that
ECD calculation is used to make operational decisions, an accurate estimation of pressure losses is vital
and this estimation should use a representative fluid model of common drilling fluids to better understand
the wellbore hydraulics. Yield Power Law model accurately estimates the drilling fluid behavior as a
combination of Bingham Plastic fluids with a yield stress and the Power Law fluids with the shear-
thinning ability. Yield Power Law defines the drilling fluid rheology practically well in low and high shear
rates. Yield Power Law model is:
(1)

Several solution procedures and approximations are presented in literature for the flow of YPL fluids
through annuli. Hanks (1979) was the first to propose a solution for the laminar axial flow of YPL fluids
in concentric annuli. He presented a numerical and iterative procedure and provided tables and design
charts for practical predictions. Escudier and Gouldson (1995) presented a numerical solution for
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids in a concentric annuli with a rotating inner pipe.
Various practical approximate solutions for the flow in concentric annuli is presented in literature.
Kozicki et al. (1966) proposed geometric constants for a generalized solution of the flow of fluids through
arbitrary ducts. He reported 5% difference with a diameter ratio lower than 0.2, compared to the
Fredericksen and Brid’s (1958) analytical solution for the flow of Power Law fluids in concentric annuli.
For smaller diameter ratios, such as: 0.1 and 0.01, errors of 19.14% and 24.75% are reported for Power
Law fluids, respectively. Later, Ozbayoglu (2002) presented explicit equations for the geometric constants
for the flow of YPL fluids.
Narrow slot approximation is widely used to estimate the pressure losses while circulating YPL fluids
in concentric annuli and it can extended to eccentric annuli via correlations (Haciislamoglu and Cartalos
SPE-173840-MS 3

1994; Haciislamoglu and Langlinais 1990). The narrow slot approximation of annulus is discussed in
detail and compared with the proposed numerical solution further in this paper.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) can be used to better understand the wellbore hydraulics of
drilling operations by simulating realistic conditions and considering various geometries and dynamic
settings. Ozbayoglu and Omurlu (2006) showed that CFD can be used to obtain a good understanding of
annular frictional pressure losses. In their finite element study, they showed that CFD can give more
accurate results than the narrow slot approximation when compared to the experimental data. It was a
good example of realistic conditions that incorporates various drillstring configurations such as, concen-
tric, partially eccentric and fully eccentric annuli. Karimi Vajargah et al. (2014) investigated the effect of
tool joint on annular pressure losses by using a CFD approach. They proposed a generalized correlation
from the CFD results for the considered geometry.
Position and lateral, tangential, or axial movement of the drillstring significantly affect the pressure
profile in the wellbore. Haciislamoglu and Langinais (1990) showed that the flow profile significantly
affected by the eccentricity. They showed that the pressure loss difference between concentric and
eccentric annuli can up to 60%. Saasen (2014) investigated the flow in annuli and the difference between
the theories and results obtained from the field. According to his findings, realistic experimental studies
are important to understand and solve the complex flow in the wellbore. Laminar flow is seldom present
in wellbore and transversel motion of the drillstring causes an increase in pressure losses, even though the
fluid becomes thinner due to added shear rate. The effect of pipe rotation and drillstring configuration can
show a significant effect on pressure losses and needs to be considered while ECD is calculated (Erge
2013; Erge et al. 2013; Erge et al. 2014a; Erge et al. 2014b).
In this study, a numerical solution is presented and it is compared with the experimental data of the
present study and experimental data from the literature. It is further compared with other theoretical
estimations, such as narrow slot approximation, CFD simulation and the exact solution of the flow of YPL
fluids through concentric annuli. The difference between the numerical solution and the approximation is
presented including various diameter ratios and generalized flow behavior indices. The models for
eccentric annuli are compared with the results from the CFD analysis. This broad comparison is helpful
to make a decision on a model, considering how critical the operation is. The proposed numerical solution
is used together with a model that determines the onset and the offset of the transitional flow. A broad
mathematical modeling of pressure losses while circulating YPL fluids is presented.

Experimental Setup and Test Matrix

The purpose of the experiments is to analyze the pressure losses in drilling conditions while circulating
YPL fluids. Free drillstring configuration is experimented to simulate the horizontal drilling applications.
No prefixed eccentricity is imposed for the inner pipe of the experimental facility, so that it can rotate
freely, representing the actual drilling. Without any rotation, the inner pipe is lying at the bottom due to
its length, in a fully eccentric position.
The entrance and exit lengths of the flow are considered to avoid any additional disturbance. They are
estimated using empirical correlations. A 300% safety factor and high Reynolds Numbers (Re⬎105) are
considered while calculating the entrance and exit lengths during the design of the facility. Following
equation is used to determine the entrance length of flow in annuli (Knudsen and Katz 1958):
(2)

For the exit length of the annular flow (White 2011):

(3)
4 SPE-173840-MS

Properties of the experimental facility are presented in Table 1. A detailed schematic of the test facility
is presented in Fig. 2.

Table 1—Specifications of the Experimental Facility

Properties of the Experimental Setup Propperties of Inner Pipe

Total length of the facility (m) 31.70 Length (m) 27.74

Length of the test section (m) 27.98 Material type 304г st@inless steel
Length of the supply line (m) 25.60 Outside diameter (mm) 25.4
Material type of the test pipe @crylic Thickness (mm) 0.889
Outside diameter of the test pipe (mm) 57.15 Weight in the air (kg/m) 0.423
Thickness of the test pipe (mm) 3.175 Modulus of elasticity (MPa) 2x105
Volume of the reservoir tank (l) 227 Moment of inertia (m4) 5.15x10-8
Flow rate range (lpm) 0-454
RPM range (c/min) 0-120

Figure 1—Schematic diagram of the experimental facility

Figure 2—Laminar Flow of a Yield Power Law Fluid in Concentric Annuli, (i) Top View, (ii) Side View

Eight YPL fluids with various yield stresses, consistency and flow behavior indices are tested to cover
a wide range of dimensionless parameters of realistic drilling fluids. Compositions of the test fluids and
fluid parameters are shown in Table 2. Fluid characterization is conducted using both Chan 35 rotational
viscometer and Anton Paar MCR 301 rheometer with duo gap geometry.
SPE-173840-MS 5

Table 2—Composition of the test fluids and rheological properties of the test fluids measured using Anton Paar MCR301
Composition Fluid Parameters

Test Fluid XCD (% by wt.) PAC R (% by wt.) Laponite RD (% by wt.) ␶y - Pa K - Pa.sm m

YPL1 0.03% - 0.28% 0.29 0.07 0.55

YPL2 - 0.03% 1.96% 3.15 1.44 0.37
YPL3 - 0.03% 2.51% 4.09 2.44 0.33
YPL4 - - 2.51% 5.93 1.69 0.35
YPL5 - 0.06% 1.50% 1.59 0.39 0.51
YPL6 - 0.03% 1.82% 4.04 0.89 0.39
YPL7 - 0.03% 2.11% 7.10 1.09 0.40
YPL8 - 0.08% 2.23% 9.65 3.33 0.31

Test fluids are prepared using Laponite RD, XCD and PAC R additives. Laponite RD is colorless clay
(sodium magnesium silicate) that is used as a rheology modifier. XCD is a long-chain water-based
polymer that results from microbial action on a high-molecular-weight polysaccharide. Laponite RD and
XCD give a fluid thixotropic behavior. PAC R is polyanionic cellulose, which controls fluid loss in
freshwater, seawater, and saltwater drilling fluid systems. It is used as a viscosifier.
Pressure is measured at several locations using point pressure transducers and a differential pressure
transducer installed to the annular section. Pressure measurements of the longest section between the PT5
and PT3 are presented in this paper. The pressure readings for one fluid at 11 to 20 different flow rates
and rotation speeds of 0 to 120 RPM with an increment of 30 RPM are recorded.

Flow in Concentric Annuli and in Narrow Slots

In concentric annuli, two different shear regions exists, one near the drill pipe and the other near the
borehole wall. Yield stress of the fluid causes a plug region in between the shear regions while circulating
YPL fluids. There is no analytical solution for laminar or turbulent flow of YPL fluids in concentric
annuli. To obtain a solution for laminar flow, a non-linear equation with four unknowns must be integrated
numerically to obtain the pressure gradient at a given flow velocity. A numerical integration and an
iterative procedure are necessary to obtain a solution. An exact solution for YPL fluid flow in concentric
annuli is presented in the following set of equations. The equations for the shear regions of the velocity
profile of YPL fluids in concentric annuli are (Erge 2014b):
(4)

(5)

The velocity profile for the plug region can be calculated from:
(6)

(7)

“a” is the length from the center of the inner pipe to the start of the plug region and “b” is from the
center of the inner pipe to the end of the plug region “b”. They are (Erge 2014b):
6 SPE-173840-MS

(8)

(9)

A rectangular slot with width “w” and height “h” can be used to obtain an approximate solution. A
procedure to calculate the velocity profile with the narrow slot approximation is presented in appendix A.
Schematic for laminar flow of YPL fluids in concentric annuli is shown in Fig. 2. An explanation of the
slot approximation of the concentric annuli is presented in Fig. 3. The velocity profiles become more
symmetrical as the diameter ratio increases and the velocity profile becomes perfectly symmetrical as the
annuli is approximated to a slot. By approximating annuli to a slot, effect of degree of curvature is omitted
and the complexity of the momentum equations is decreased.

Figure 3—Laminar Flow of a Yield Power Law Fluid in Slot, (i) Top View, (ii) Side View

Model Development
A fully implicit finite difference scheme is developed for the flow of YPL fluids through concentric annuli
that includes the effect of inner pipe rotation. The main discretized equation is presented in Eq. 10. The
derivation of the equation and the governing equations was presented in Erge (2013).
(10)

To implement non-Newtonian fluid behavior into the scheme, the apparent viscosity is defined as:
(11)

where the shear rate function including the effect of rotation is:
(12)

In which the tangential velocity profile can be estimated as:

(13)
SPE-173840-MS 7

The proposed model works with an input of pressure loss and calculates the velocity profile. To obtain
a pressure loss for a given velocity, a bisection method is applied to the model. The proposed model can
easily be used for Newtonian, Bingham Plastic or Power Law fluids by manipulating apparent viscosity
function. Setting ␶y ⫽ 0, m ⫽ 1 reduces the equations for the Newtonian fluids; Setting m ⫽ 1 reduces
the equations for the Bingham Plastic; Setting ␶y ⫽ 0 reduces the equations for the Power Law.

CFD Analysis
A CFD analysis is conducted to validate the proposed model and to allow comparison with models in the
literature. Simulation includes Newtonian and YPL fluids. Various eccentricities are investigated from
concentric to fully eccentric annuli with an increment of 0.1 dimensionless eccentricity. Dimensionless
eccentricity is:
(14)

The analysis is carried out with ANSYS CFX 14.0 software. To avoid any entrance or exit effect, the
equations and constraints used in the experimental facility design is similarly applied to the CFD
simulation. The empirical correlations were presented in Eq. 2 and Eq. 3. A fine mesh size is used (0.4
mm) to obtain accurate velocity profiles. The front and side meshing are illustrated in Fig. 4. Meshing of
the cross section of the concentric, partially eccentric and fully eccentric annuli are illustrated. The inputs
for CFX are presented in Table 3. Two separate lines are used to collect the 2D velocity profile data; the
lines are presented in Fig. 5.

Figure 4 —Mesh and geometrical representation of the annulus

8 SPE-173840-MS

Table 3—CFD Inputs

Input Parameters for CFD

Geometry Fluid Mesh and Solution Criteria

OD (mm) 50.8 Model Yield Power Law Min size (mm) 0.4
ID (mm) 25.4 Yield stress (Pa) 5 Max face size (mm) 0.4
Length (m) 3.0 Consistency index (Pa.sm) 1 Max size (mm) 0.4
Flow behavior index 0.5 Side face meshing (mm) 3
Density (kg/m3) 1000 RMS 10-5
Incompressible and isothermal Nodes 8592484

Figure 5—Lines where the 2D velocity profiles are generated

Validation
A water run is conducted initially to validate both the CFD analysis and the proposed finite differencing
scheme. The finite difference model and the CFD results are compared with the narrow slot approximation
and the analytical solution for the flow of Newtonian fluids through concentric annuli. The results are
presented in Fig. 6 (i). A similar comparison is presented for the YPL fluids in Fig. 6 (ii). The exact
solution that is presented in the Equations 4 through 9 are used in the comparison along with the slot
approximation. A good agreement of the proposed model and CFD results with the analytical solution for
Newtonian and the exact solution for YPL is obtained. The proposed model can capture the effect of
degree of curvature variation between the inner and the outer pipe while the slot approximation assumes
a symmetrical profile. This deviation between the slot approximation and numerical or analytical models
increases as the diameter ratio decreases.
SPE-173840-MS 9

Figure 6 —Laminar velocity profile comparison of the proposed model with the other solutions, (i) of a Newtonian fluid, (ii) of a YPL fluid

Results and Discussion

Effect of Diameter Ratio and Fluid Properties
Diameter ratio significantly affects the flow in annuli. It is one of the key parameters that have a
significant effect on flow stability, frictional pressure loss prediction and the velocity profiles. The
diameter ratio is:
(15)

As the diameter ratio increases, the geometry approximates to parallel plates. In this case, narrow slot
approximation may be used for practical purposes. A more sophisticated solution such as a finite
difference approximation can be followed. By doing so, more accurate results can be obtained for
concentric annuli. A comparison of velocity profiles obtained using the proposed model at various
diameter ratios is shown in Fig. 7. The results show an increased asymmetry in the profile as the diameter
ratio decreases.

Figure 7—Velocity Profiles for various diameter ratios, ␶y ⴝ 5 Pa, K ⴝ 1 Pa·sm and m ⴝ 0.5

Yield stress causes a plug region where the velocity gradient becomes zero and shear stress becomes
equal to yield stress. In Fig. 8, Fig. 9 and Fig. 10, 2D velocity profiles at various dimensionless yield
stresses are shown. As the yield stress increases, the area of the plug region increases. If the yield stress
becomes equal to shear stress at the wall, there will be no flow unless an initial force is applied to the fluid.
The definition of the dimensionless yield stress is:
10 SPE-173840-MS

(16)

Figure 8 —Velocity Profiles for various dimensionless yield stresses, ␬ ⴝ 0.1

Figure 9 —Velocity Profiles for various dimensionless yield stresses, ␬ ⴝ 0.5

Figure 10 —Velocity Profiles for various dimensionless yield stresses, ␬ ⴝ 0.9

Effect of Eccentricity
The models in the literature are compared with the CFD analysis. For the comparison, following models
are selected: Haciislamoglu and Langlinais (1990), Luo and Peden (1990), Sestak et al. (2001), Ozgen and
Tosun (1997), Equivalent Pipe Model (Ahmed and Miska 2009). The results are presented in Fig. 11.
SPE-173840-MS 11

Figure 11—Comparisons of the models for eccentricity with the CFD analysis

The results from the CFD analysis showed that eccentricity can decrease the pressure losses up to 44%
while circulating YPL fluids. Haciislamoglu and Langinais’ correlation and Equivalent Pipe Model
showed a good agreement with the CFD analysis. The R is defined as the ratio of pressure losses in
eccentric to concentric annuli:
(17)

2D velocity profiles at various eccentricities are generated with CFD results. They are shown in Fig.
12.

Figure 12—Velocity profiles obtained using CFD at various eccentricities

The velocity profiles show a peak in the wide part of the annulus at 0.5 dimensionless eccentricity, then
the magnitude starts to decrease. The reason for this phenomenon is the reduced amount of flow in the
narrow section of the annulus as the eccentricity increases. Flow is diverted to the larger section of annulus
that causes an increase in velocity. However, the effective flow area also increases, which causes a
reduction when 0.5 eccentricity is exceeded. The maximum local velocity can be obtained at the
dimensionless eccentricity of 0.5.
Haciislamoglu and Langinais (1990) showed that there can be up to 60% reduction in pressure losses
as the drillstring becomes eccentric considering a wide range of diameter ratios for the laminar flow of
12 SPE-173840-MS

Power Law fluids. Their model can be used to extend the proposed numerical model to the eccentric
annulus during laminar flow. Laminar, transition or turbulent flow states can exists at various sections in
a wellbore. Stability of the flow is significantly affected by the configuration and the inertial effects
caused by the drillstring. As the drillstring becomes eccentric, laminar flow can exists at the narrower part
of the cross section while the flow is non-laminar at the wider part. Erge (2013) and Erge et al. (2014b)
proposed a local stability parameter for the flow of YPL fluids through annuli. The stability of the flow
in wellbore can be mapped using this stability criterion. An example stability profile of a wellbore is
presented in Fig. 13.

Figure 13—An example stability profile of a wellbore calculated using the local stability criterion presented in Erge et al. (2014b) for ␶y
ⴝ 5 Pa, Kⴝ0.5 Pa·sm, m ⴝ 0.5, ␬ ⴝ 0.5 and V ⴝ 0.5 m/s; blue area of the cross section represents the laminar flow while the red is the
area of non-laminar flow

The proposed local stability parameter shows the effect of eccentricity on the transition from laminar
to transitional flow. The proposed stability parameter suggests that at the inclined and the horizontal
sections at the wellbore, the flow in the some part of the annuli can be laminar while at the wider section,
it can be transitional or turbulent. It is important to be able to map the wellbore for the flow stability to
analyze the hole cleaning at the inclined and horizontal sections. So that the flow rate or the drilling fluid
properties can be adjusted to obtain turbulent flow for the most of the annular cross section. Also, at
cementing operations, spacer fluid properties and the flow rate can be adjusted to obtain turbulent flow
for effective mud removal for an optimized cementing.
Effect of Rotation
In the present study, the effect of rotation of a concentric and a free drillstring are investigated. The results
from the numerical solution and the experimental facility are compared to gain more insight on the effect
of rotation. Numerical solution assumes that the rotation of the inner pipe is only about its own axis while
in the experiments, the drillstring is fully eccentric in the initial position, when rotated, it rotates about its
own axis and can do lateral, wobbling or whirling motion similar to the horizontal drilling conditions.
In a wellbore, after a critical rotation speed, Taylor vortices form. These vortices occur due to
centrifugal instabilities. Drazin and Reid’s (1981) Taylor number definition is given below. It is suggested
that if the Taylor number reaches a value of 3389.9 without axial flow, Taylor vortices will form.
(18)

where ␩ is the viscosity of the fluid and can be estimated using the equations below:
SPE-173840-MS 13

(19)

(20)

where ␸v is the dissipation function. The explicit form in cylindrical coordinates is:
(21)

The dissipation function is simplified for the concentric annuli with inner pipe rotation. The apparent
viscosity function that is presented in Eq. 11 is obtained using the simplified dissipation function. A
sample axial and tangential velocity profiles are obtained using the proposed model with inner pipe
rotation. They are presented Fig. 14 (i). The tangential velocity profiles are investigated for varying
diameter ratio changes. The results are presented in Fig. 14 (ii). The effect of inner pipe rotation in
concentric annuli of YPL fluids is shown in Fig. 15.

Figure 14 —(i) Sample velocity profile for the flow of YPL fluids in concentric annuli with inner pipe rotating, Ro ⴝ 0.0254 m, Ri ⴝ 0.0127
m, ␶yⴝ 5 Pa, K ⴝ 1 Pa · sm, m ⴝ 0.5 and V ⴝ 1 m/s, (ii) Tangential velocity profiles for various diameter ratios, ␶y ⴝ 5 Pa, K ⴝ 1 Pa · sm,
m ⴝ 0.5 and V ⴝ 1 m/s

Figure 15—Pressure loss change as the inner pipe rotated with various diameter ratios, ␶y ⴝ 5 Pa, K ⴝ 1 Pa · sm, m ⴝ 0.5 and V ⴝ 1
m/s
14 SPE-173840-MS

The proposed model simulates the concentric annuli and the effect of degree of curvature difference
can be observed from the Fig. 14 (i) and Fig. 14 (ii). As the diameter ratio increased annuli approximates
to a slot and the tangential profile becomes linear. Fig. 15 shows that the pipe rotation has a significant
effect on pressure losses especially at high diameter ratios. A reduced pressure loss is calculated due to
the shear thinning ability of the YPL fluids as the drillstring rotates. The magnitude of effect of rotation
increases as the diameter ratio increases.
Flow of YPL fluids through eccentric annuli with rotation of the inner pipe showed an increase in
pressure losses as the rotary rate is increased for the most of the cases. For low rotation speeds, a decrease
can be observed in pressure losses due to dominant effect of shear thinning ability of the drilling fluid.
There are several approximations and numerical solutions are presented in the literature that addresses the
effect of drillstring rotation while it is eccentric (Ahmed and Miska 2008; Ahmed and Miska 2009; Ahmed
et al. 2010; Escudier et al. 2002; May et al. 2013; Ozbayoglu and Sorgun 2010; Sorgun et al. 2010).
Results of the experiments with YPL5 and YPL8 are presented in Fig. 16 (i) and Fig. 16 (ii),
respectively. The result of the rest of the fluids are available in literature (Erge et al. 2014b) and showed
similar and consistent results with the fluids presented in this paper.

Figure 16 —Measured pressure loss vs. velocity for various rotation rates, (i) YPL5, (ii) YPL8

Experiments done on the effect of free drillstring rotation on frictional pressure losses showed a
significant increase in pressure losses while the drillstring rotary speed is increased, especially in the
region of transition from laminar to turbulent flow. As the flow becomes more turbulent, the effect of
rotation decreases and diminishes with the increasing axial flow rate. The comparison of Fig. 16 (i) and
Fig. 16 (ii) showed that less viscous fluid is not significantly affected by the rotation of the inner pipe.
YPL5’s and YPL8’s Reynolds numbers are from 190 to 6200 and from 30 to 5200, respectively. This is
also observed with the initial water runs where the inner pipe is rotated and no significant pressure loss
increase is recorded. It suggests that the effect of rotation is important especially for thicker drilling fluids.
Rotation of the drillstring about its own axis in concentric annuli results in a reduction of the pressure
losses due to shear thinning ability of the YPL fluid. In most of the field measurements, as the rotation
increases, pressure losses increases. From this result, we can conclude that the increase in the pressure
losses are due to other factors in action, such as the inertial effects, cuttings, rotation of the drillstring
while it is eccentric, wobbling of the drillstring, vibrations, lateral motion of the drillstring, etc. They can
cause additional pressure losses and these effects can counteract the reduction of pressure losses.
The proposed model accurately calculates the pressure losses occur due to the laminar flow of YPL
fluids in concentric annuli with or without the inner pipe rotation. The model can be used in the vertical
section of the wellbore preferably inside the casing. The model can be extended for the inclined and the
SPE-173840-MS 15

horizontal parts of the wellbore using methods such as Luo and Peden’s (1990) model or Haciislamoglu
and Langinais (1990) correlation. An example of wellbore gridding is presented in Fig. 13. Using this
method, localized pressure losses and the velocity profile can be calculated and it can be averaged to
calculate the ECD.

Comparison of Numerical Solution and Narrow Slot Approximation

A detailed comparison of the finite difference solution and the narrow slot approximation is presented in
Fig. 17. The comparison is conducted for a Yield Power Law fluid with various generalized flow behavior
indices at various diameter ratios. As the diameter ratio increases, the difference in degree of curvature
decreases and hence annulus gets closer to a slot geometry and the asymmetry in the velocity profile and
the stress distribution along the cross section decreases.

Figure 17—Comparison of the finite difference solution and the narrow slot approximation

The results show that there can up to 15% difference between the narrow slot approximation and the
numerical solution. Narrow slot shows a reasonably good accuracy, less than 3%, for ␬ⱖ0.5. The
proposed numerical solution showed a good match with the exact solution of the flow of YPL fluids
through concentric annuli, as presented in Fig. 6. The pressure loss calculation with the numerical and
exact solution did not show any significant deviation for any diameter ratio and flow behavior index.
Hence, the numerical solution is recommended to obtain good accuracy. The numerical solution captures
the effect of curvature difference between the inner and outer pipe while the narrow slot approximation
does not.

Comparisons with Experimental Data

The proposed numerical solution is compared with the experimental results from the present study and the
literature. The results are presented in Fig. 18. A good agreement (within ⫾15%) of the predicted and the
measured pressure losses are obtained considering various experimental setups and fluids.
16 SPE-173840-MS

Figure 18 —Comparison of the finite difference solution with the experimental results

Summary and Conclusions

A numerical model is proposed that includes the effect of inner pipe rotation while circulating YPL fluids
through concentric annuli. The proposed numerical model can simulate the effect of curvature difference
between the inner and outer pipe and it is practical to use. It accurately estimates the pressure losses in
concentric annuli and it is recommended to be used, especially for ECD-critical operations such as
managed pressure, extended reach and offshore drilling.
The narrow slot approximation is compared with a numerical solution for flow of YPL fluids through
concentric annuli. The difference between the slot approximation and the numerical model can be up to
15%. For the diameter ratio below about 0.35, the narrow slot approximation shows a larger difference
as the fluid becomes less shear-thinning and for the diameter ratio of above 0.35, the difference increases
as the fluid gets more shear thinning. A difference of less than 3% is recorded for the diameter ratio of
0.5 and above. A decision to whether or not use a slot approximation can be made by analyzing the Fig.
17.
Rotating the drillstring about its own axis in a concentric annuli can significantly reduce the pressure
losses. For example, numerical model showed up to a 30% decrease as the inner pipe is rotated about its
own axis in an annulus of 0.5 diameter ratio. Increasing the rotation speed results in additional shear and
decreases the apparent viscosity, this causes a decrease in pressure losses. Experiments conducted on YPL
fluids in eccentric annuli suggest mostly increased pressure losses as the inner pipe rotates. Because, the
rotation usually results in additional motion such as: lateral motion, whirling or wobbling of the drillstring
that causes added perturbations in the flow. It increases the inertial effects and can initiate Taylor vortices
and secondary flow. As Saasen (2014) discussed, the effect of transversal motion of drillstring on pressure
losses tends to increase the pressure losses by causing disturbance in the flow. The present analysis shows
the reason why the most of the field measurements show an increase of pressure losses as the drillstring
is rotated by comparing the rotation about in own axis and free drillstring rotation.
Diameter ratio shows a significant impact on the rotation effects on pressure losses and the transition
from laminar to turbulent flow. The effect of diameter ratio should be considered by using the proposed
methods in this and the preceding paper (Erge et al. 2014b), during the design and the operation phase to
carry out an optimized operation. If there is a narrow pressure window, casing/hole size and the drill pipe
size can be optimized to reduce the effect of rotation on pressure losses, which would be helpful during
extended reach and offshore drilling.
CFD analysis showed a 44% decrease in pressure losses comparing the concentric to the fully eccentric
annuli. Haciislamoglu and Langlinais’ correlation and Equivalent Pipe Model predicts the pressure losses
SPE-173840-MS 17

that are calculated via CFD analysis. Their models can be used together with the proposed model to
predict the pressure losses in eccentric annuli. The velocity profiles obtained with the CFD analysis shows
a peak in local velocity at ␧⫽0.5 in the wider section. Then, velocity decreases as eccentricity further
increases. CFD analysis showed a good agreement with the exact and analytical solutions and it shows a
potential to simulate the flow of YPL fluids through more complex geometries. CFD applications should
be more widely used by the drilling industry to better understand the downhole fluid dynamics.

Acknowledgments
The authors of this paper wish to express their appreciation to University of Tulsa Drilling Research
Projects, Det norske oljeselskap ASA and Baker Hughes for their valued support.

Nomenclature
a, b : geometric parameters, m
D : diameter, m
dP/dl : frictional pressure loss gradient, Pa/m
dP : frictional pressure loss, Pa
E : offset distance, m
f : friction factor
h : height of the slot, m
K : consistency index,
m : flow behavior index
N : generalized flow behavior index
Q : flow rate, m3/s
r, R : radius, m
Re : Reynolds number
V : mean axial fluid velocity, m /s
w : width of the slot, m

Greek Letters
␶ : shear stress, Pa
␥ : shear rate, 1/s
␧ : dimensionless eccentricity
␳ : density, kg/m3
␮, ␩ : viscosity, Pa.s
␬ : diameter ratio
␻ : angular speed, rad./s
␷ : velocity, m /s
␭ : geometrical constant, m

Subscripts
app : apparent
b : bulk
d : dimensionless
i : inner
h, H : hydraulic
o : outer
w : wall
18 SPE-173840-MS

y : yield
YPL : Yield Power Law

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SPE-173840-MS 21

Appendix A
Calculation of Laminar Velocity Profile of Yield Power Law Fluids Using Narrow Slot Approximation

The procedure to calculate a laminar velocity profile while circulating Yield Power Law fluids via narrow slot approximation
of annuli is presented. The iterative process of equation A.1 to A.5 is adopted from Merlo et al. (1995).
1. Guess an initial Ccai value (e.g. Ccal⫽1):
2. Calculate ␥wi:
(A.1)

3. Calculate ␶wi:
(A.2)

4. Calculate x:
(A.4)

5. Calculate the next Ccai value:

(A.4)

6. Calculate the next ␶wi. value:

(A.5)

7. Iterate through equation A.1 to A.5 with new guesses of Cca Repeat until the difference between the two calculated
wall shear stresses reduces to a desired value (e.g., 10-6).
8. Calculate the generalized flow behavior index from:
(A.6)

9. Calculate ReYPL from:

(A.7)

10. Determine the flow state using the following equations:

(A.8)

11. If (Re1 ⬎ ReYPL) , the laminar narrow slot velocity profile can be calculated. Determine the height of the slot:
(A.9)

12. Determine the width of the slot:

(A.10)

13. The velocity in the narrow slot for a varying “y” is:
(A.11)

14. Velocity at the plug region can be calculated from:

(A.12)

15. The “y” starts from the middle of the slot and continues until it reaches to the wall. The shear region starts as soon
as y reaches height of the plug region where V(y) is less than Vp. The height of the plug region in the slot can be
calculated using the following equation. At the wall, velocity becomes equal to zero. The exact symmetry of the shear
profile is assumed from the other wall until the plug region.
22 SPE-173840-MS

(A.13)