AC THEORY

Module: 3 Book : 3/4

1
AUTHORITY

It is important to note that the information in this book or study/

training purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/ work on aircraft / aircraft equipment

you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual
or equipment manufacturer's handbook

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory

authority (The GCAA in the UAE) and laid down company policy as
regards local procedure. Recording, report writing, documentation
etc.

For health and safety in the workshop you should follow the
regulations/ Guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer,
your company, National safety authorities and national governments.

2
CONTENTS

SUBJECT

PAGE
Alternating voltage & current 1
Series ac circuits 9
Pure inductance in ac circuits 13
Pure capacitance in ac circuits 15
Inductance & resistance in series 18
Capacitance & resistance in series 20
Resistance, inductance & capacitance in series 24
Resistance, inductance & capacitance in parallel 31
Power in ac circuits 35
Three phase systems 38
Transformers 45
Filters 66
Differentiators 72
Integrators 74

3
 ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

The alternating system is one in which a voltage or current periodically

reverses in direction in a regular recurring manner. Figure 1 shows an
alternating current (usually abbreviated to ac) plotted with current on the
vertical axes and time along the horizontal axis.

From the diagram you can see that the ac passes through a definite
sequence, it rises from zero to maximum in one direction and falls back to
zero, it then reverses and goes to a maximum in the other direction and
then goes back to zero again. This complete sequence A to B is called a
cycle and is repetitive.

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The number of cycles occurring in one second is called the FREQUENCY of
the alternating current. This has the symbol f and the unit HERTZ (Hz). The
frequency of most aircraft ac constant frequency systems is 400Hz. In
aircraft radio and radar systems many other frequencies are used ranging
from 3kHz (kilo Hertz) to 3OGHz (Giga Hertz).
The time taken to complete one cycle is known as the periodic time or
period denoted by the symbol T. (see figure 1)

The shape of the alternating voltage or current graph is known as its

waveform. Figure 2 shows some example waveforms each having the same
frequency.
We shall be concentrating on the sinusoidal waveform as all aircraft ac
generators and inverters produce sinusoidal outputs. The generation of ac
in its simplest form is as shown in figure 3. It is a conducting loop rotating
within a magnetic field, the loop is connected to slip rings and then via
brushes to an external circuit.

Faradays Law states that when a conductor cuts a magnetic field an emf
(electromotive force) is induced into the conductor. Figure 4 shows the
rotation of the loop through 360°.

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5
 Fig. 4 VOLTAGE INDUCED IN A ROTATING LOOP

In position (a) no cutting of the flux lines is taking place as the wire is
moving parallel to the lines of flux so no emf (P) is induced. As the loop
rotates from this position it starts to cut the lines of flux and an emf is
generated which reaches a maximum at (Q) - the coil is cutting the
maximum number of lines of flux hence maximum emf is induced. As it
rotates further the induced emf reduces to zero at (R).

The direction of the induced emf reverses as side A of the loop cuts the flux
lines in an upwards direction, again being a maximum at (S) and then
falling to zero at (T). This waveform produced is known as a sinusoidal
waveform or sine wave (got its name from the fact that if the sine of the
angles is plotted against the angles from 0 to 360° a graph known as a sine
wave is produced). So one complete rotation of the loop gives 'one cycle' of
alternating voltage or current.

An alternative method of representing an alternating quantity which varies

sinusoudally is a straight line called a PHASOR its length being equal to the
maximum emf. The phasor is assumed to pivot at the end without the
arrowhead and to revolve anti-clockwise once for each cycle. Consider figure
5. If the vertical height at each point of the phasor is projected across and
plotted against the angle a sine wave results.

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6
If we assume the maximum emf in this case to be 100 volts (ie the length of
the phasor represents 100 volts). Then the height AB in figure 5 and the
drawing below represents the voltage at (a) on the sine wave, this point is
known as an INSTANTANEOUS VALUE - a voltage at an instant in time.

Instantaneous values are given the symbol e and maximum emf as E max.

hence the name sine wave as the voltage at any point is the maximum value
times the sine of the angle.

It is common to use the RADIAN as the standard measure of plain angles. A

radian is defined as the angle at the centre of a circle subtended by an arc
of the circumference equal in length to the radius of the circle. As the
circumference of a circle is the radius, there are radians in a circle
(360°). Just over 6 radians in a circle. So which is
approximately 57-3 degrees.

In one revolution the phasor (loop) passes through radians. If it rotates at

f revolutions per second it passes through radians per second. This is the
angular velocity of the phasor (loop) denoted by the Greek letter (omega)

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 radians per second. After an interval of t seconds from the
commencement of rotation the loop has rotated an angle equal to
radians which is radians. The emf at this instant is:

ac Values

The PEAK VALUE of an alternating current or voltage is the maximum value

reached (either positive or negative) during a cycle, the peak or maximum
value is sometimes called the amplitude. The difference between the peak
positive value and the peak negative value is called the PEAK TO PEAK
VALUE and is twice the peak value.

The AVERAGE VALUE of an ac waveform over a full cycle is zero as there are
equal positive and negative values. It is usual therefore to use the average
value of half a cycle.

This can be done mathematically by dividing the waveform into a number of

parts as shown below.

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8
Measuring the value of the current at each point and adding them together
and dividing by the number of values taken, in the drawing:

Average value = 0-637 x Peak value.

The EFFECTIVE or ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE (rms) is the value that is
most commonly used.

The heating effect of an electric current is independent of the direction of

current flow. The rms value of ac is that value of current which has the same
heating effect as its equivalent value dc, ie 1 amp ac (rms) = 1 amp dc.

Power in a dc circuit is proportional to the square of the current (I 2R), this

also applies to ac circuits. Figure 7 shows the square of the sinusoidal
current plotted against time.

Fig. 7 CURRENT SQUARED PLOTTED AGAINST TIME

The energy dissipated is proportional to the shaded area beneath the

(current)2 curves. However, looking at the graph you will see that crest (a)
will fit into trough (a), crest (b) into trough (b) and so on. This is the same
energy that would be dissipated by a steady value I2 max. Therefore the
2
value of alternating current which gives the same heating effect as the
equivalent value dc is max.

9
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10
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We can represent these two quantities by phasors, the length of each
representing the rms values.

When in line as shown it indicates that V and I are in phase.

If they pass through corresponding points at different instances in time,

there is a phase difference between them and one is said to be leading or
lagging the other by a certain phase angle. Figure 9 shows the two
quantities out of phase.

Fig. 9 VALUES OUT OF PHASE

The voltage rises to its positive peak first and is said to be leading the
current, alternatively the current can be said to be lagging the voltage. The
phase difference is the phase angle 0.

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The phasor diagram below shows this more clearly, (remember phasors
rotate anti-clockwise).

It can be seen that it is easier to represent the sine waves by phasors.

ACTIVITY

1) What is the periodic time of a frequency of 2000Hz?

1) If the periodic time of a sine wave is 1ms what is the supply

frequency?

2) What is the instantaneous current at n/2 radians of a sine wave of

peak value 200 amps?

3) A voltage waveform has a peak to peak value of 200v. What is the

average value?

4) A voltage waveform has an rms value of 707 volts the peak to peak
value of the waveform is?

SERIES ac CIRCUITS

We need to look at the effect of ac applied to resistance, inductance and

capacitance as the results are important as we shall see.

There is no such thing as a 'pure' resistance, a 'pure' inductance or a 'pure'

capacitance. A wire wound resistor, for instance, since it is wound in the
form of a coil has inductance as well as resistance, similarly, a capacitor
has resistance as well as capacitance.

However, for the purposes of the next few pages we are going to assume
'pure' components as it makes the treatment easier and it is helpful to show
the 'ideal' conditions.

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PURE RESISTANCE IN ac CIRCUITS

With reference to the graph in figure 10. It can be seen that the voltage and
current are in-phase and the phasor diagram would be as shown below the
graph.

Ohms law and the use of rms values applies at all times to a purely resistive
circuit.

Power
The power is the average value of all the instantaneous values of power for a
complete cycle. To find the instantaneous power at any moment, the
instantaneous values of voltage and current at that moment are multiplied
together.

Thus in figure 11 at moment x, the voltage is A volts and the current B

amps. The power at this moment is therefore AB watts (V x I) and is
represented by point C on the graph.

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 Fig. 11 POWER - CURRENT & VOLTAGE IN-PHASE

If this process is carried out over the complete cycle the power curve is
produced as shown in figure 12. The power is always positive because
current and voltage are in phase and when voltage and current are positive
their product is positive when they are both negative their product is still
positive.

Fig. 12 ac POWER

Fig. 13 AVERAGE POWER - ac

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The average power over a complete cycle is the average value of the power
curve and this is represented by a line halfway between maximum and
minimum values of the curve, since the shaded areas above and below the
line are equal.
The power waveform has twice the frequency of the supply. Therefore in the
diagram the power fluctuates rapidly between zero and 12 watts, but over a
complete cycle, the average power is 6 watts.
We are only interested in average power as the frequency of the supply is
usually high and this is what the device (lamp, electric motor etc) actually
consumes.

The average power will from now be referred to as 'power', is half the peak
power in a resistive circuit, and this peak value is the maximum voltage
multiplied by the maximum current.

So to sum up. In a resistive circuit:

1) V and I are in phase.
2) Normal ohms law calculations apply.
3) dc calculations apply for power.
4) Power is produced.

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PURE INDUCTANCE IN ac CIRCUITS

When an ac supply is connected to an inductance, as the current is

continually varying then an emf (back emf) is induced into the coil. Its value
is dependent on the value of the inductor in henrys (H) (Joseph Henry

1797-1878 American physicist) and the rate of change of current

Fig. 14 INDUCTOR IN AN ac CIRCUIT

This back emf opposes the rise of current in the circuit and therefore delays
its rise as can be seen by the waveform diagram. In a pure inductive circuit
V leads I by 90° or I lags V by 90°.

Fig. 1 5 V LEADING I IN AN INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

Fig. 16 PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR FIGURE 15

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The back-emf in the circuit provides the opposition to current flow. It
therefore acts in a similar manner to a resistance in the circuit. It is a form
of ac resistance but is called REACTANCE, it is given in ohms and has the
symbol X, to identify it as reactance in an inductive circuit the symbol is XL
is used.

The inductive reactance of a coil depends upon the rate of change of current
(which is dependent on frequency) and the value of the inductance. It is
calculated by the formula:

You should commit this formula to memory.

As in any circuit the opposition to current flow is always V so in the pure

I

It is important for you to determine what happens in a pure inductive

circuit when the frequency to a circuit is increased or decreased.

Power

Similar to the process carried out in the pure resistive circuit where V and I
are multiplied at each point to give a power curve as shown in figure 17.

Fig. 17 POWER IN A PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

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As the voltage and current are 90° out of phase positive and negative powers
are produced. In the purely inductive circuit, the total power is zero, since
positive and negative powers cancel. Positive power is given to the circuit
from the power supply on one half cycle and negative is returned to the
supply source on the other half cycle of power.

Over a complete cycle the net power is zero. It is important to note that
current flows in the circuit but no work is being done when the current is
90° out of phase with the voltage.

ACTIVITY

1) What happens to the current in a purely inductive when:

(a) Frequency is increased?
(b) Frequency is decreased?
2) If the voltage applied to a pure inductive circuit is 100 volts and the
current is 5A what is the inductive reactance of the circuit?
3) Find the inductive reactance of a pure inductive circuit if the supply
frequency is 1kHz and the inductance is ImH. (Assume  = 6.28)

PURE CAPACITANCE IN ac CIRCUITS

Voltage exists across the plates of a capacitor only after the current has
flowed to charge the plates. With reference to figure 19 it can be seen that
the current leads the voltage and in a pure capacitive circuit it leads by 90°.
Remember, it can also be stated that voltage lags the current.

Fig. 18 CAPACITOR IN AN ac CIRCUIT

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 Fig. 19 CURRENT & VOLTAGE IN A CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT

Fig. 20 PHASOR DIAGRAM - CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT

where:

Xc = capacitive reactance in ohms

2 = 6.28 (approx)
f = frequency in Hz
C = Capacitance in FARADS (Michael Faraday British physicist 1791-1867)

Again, this is an important formula to remember. Also as in any circuit the

opposition to current flow is

You must be able to work out what happens to the current in a purely
capacitive circuit when there is a frequency change.

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Power
The power curve is produced as previously illustrated in the pure resistive
and pure inductive circuits. Looking at figure 21 (the shaded areas) it can
be seen there are two positive peaks and two negative peaks of power over
one complete cycle so the net power is zero.

Fig. 21 POWER IN A CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT

SUMMARY

ACTIVITY

1. What happens to the current in a purely capacitive circuit when

a) Frequency is increased?
b) Frequency is decreased?
2. If the voltage applied to a purely capacitive circuit is 50V and the
current is 2 amps, what is the capacitive reactance of the circuit?
3. Find the capacitive reactance of a pure capacitive circuit if the supply
frequency is 10kHz and the capacitance is  (assume 2 = 6.28).

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INDUCTANCE AND RESISTANCE IN SERIES

The concept of a pure inductor is not a practical one, as an inductor is a

length of wire wound into a coil. This then will have resistance which can be
represented by a pure inductor in series with a resistor.

The waveform diagram (figure 23) shows that voltage and current are out of
phase by an angle less than 90° and with current lagging voltage.

Fig. 22 RESISTANCE & INDUCTANCE IN SERIES

Fig. 23 WAVEFORM DIAGRAM - RESISTANCE & INDUCTANCE

To draw a phasor diagram for this circuit everything is drawn from a

REFERENCE PHASOR, which in a series circuit is the current as it is the
same throughout the circuit. From this current phasor are drawn the
voltage phasors. The voltage across the resistor VR is in phase with the
current and therefore drawn on the same line. The voltage across the
inductor leads the current by 90° and is draw vertically as shown in figure
24. Remember phasors rotate anti-clockwise.

To find the supply voltage (V) we cannot just add these voltages together as
you would do in a dc circuit, because they are out of phase with one
another, so by completing the parallelogram (phasor addition) we can find
the supply voltage (V).

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 Fig. 24 PHASOR DIAGRAM - RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE

Impedance
The opposition to current flow in this circuit is provided by the resistance of
the resistor and the reactance of the inductor and when there is a
combination like this the opposition to current flow is called IMPEDANCE (Z)
in ohms.

The opposition to current flow is therefore

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- 20 -
 Fig. 25 RESISTANCE &

Fig. 26 WAVEFORM DIAGRAM - RESISTANCE & CAPACITANCE

Once again, to draw the phasor diagram use the current phasor as the
reference, VR is in phase with the current so is drawn on top of I. The
voltage across the capacitor Vc is lagging the current by 90° and is drawn
vertically downwards. The actual supply voltage can again be found by
phasor addition.

The opposition to current flow provided by the capacitive reactance (Xc) and
resistance (R) is called impedance (Z) ohms.

Fig. 27 PHASOR DIAGRAM - RESISTANCE & CAPACITANCE

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SUMMARY

1. The current leads the voltage or voltage lags the current by some
angle between 0 and 90° which depends on the values of C and R.

TanXc R

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2. Opposition to current flows is impedance (Z) ohms

The word CIVIL can be used as a convenient way of remembering the

relative position of the phase between current and voltage in capacitive and
inductive circuits.

ACTIVITY

1. A coil has a pure inductance value of 0.159H and a resistance of

100 and is connected to a 240V 50Hz supply. Calculate the:
(a) Inductive reactance of the coil.
(b) Impedance of the coil.
(c) Current in the circuit.
(d) Circuit phase angle.

2. A 15.f capacitor and a 100 resistor are connected in series across

a 240V 50Hz supply. Calculate the:
(a) Circuit impedance.
(b) Voltage across each component.
(c) Circuit phase angle.

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RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE IN SERIES

The circuit is shown in figure 28 where resistance, inductance and

capacitance are connected in series.

Fig. 28 RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE &

CAPACITANCE IN SERIES

The phasor diagram (figure 29) would be drawn as before ie VR in phase, VL

90° ahead and V c 90° behind. As V L and V c are 180° apart, in direct
opposition it is the difference (V L - Vc in this case) that is used to find V the
supply voltage.

Fig. 29 PHASOR DIAGRAM - RESISTANCE

INDUCTANCE & CAPACITANCE

Note. In this circuit as VL is greater than Vc then current lags the voltage and
is therefore more inductive. The opposition to current flow is again
impedance and is:

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Fig. 30 GRAPH OF XL & Xc AGAINST FREQUENCY

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If XL = Xc they are 180° apart (antiphase) so they will cancel leaving just the
resistance of the circuit so Z = R.

If Z = R then the impedance is at a minimum and therefore the current must

be at a maximum.

Fig. 32 GRAPH OF Z & I AGAINST FREQUENCY

Also as VL and Vc are antiphase they also cancel so the applied voltage will
equal the voltage across the resistor VR = V. Current will be in phase with
the supply voltage and the power factor is 1.

At resonance, as the current is high the voltages across L and C are equal
and opposite so that their resultant is zero. However, when considered
alone they can be very high voltages, much greater than the supply and it is
this voltage magnification which will be discussed later.

The circuit is very often known as an ACCEPTOR CIRCUIT and the

frequency at which resonance occurs can be found by:

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Selectivity
The sharpness of response over a range of frequencies near resonance gives
an indication of the SELECTIVITY of the circuit. Selectivity is the property of
a tuned circuit which enables it to respond to a particular signal and
disregard others at different frequencies.

Fig. 34 FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTIVITY

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 PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS RESISTANCE -

INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE IN PARALLEL

There are many combinations of parallel ac circuits, however, we shall

concentrate on the resistance - inductance and capacitive circuit.

Fig. 36 R, L & C IN PARALLEL

The phasor diagram for the above circuit is shown in figure 37. Note that the
reference phasor is voltage as this is common to all components in a
parallel circuit.

Fig. 37 PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR FIGURE 36

The current in the capacitor (Ic) leads the voltage by 90° and the current in
the inductive circuit lags the voltage by some angle less than 90° due to the
resistance. The total current from the supply is the phasor addition of Ic
and IL.

If the frequency to this circuit was varied then at one particular frequency
XL = Xc, this is when the current taken from the supply is in phase with the
voltage. What is happening in the circuit is that the capacitor is charging
up and then discharging through the inductor, the emf induced in the
inductor will then charge up the capacitor in the reverse direction and this
will continue to circulate a current between the two components.

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The circuit is said to be at RESONANCE, so we are now looking at a
PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUIT. The conditions above would continue
forever but the inductor has resistance and there is a power loss here. In
order to keep the current circulating it is necessary to 'top up' the circuit
from the supply.

At resonance the current drawn from the supply is very small and therefore
the impedance is high (opposite to the series resonant circuit).

Figure 38 shows the relationship of Z and I at resonance.

Fig. 38 GRAPH OF Z & I AGAINST FREQUENCY

It should be noted that the actual current circulating between the inductor
and capacitor is high.

The phasor diagram (figure 39) shows the conditions at resonance with the
supply current in phase with the supply voltage.

Fig. 39 PHASOR DIAGRAM - RESONANCE I & V IN PHASE

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Fig. 40 IMPEDANCE/FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVES

-33 -
Figure 40 shows the impedance - frequency response curve. As for a series
circuit the Q 0 value and selectivity and bandwidth depend on R and the ratio
of L to C.

A parallel circuit is often termed a REJECTOR circuit since it presents

maximum impedance at resonance.

SUMMARY

One of the main factors determining the use of resonant circuits in radio
circuits is the internal impedance of the supply. Selectivity is best for a
series circuit when the supply source internal impedance is the same or
lower than the impedance at resonance. Similarly the parallel circuit has
better selectivity when the supply source is the same or higher than its
impedance (Zo) at resonance.

So if a source has a high internal impedance a parallel resonant circuit is

used and if the source has a low internal impedance a series resonant
circuit is used.

The first tuned circuit is normally a series tuned circuit because it is fed
from a low impedance source (the aerial). Voltage magnification takes place
where it is fed to an amplifier. The load' for the amplifier stages would be a
parallel tuned circuit because it is being fed from a high impedance source
(transistor).

Resonant circuits are also used for control of rotary inverter outputs and
some older aircraft generator frequency control circuits.

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 POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

We have already established:

a) In a purely resistive circuit, all of the current does work and POWER
is produced.
b) In a purely inductive circuit, the current does no work and NO
POWER is produced.
c) In a purely capacitive circuit, the current does no work and NO
POWER is produced.

A practical circuit will contain resistance, inductance and capacitance, and

if we take the example of an ac generator supplying aircraft systems (mainly
inductance and resistance) then the current will lag the supply voltage.
V
The phasor diagram shows the current lagging the supply voltage by phase
angle . From our previous theory, power is only produced in a ac circuit
when current and voltage are in phase. So we need to split the current I into
its two components as shown. The component 'in phase' with the voltage is
known as the ACTIVE OR REAL component and the component at 90° to
the voltage is known as the QUADRATURE or REACTIVE component.

It is very important to realise that only one current (I) flows in the circuit
and this is the current that is measured by an ammeter in the circuit.

The power in a purely resistive ac circuit is found by multiplying together

the rms voltage and current. It follows then that in a resistive reactive
circuit, power dissipated can be found by multiplying together the voltage
and the component of current in phase with it.

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The unit of reactive power is VOLT AMPS REACTIVE (VAR).
If the supply voltage is multiplied by the current (I) this will give us the
APPARENT POWER being dissipated, we know that this is apparently
available but because current and voltage are not in phase then that is not
the true power available from the system.

APPARENT POWER = V x I VOLT AMPS (VA) OR KVA

Power Factor
As we have seen we can work out the apparent power of a system in KVA.
What we need to know is how much of this available power is producing
actual work done in a circuit, ie producing True Power. So the ratio of

TRUE POWER

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So in this case the factor of power being used is 0.75, the generator is
producing 0.75 of its output as True Power ie producing power in the system.
So obviously the higher the power factor the better. Aircraft generation
systems are typically .75 - .9 power factor. A power factor of 1 (unity) would
mean that all of the power produced is being used as true power and the
circuit must be purely resistive.

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 THREE PHASE SYSTEMS

It is possible for an ac system to consist of one phase, two phases or indeed

as many phases as the designer wishes. However for ac generation on
aircraft a three phase system is used (most national power grid systems are
based on 3 phase ac supplies, although there is normally only one phase
supplied to each domestic consumer).

Fig. 41 ONE, TWO & THREE PHASE SUPPLIES

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Figure 41 shows the basic principles of a single, two and three phase ac
supply.

In (a) the single phase generator has one rotating coil (wound many times)
with one cable going to the consumer units (assuming an earth return via
the airframe).

In (b) there are two coils on the same armature at 90° to each other and
there would be two cables going to the consumer units.

In (c) there are three coils on the same armature at 120° to each other
producing three outputs at 120° phase difference. Three supply cables
would be used - one for each phase, each going to its own bus on the
aircraft.
It is usual to connect the phases together into either a STAR
configuration or DELTA (A) configuration. It is standard practice
to identify each phase in a three phase system as Red (R), Yellow
(Y), and Blue (B). This is their phase sequence or phase rotation.
STAR CONNECTED AC GENERATOR OUTPUT

In this system, the finish of each winding is connected to a common point

called the NEUTRAL or STAR point. The three LINES are taken from the
start of each phase winding, as shown in figure 42.

Fig. 42 STAR CONNECTED GENERATOR

It can be seen from the diagram that the Line Current and Phase Current
are the same:

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It can also be seen that Line Voltage is derived from the two phases that are
connected across each pair of lines. Because the phase voltages are 120° out
of phase with each other, the Line voltage is found by multiplying the
Phase Voltage by

The following points should be borne in mind:

(a) When a NEUTRAL Line is connected, two separate systems and

voltages are available. (This is the main advantage of this system).

1. Three separate single-phase (Line-to Neutral) systems, each

operating at Phase Voltage. The UK domestic phase voltage is
240 volts at 50 Hz, whilst aircraft phase voltage is 115 volts at
400 Hz.
2. A three-phase (Line-to-Line) system. The UK domestic line
voltage is 415 volts at 50 Hz, whilst aircraft line voltage is 200
volts at 400 Hz.

(b) Although the Neutral Line is connected to 'earth', it must NOT be

confused with the 'earth' connection in a three-pin domestic socket,
for example, which is a separate earth provided for fault protection.

(c) If the individual loading across each of the three phases is identical,
the loads are said to be BALANCED. When such a condition exists, no
current will flow along the neutral line to or from the generator. The
neutral line only carries out-of-balance currents in the system.
(Because a three-phase line-to-line load (eg a motor) is bound to be
balanced, no neutral connection need be made to it).

(d) Phase voltage (V?h) is measured between any line and the neutral line.

(e) Line voltage ( VL ) is measured between any two lines.

(f) Frequency is ALWAYS expressed as the frequency of a SINGLE

PHASE------it is not multiplied by three for a three-phase system.

DELTA CONNECTED GENERATOR

By reference to the drawing it can be seen that LINE voltage ( VL ) and PHASE
voltage (Vph) is the same.
V L = V Ph
-40 -
 Fig. 43 DELTA CONNECTED GENERATOR

It can also be seen that the LINE current is derived from the currents
that are flowing in the two windings that are connected to that particular
line. As the phases are 120° out-of-phase with each other the LINE
current (!L) is found by multiplying PHASE current (Iph) by V3 .

The following points should be noted:

(a) There will be no circulating current in the closed Delta loop
because the Phasor sum of the three emfs is zero. Instantaneous
values of current and voltage in a three-phase system always total
zero. (This point is dealt with later).
(b) As the Delta system is a three-wire system, it is not possible to
provide an earthed neutral line. (See Star-connected systems).

Fig. 44 THREE PHASE

- 41 -
The Three Phase Voltages

As the output windings of the generator are identical, their outputs will be
of equal amplitude. These outputs are represented both graphically and as
phasors in figures 44 and 45.

Fig. 45 THREE PHASE PHASOR DIAGRAM

It can be seen that, if values above the zero are called '+' and those below
zero are called ' - ', the sum of the voltages at any instant in time is always
zero.
A Symmetrical Three-Phase system

This is one in which the phase voltages are of the same magnitude and of
the same phase displacement. (The phase currents may have differing
magnitudes and phase displacements, depending upon the type and
magnitude of the phase loads).

Fig. 46 BALANCED THREE

PHASE SYSTEM ill=0

-42 -
A Balanced Three-Phase System.
This is one in which the phase loads are equal and, therefore, the phase
currents are equal in magnitude and are operating at the same phase
angle. The phasor diagram is shown in figure 46.

(As with the voltages on the previous page, the sum of the instantaneous
currents in a BALANCED system always equals zero).

Fig. 47 PHASOR DIAGRAM - BALANCED

THREE PHASE SYSTEM
The relationship Between Line and Phase Voltages
If the instantaneous values of two phases (say, A and B) are added
together, the result will be a third waveform (line AB). To do this with
phasors, it is necessary to reverse one of the two (say B) and then add
the two phasors as shown in figure 48. If this process is repeated in the
same order for the other two pairs of phases, the result will be as shown
in figure 49.

Fig. 48 'ADDITION' OF PHASORS 1

- 43 -
 Fig. 49 ADDITION OF PHASORS 2

The following points should be noted:

(a) The three phase voltages are 120° apart from each other.
(b) The three line voltages are 120° apart from each other.
(c) There is a phase angle of 30° between any phase voltage and it's
associated line voltage.
(d) THERE IS A PHASE ANGLE OF 90° BETWEEN ANY PHASE
VOLTAGE AND ITS 'OPPOSITE' LINE VOLTAGE. This last
relationship is often overlooked but is extremely important to
understand as it is widely used in control circuitry.

1. Phase A voltage is at 90° to Line BC voltage.

2. Phase B voltage is at 90° to Line AC voltage.
3. Phase C voltage is at 90° to Line AB voltage.

Power in a Balanced Three-Phase System

In the Star and Delta connected loads shown in figure 50, the True Power
in each phase is given by:

In a symmetrical and balanced system, the total True Power is given by

the sum of the phase powers.

- 44 -
It is however, usual to express True Power in terms of line values, in
which case it is given by:
STAR CONNECTED LOAD DELTA CONNECTED LOAD
 Fig. 50 POWER IN A BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEM

TRANSFORMERS

Principle
A transformer consists of two coils adjacent to each other and an ac
supply is applied to one coil known as the PRIMARY. The other coil is
known as the SECONDARY. The changing current in the primary creates
a fluctuating magnetic field that induces a voltage in the secondary coil
(mutual inductance).

Fig. 51 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

For a transformer to work efficiently, all the lines of flux created by the
current in the primary should link with the secondary, this is not
possible but to try and get close to this on low frequency transformers an
iron core is used. It is suitably laminated to reduce eddy current losses.
Because of its high permeability the iron concentrates, and increase, the
lines of flux, and flux loss is small.

-45-
The principle is shown in figure 52. Each winding in the coil is insulated
and the two coils are insulated from one another and the iron core.

If the secondary is connected to a load, a secondary (ac) current flows and

power is developed in the load. A transformer does not generate power it
merely transfers power from the primary to the secondary.

Turns Ratio

If the primary and secondary coils are identical, assuming no losses and
the secondary coil is open circuit, the emf induced in the primary coil will
be almost equal to but opposite in phase to the applied voltage. This
secondary coil will produce a mutually induced voltage which is exactly
the same as the primary back emf.

Fig. 53 PRIMARY fit SECONDARY VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS

-46 -
If the number of turns on the secondary is increased its inductance
increases, and hence the induced emf increases. If the secondary has
twice the number of turns of the primary the secondary voltage will be
twice the applied voltage at the primary. With three times as many turns
on the secondary as the primary, the secondary emf will be three times
that in the primary.

Transformation Ratio (T)

The ratio of V s to V p (or N s to N p ) is known as the Transformation Ratio. If

V s is smaller than V p , then the output will be less than the input and the
transformer is called a Step-down transformer.

A Step-up transformer is one in which V s is greater than V p . When using

Transformation Ratios, IT IS CONVENTIONAL TO ALWAYS PUT THE
SECONDARY VOLTAGE BEFORE THE PRIMARY VOLTAGE.

Thus, a transformation ratio of 4:1 means that the output voltage will be
four times the input voltage (step-up) and a transformation ratio of 1:3
means that the output voltage will be one-third the input voltage (step-
down) .

Any chance of confusion on this point can, of course, be obviated by the

use of the appropriate term of 'step-up' or 'step-down' after the stated
ratio.

-47-
Example

A transformer is wound with 100 turns on the primary and 450 turns on
the secondary. The primary is connected to a 250 volts ac supply. Find
the secondary voltage.

If there are more turns on the secondary than on the primary ie T greater
than 1 the secondary voltage is greater than the primary and we have a
STEP-UP TRANSFORMER.

Fig. 54 STEP-UP TRANSFORMER

If there are fewer turns on the secondary than on the primary ie T less
than 1 then the secondary voltage is less than input voltage and we have
a STEP- DOWN TRANSFORMER.

Fig. 55 STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER

-48 -
Assuming no losses then the input power of a transformer equals the
output power.

Vp Ip = Vs Is

Fig. 56 VOLTAGE & CURRENT IN SECONDARY

Therefore in a step-up transformer where the voltage is stepped up the

current is stepped down and in a step-down transformer where the
voltage is stepped down the current is stepped up.

ACTIVITY

A transformer has a primary voltage of 250 volts and a secondary of

1000 volts. Find the current taken by the primary if the secondary load
is 1000.

-49 -
Transformer Losses

We have been neglecting losses in the transformer and in most

calculations we do indeed neglect the losses. However there are losses and
you should be aware of them. Losses may be due to IRON LOSSES and
COPPER LOSSES.

Fig. 57 TRANSFORMER LOSSES

Iron losses are due to two causes, eddy currents and hysteresis. From
book 1 you should appreciate that to reduce eddy current losses we
laminate the core and hysteresis losses are reduced by choosing a
material such as silicon steel, stalloy or permalloy which have low
hysteresis loss.

The resistive losses in the wires are called copper losses, which are due to
I2R losses of passing current through the resistance of the copper wire
forming the windings.

If all the primary flux does not link with the secondary then flux leakage
occurs, these may be reduced by the design of the core.

All these losses are taken into consideration in the design of a

transformer and in most transformers the losses are extremely small and
high efficiencies result (98% to 99%) (The average motor car efficiency is
30 to 40 %).

Transformer on No Load

The primary in figure 58 has a 100 volt ac supply and it's secondary is
open-circuited (no load). The current that flows in the primary will cause
an alternating flux in the core which will induce a voltage of 200 volts ac
in the secondary winding. (Check the turns ratio)

- 50-
The primary alternating flux will also induce a back-emf into the primary
winding in opposition to the applied emf. The effective emf acting on the
primary is therefore very small and only a very small current will flow into
the primary winding. (The foregoing is, of course, a description of
inductive reactance, XL). The very small current that flows in the primary
is that current which is necessary to overcome losses and to magnetise the
core.

The primary and secondary voltages are in anti-phase and it is usual to

show them in this manner on a phasor diagram.

Because the circuit is inductive, the off-load primary current will lag
behind the primary voltage. The in-phase component of this current is
overcoming copper losses and the quadrature component is magnetising
the core.

Transformer On Load

If the secondary is now carrying current it is important to note that this

current provides a flux in the core which opposes the primary flux and so
reduces the total flux in the core. This means that the primary back-emf
is reduced, with a consequent increase in effective emf in the primary and
so an increase in primary current.

Therefore increase in loading on the secondary increases primary

current. The phasor diagram below shows the transformer on load.

- 51 -
The phasor diagram shows how the load current (Is) is transformed
through 180° to become the primary load current (Ip) this is combined
with the off load current (Iou). To give the total primary current (Ip TOTAL) a
phasor drawing as shown below is produced.

Fig. 59 PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR A TRANSFORMER

Transformer Connections

A transformer is not confined to having just one output winding and

voltage. It can have a secondary winding with various tappings to give
differing output voltages, or it can have a combination of both. It is
therefore a very versatile piece of equipment. It must be realised that the
individual loads on all these secondaries will all combine to be effectively
one load as far as the primary winding is concerned.

Fig. 60 SECONDARY WINDINGS

-52 -
Phasing Dots

The next diagram shows a transformer with three secondary windings. The
dots at the ends of the windings are called phasing dots, they show that
the polarity at those points will be the same at the same moment in time,
ie points A D and E will all be positive together and all negative together.
The centre winding is therefore of opposite polarity to the other two
secondary windings. That is windings 1 and 3 will have a 180° phase shift
from the input while winding 2 will be in phase with the input. It will of
course be wound in the opposite sense.

Fig. 61 PHASING DOTS

EFFICIENCY AND REGULATION

Efficiency

The efficiency of a transformer is

Output power x 100%

Input power

As the input is equal to the output + losses, so efficiency may be

expressed as

Output power x 100% Output

power + copper losses + iron losses

Iron losses are reasonably constant, but copper losses vary as the square
of the currents flowing. Efficiency is greatest when copper losses are
equal to iron losses.

- 53 -
Regulation

As more current is drawn from the secondary of a transformer the

terminal voltage falls as copper losses increase. The difference between
the secondary voltage at no load and the secondary voltage at full load is
expressed as a percentage and is known as the REGULATION of the
transformer.

REGULATION = NO LOAD VOLTAGE - FULL LOAD VOLTAGE x 100%

FULL LOAD VOLTAGE
Typically this is 1- 2 %

TRANSFORMER TYPES

Low Frequency Transformers

These are usually used within the af (audio frequency) range.

The core or former of a transformer on which the coils are wound is

invariably one of two types, the CORE type or the SHELL type. The coils
forming the Primary winding and the Secondary winding(s) are wound so
as to be in the closest proximity to each other in order to achieve the
maximum flux linkage.

Winding the primary of a step-up transformer nearest to the core and

then winding the secondary on top of it has the added advantage of
keeping the primary insulation between the higher voltage secondary and
the metal core.

Core type. The laminations are either U-and I-shaped or L-shaped. They
are staggered when assembled to provide a single magnetic circuit. The
windings can be on one limb or split between the two limbs (see figure
62).

Shell type. The laminations are usually T- and U-shaped and are
staggered when assembled to give a three-limbed former.

This gives two magnetic paths and this type, whilst more expensive to
build, is more suitable for use with large values of current.

- 54 -
 Fig. 62 TRANSFORMER TYPES

When used for single-phase work, each limb is allocated to the primary
and secondary windings of one particular phase. (This point is covered
later in these notes).
It should be noted, that af transformers can be used as 'matching'
impedances. (Again, see later in these notes). They may also be used as
isolation transformers when the primary and secondary have the same
number of turns so Vp = Vs. It is a way of isolating electrically one circuit
from another without altering the ac conditions.

High Frequency Transformers

Radio frequency (rf) transformers are used in radio transmitters and
receivers and are designed to work at frequencies from 100kHz to 100
MHz. rf transformers do not have iron cores because iron losses would be
very high at such high frequencies. Some high frequency transformers
consist of the primary and secondary wound on an insulating tube made
of paxolin or polystyrene. All of the primary flux does not link with the
secondary.

Fig. 63 HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER

- 55-
They are inefficient for power transfer and secondary voltage is no longer
equal to T (turns ratio) times the primary voltage.

rf transformers often have iron dust (ferrite) cores which are used to
adjust the coil inductance or modify the coupling effect between the two
coils. Other rf transformers might have the coils wound on a ferritte rod
to act as an aerial receiving arrangement. In nearly all cases, one or both
of the coils will be tuned by parallel capacitors to be resonant at one
fixed frequency or adjustable over a range of frequencies.

ACTIVITY

1. An ideal transformer has 1000 primary turns and 3500 secondary

turns. If 250V is applied to the primary, find:

a) Vs
b) Is if connected to a 87Q load.
c) Ip with the load connected.

2. What would be the effect on a transformer designed to operate on one

particular frequency if it is inadvertently connected to a:

a) Lower frequency.
b) Higher frequency.

The Auto Transformer

This is a special type of transformer that has only a SINGLE winding,

which serves as both the primary and the secondary. It follows that a
portion of the winding is common to both the input and to the output. It
may be used either as a step-up or as a step-down transformer.

Fig. 64 AUTO TRANSFORMER

- 56-
If an ac supply is applied to the primary terminals, an alternating current
will flow through those coils connected across P1 and P2. This will set up
an alternating flux which will link with all of the turns on the former,
inducing a voltage in each.

The output voltage is therefore that which appears in the coils across
terminals S1 and S2. Loading the secondary will have the same effect as
described for the Power Transformer. If the current flow is considered for
one particular half-cycle, it will be seen that the primary and secondary
currents are opposing each other in the common portion of the winding.

The actual current flow in the common portion is therefore the difference
between the two currents. This means that the cross-section area of the
copper can be decreased in the common portion, bringing about a saving
in weight.

This saving is obviously most beneficial on auto-transformers where the

input voltage and the output voltage are very close together and the vast
majority of the winding is common.

One disadvantage of this type of transformer, especially when used as a

step-down is that, in the event of an open-circuit occurring in the
common portion of the winding, the input voltage will be applied to the
load.

They are increasingly found in aircraft lighting circuits for example.

The Quadrature Transformer or Mutual Reactor

This device was known about for many years but no practical use was
made of it until the advent of constant frequency ac systems in aircraft
with their associated control systems.

A device was required that gave a phase angle of 90° between the current
in one circuit and a signal being put into another circuit. The angle
between the primary current in a quadrature transformer and its
secondary voltage is (for all practical purposes) 90°.

To explain its operation, consider first of all a normal power transformer

and its basic off-load phasor diagram (figure 65).

- 57 -
 VP

Fig. 65 OFF-LOAD PHASOR DIAGRAM

Fig. 66 QUADRATURE TRANSFORMER

If an air gap is cut in the former of the transformer, more current will be
required to magnetise the core to overcome the increased reluctance. As
the magnetising element of the primary current is at 90° to the applied
voltage, it can be seen that the primary current is increased and at the
same time moved around until it is almost 90° behind the applied
voltage, it also follows that the primary current is almost at 90° ahead of
the secondary emf.

- 58 -
 Fig. 67 PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR QUADRATURE TRANSFORMER

This is the purpose of the Quadrature Transformer. In understanding the

use to which it is put, it is best to forget the applied voltage and to
remember that if a current is forced through the primary, the secondary
emf will occur 90° after it.

The air gap has an optimum size and is usually beneath the windings, so it
looks just like any other small transformer. It is only used to obtain signal
voltages and cannot be loaded to any great extent.

The Current Transformer

The Current Transformer is designed to enable circuit currents to be

measured without breaking into the circuit, as is necessary with an
ammeter or its shunt. The output of the current transformer may be
applied directly to an instrument or be used in control circuits.

It works on the principle of mutual inductance but its construction and

mode of operation are different to that of the power transformer. Current
transformers, use the load's supply cable as the primary winding.

- 59-
 Fig. 68 THE CURRENT TRANSFORMER

Operation

When the load passes through the supply cable, it creates a magnetic
field along its whole length which is constantly building-up, collapsing,
reversing, building-up, etc. It is this flux which induces emfs into the
coils of the secondary winding.

As the ring former and secondary coil only take up a very small length of
the primary cable, it is obvious that, whatever happens at the secondary,
the effect on the primary will be virtually nil. The primary, which depends
on the load, may therefore be regarded as a constant current/constant
flux supply.

The voltage in the secondary winding causes a current to flow through its
load and through the secondary winding. This produces a secondary flux
which opposes the primary flux and so keeps the core flux to a very low
level. This is a most important point to remember because, if the primary
is operated with the secondary winding disconnected from its load there
will be no secondary emf to oppose the primary emf.

This will result in a high core flux; increased eddy currents in the core;
increased voltages in the individual secondary coils; and overheating.

The result is that the current transformer will burn out. (Even if the
mistake is realised and the system is switched off before it actually burns
out, the core may be pre-magnetised, or biased, and cannot therefore be
relied upon to be accurate).

- 60-
If it is necessary to operate the primary when the secondary load is
disconnected, short together the secondary terminals. This will cause a
secondary current and flux and so keep the core flux to a minimum.

If the current transformer is supplying a load such as an ammeter, then

the actual connections may not matter and the ammeter will indicate
whichever way it is connected-up. This is not true, however, when the
current transformer is feeding signals into control circuits, where it is
essential to get the phasing right.
If the secondary connections are crossed, the output will be turned
through 180° causing untold havoc in the control circuit. It is absolutely
essential to get the secondary connections correct. In the same way, if a
current transformer is being fitted over its primary cable, it is absolutely
essential to physically position it the right way round.

SUMMARY
1. When fitting a current transformer, GET IT THE RIGHT WAY
ROUND.
2. When connecting the secondary to its load, CONNECT IT
CORRECTLY.
3. NEVER operate the primary circuit with the secondary open-
circuited--------- SHORT IT OUT!
4. NEVER operate a current transformer on anything other than its
DESIGNED LOAD.
5. In some cases, the current transformer and its load are a matched
pair. (They may even carry the same serial numbers). If one is
changed, then the other must also be changed.
6. When they are used in control circuitry, remember that the
secondary output is a supply source proportional to the primary
current flow.

The Impedance Matching Transformer.

Besides using transformers to change ac values of voltage and current,
we can also use them between a source of supply and a load circuit to
'match' the impedance's of the two circuits.

- 61 -
In any circuit:
the Impedance Z = V/I
Therefore, in a transformer, the impedance Zs of the secondary is the ratio
of secondary voltage to secondary current and the impedance Zp of the
primary is the ratio of the primary voltage to the primary current.

The primary and secondary voltages and currents are related to each
other by the Turns Ratio of the transformer and so it follows that the
impedance's must be related also. This relationship is given by:

ZP = Zs/T2

This means that a secondary load impedance of Zs appears to the source

of supply to be an impedance (Zp) to the value of Zs/T2.

As an example. If a transformer with a turns ratio (T) of 3 is connected to a

load impedance (Zs) of 9000ohms, the supply source 'sees' an impedance
of 9000/9 = 1000 ohms.

Fig. 69 IMPEDANCE MATCHING - 1

It should already be known that maximum power is transferred from a

source of supply to a load circuit only when the load impedance is equal
to the internal impedance of the source of supply.

If we have a case where they are not equal and we want maximum power
to be transferred, we can use the impedance matching effect of a
transformer to achieve the necessary conditions. It is not very difficult to
make a load impedance appear to the supply source to be equal to the
supply source's own impedance.

- 62 -
As an example: The 4 ohms impedance shown in figure 70 must be made
to appear to the supply source to be equal to 10,000 ohms. From the
formula ZP = Zs/T2, we need to find T.

By transposition, T 2 = ZS/ZP = 4/10,000 = 1/2,500

Therefore T = 1/50.

This means that a 50:1 step-down transformer will transform the 4 ohms
in the secondary to 10,000 ohms in the primary and maximum power is
then transferred to the load.

Fig. 70 IMPEDANCE MATCHING - 2

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

A 3 phase transformer is effectively three interconnected single phase
transformers with their windings combined on a single magnetic circuit.
The most common method of construction is the core type shown in
figure 71.

Fig. 71 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

- 63 -
There are four combinations for three phase transformers:

* Star-star
* Delta-delta
* Delta-star
* Star-delta

Fig. 72 CONFIGURATIONS OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Fig. 73 STAR-STAR THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

- 64-
 Fig. 74 DELTA-DELTA THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Calculations for STAR-STAR transformers are as for single phase

transformers except for power. There is no
phase shift between input and output.

Again, for DELTA-DELTA transformers single phase calculations apply

except for power. . Again there is no phase shift
between input and output.

Fig. 75 STAR-DELTA THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

- 65 -
 Fig. 76 DELTA-STAR THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

The STAR-DELTA transformer has a step-down ratio in addition to

the effect of the turns ratio. Figure 75 assumes 1:1 turns ratio. With this
step-down in line voltage there is a 30° phase shift.

The DELTA-STAR transformer has a step-up ratio of line voltage in

addition to the effect of the turns ratio. Figure 76 assumes 1:1 ratio.
With this step-up in line voltage there is a 30° phase shift.

FILTERS

Earlier we found that in an RLC series circuit as the frequency was

increased up to resonance the current increased, after resonance a
further increase in frequency resulted in a decrease in current.

There was therefore a band of frequencies in which the current was

relatively high, and outside this range the current was relatively low.
Such a response is representative of the action of a FILTER.

More definitively a component which is designed to block certain

frequencies and pass others is called a FILTER.

We shall consider the simple form of the following filters: low pass; high
pass; band pass; band stop.

- 66-
Low Pass Filter

A filter which passes all frequencies from zero up to some value fc

(known as the cut-off frequency) and blocks all those above this value is
known as a LOW PASS FILTER. Figure 77 shows the characteristics, the
ideal is the shaded area, the practical operation is shown by the curve.

Fig. 77 GRAPH OF LOW PASS FILTER CHARACTERISTICS

Fig. 78 LOW PASS FILTER CIRCUITS

The simple form of the filter is made up of inductors and capacitors, two
examples are shown in figure 78.

At very low frequencies the impedance of the capacitor is high, acting

almost like an open circuit.

At very high frequencies the capacitor acts almost like a short circuit.

-67-
The impedance of the inductor is low at low frequencies and high at high
frequencies . With a combination of these two different effects
the voltage gain tends to zero as shown in the graph. By using a rc type
filter the voltage drops off more steeply.

Design impedance

And

and the value of L for the filter can be calculated from:

High Pass Filter

This is the opposite to the low pass filter and attenuates (blocks) all
frequencies up to the cut-off frequency and passes all frequencies above
this value. It is called a HIGH PASS FILTER. Figure 79 shows the
characteristic graph, and again the shaded area is the ideal and the
curve the practical operation. Simple circuits for this form of filter are
shown in figure 80.

and

- 68 -
T TYPE n TYPE

Fig. 80 SIMPLE CIRCUITS FOR HIGH PASS FILTERS

This filter requires components that allows current flow at high
frequencies but also acts as an open circuit at low frequencies, this can
be achieved by a capacitor in series. The parallel element must have the
property of a short circuit at low frequencies but have a large impedance
at high frequencies and this is satisfied by an inductor.

Again in this case the design impedance is

And the cut-off frequency

Band Pass Filter

A filter that passes all frequency components between some low cut-off
frequency f c1, and some high cut-off frequency f C2 and blocks all
frequencies below f c1 and above fC2 is a BAND PASS FILTER.

- 69-
Figure 81 shows the characteristic ideal and practical range. Figure 82
shows a simple circuit for a band pass filter.

Fig. 81 CHARACTERISTIC CURVE FOR A BAND PASS FILTER

 Fig. 82 SIMPLE CIRCUIT FOR A BAND PASS FILTER

With reference to figure 82.

The series element is a series resonant circuit where

and it acts like a capacitance at low frequencies and inductance at high
frequencies. The shunt element is a parallel resonant circuit, which has
a large impedance at the resonant frequency which falls to low values at
other frequencies. So this filter allows signals in the region of the
resonant frequency to pass but blocks higher or lower frequencies.

-70-
Band Stop Filter

A filter that stops the transmission of frequencies between fc1 and fC2.
Figure 83 shows the characteristics.

Fig. 83 CHARACTERISTICS OF A BAND STOP FILTER

Fig. 84 SIMPLE CIRCUIT FOR A BAND STOP FILTER

The series element this time is parallel resonant circuits and the shunt
element is a series resonant circuit.

At the lower frequencies the series resonant circuit impedance is high

and the parallel resonant circuit impedance is low, around the resonant
frequencies the parallel circuit impedance is high and the series is low,
therefore frequencies are blocked in this range.

As the frequency increases the parallel circuit impedance falls and the
series circuit increases so frequencies are passed again.

- 71 -
Applications

We have looked at some simple filter arrangements and it should be

realised other filters will be quite sophisticated and will be combined with
operational amplifiers.

Some applications of filters in aircraft are:

HF Communication Transceiver.
VOR Receivers.
Marker Beacon Receiver.
ILS Receiver.
Engine Vibration Monitoring Systems.
Automatic Flight Control Systems.
Flight Director Systems.
Voice Recorder.

DIFFERENTIATORS
Figure 85 shows a simple differentiator circuit consisting of a resistor (R)
and a capacitor (C).

This circuit could be used as a high pass filter, however, with a square
wave input and a short time constant compared to the input pulse, it can
be used as a differentiating circuit.

Fig. 85 DIFFERENTIATOR

- 72 -
 Fig. 86 INPUT/OUPUT GRAPHS - DIFFERENTIATOR

Figure 86 shows the input pulse (V) and the voltages across C (Vc) and R
(VR). Note that:

(a) The voltage output across C is a very close approximation to the

shape of the input pulse, the shorter the time constant (CR) the
better the approximation.

(b) The output across R consists of two very narrow pulses of opposite
sign, one coinciding with the start, the other with the end of the
pulse.

(c) VR = V0

The output is therefore proportional to how fast the input voltage

changes, ie it is sensitive to rate of change on input voltage.

-73-
 INTEGRATORS

If the positions of C and R are changed and we make the time constant
large compared to the input pulse we have an integrating circuit (Figure
87). (Note this basic circuit could be used as a low pass filter). Figure 88
shows the input pulse to a RC circuit with a long time constant and the
resulting output across the capacitor.

Fig. 87 INTEGRATOR

The integrator therefore takes an input and produces an output across

the capacitor over a period of time depending on the values of CR, ie the
output is proportional to the time - integral of the input.

- 74-