SERVO

MECHANISMS
Module: 4 Book: 3/3
AUTHORITY

It is important to note that the information in this book or study/

training purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/ work on aircraft / aircraft equipment

you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual
or equipment manufacturer's handbook

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory

authority (The GCAA in the UAE) and laid down company policy as
regards local procedure. Recording, report writing, documentation
etc.

For health and safety in the workshop you should follow the
regulations/ Guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer,
your company, National safety authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Open loop systems Closed loop Pag

systems Performance of e
servomechanisms Improvement of
transient response 1
Servomechanisms components 1
Synchronous transmitters 5
Synchros 11
Inductance transmitters 20
Capacitance transmitters 26
34
51
55
 SERVOMECHANISM PRINCIPLES

Open Loop Control System

Suppose that we wish to control the position of a radar scanner.

Suppose also that we have a motor capable of driving the scanner and
some means of controlling the motor. Such an arrangement is
illustrated in figure 1.

Fig. 1 OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

The control element controls the magnitude and direction of the input
to a power amplifier, whose output drives the motor at the desired
speed in the required direction. The motor, in turn, moves the load in
accordance with the input demand.

The control element could be calibrated with a scale indicating the

required position of the load. Then when we set the control dial for
the required position, we hope that the load (possibly unseen) is doing
what we are telling it to do.

In practice, however, the accuracy of control is limited because there

are several factors, other than the input, that affect the output (eg
variations in the output load, in the amplifier characteristics or in the
motor circuit). We have no means of controlling these variations in
the open loop system and, because of the resulting inaccuracy; open
loop systems are hardly ever used.

Closed Loop Control System

If we observe what the load is doing and make appropriate corrections

at the input, the system is no longer open loop; it is now, in effect, a
closed loop system, the human operator completing the loop between
output and input. He/she compares the desired effect with the actual
effect and adjusts the system so as to reduce the error between them.
He/she is thus, in this connection, an 'error detector1, and the amount
of error which the person observes determines how adjustments are
made to the input to produce the desired results.

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However, to measure the error and take the necessary correcting
action, we have "built in' the human operator as an essential element.
A more effective and efficient control can be obtained by replacing the
human operator with an automatic control system. The response of
the automatic system is generally quicker and more accurate than that
of a human operator, and the automatic arrangement is not subject to
fatigue. In addition, of course, the automatic system gives a saving in
manpower.

The essential features of the closed loop system are as follows:

The feedback of information concerning the behaviour of the load.
The comparison of this information with the behaviour demanded
by the input.
The production of an error signal proportional to the difference
between the desired behaviour and the actual behaviour.
The amplification of the error signal to control the power into a
servomotor.
The movement of the load by the servomotor in such a direction
as to reduce the error signal to zero, at which point the output is
the same as that demanded by the input.

The block schematic diagram of a basic closed loop control system is

illustrated below. In this arrangement:

6j is the input demand, which in this case is in the form of a shaft

angle.
Go is the output shaft angle of the load.
The control element converts the demand 6, into some form
suitable for operation of the error detector, eg produces a voltage
proportional to 9r
The feedback element does the same for the output angle 60, eg
produces a voltage proportional to 60.

Fig. 2 CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

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 The error detector has two inputs applied to it, one due to 9j and
the other due to 6 0; it produces an error signal e proportional to the
difference between the two inputs, ie (6. - 9 0). The error signal
operates the amplifier which, in turn, causes the motor to rotate
until 6 0 equals 6, (output equals demand); at this point the error
signal is zero and the drive from the motor ceases, the output load
having taken up the position demanded by the input.

Practical Closed Loop Control System

The input demand 6t sets the angle of the transmitter (CX) rotor. The
resulting alternating field in the control transformer stator induces a
voltage in the transformer rotor and this voltage is fed as an error or
misalignment signal to the amplifier. The amplifier output is used to
drive an ac servomotor that turns the output shaft and also the rotor
of the control transformer through output angle 6D

Fig. 3 PRACTICAL CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM

When the output shaft is turned into alignment with the setting of the
input shaft (6 0 = 6,) the transformer rotor is at right angles to the
transmitter rotor and its own stator field. In this position there is no
error signal induced in the transformer rotor, there is no input to the
amplifier or servomotor, and the motor stops. The output has now
taken up the position demanded by the input.

Servomechanisms

To be classed as a servomechanism, an automatic control system

must have:

(a) Error actuation.

(b) Power amplification.

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(c) Closed loop control.
(d) Continuous operation, or 'follow-up' properties, ie if the load is
disturbed from the demanded position, it always tends to return
to it.

The system is said to be error-actuated because it is the error between

the output demanded by the input and the actual output which starts
the action. The final net input to the amplifier is the error signal and
not the input demand.

We must have torque amplification to be able to drive heavy loads.

The servo therefore contains an amplifier that supplies the necessary
driving power to the servomotor; the motor provides the required
torque.

The servo also has a closed loop system;

Error detector - amplifier - motor and load - error detector...

Finally, continuous operation is assured in a servomechanism

because any variation in the output from that demanded by the input
automatically produces a difference between output and input, and
hence an error signal. The error signal again starts the correcting
action.

A servomechanism has many applications, covering a wide range of

power requirements.

Types of Servo

There are two main classes of servomechanism - remote position

control (rpc) servos and speed control servos.

(a) RPC servos. These are used to control the angular or linear
position of a load.

(b) Speed Control Servos. These are used to control the speed of a
load. In this case, the speed of the driving motor is made
proportional to the input demand usually a voltage).
Inputs

Two types of input to a servo are:

created when the input shaft is suddenly
1. STEP INPUT - rotated from one angular position to another.
- 4-
 Time ------*-
Fig. 5 RAMP INPUT
2. RAMP INPUT created when the input shaft is rotated at a
constant angular velocity.
PERFORMANCE OF SERVOMECHANISMS

Response

The response of a servo is the pattern of behaviour of the load when a

change is made to the input condition. It has so far been assumed
that if the input moves to 6; the load will simply follow, its response
being a reproduction of the input movement.

The paragraphs that follow will show that matters are not as simple as
this.

Fig. 6 SIMPLE SERVOMECHANISM

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Step Input - No Friction

For this discussion we will assume that the input and output were
aligned at 90, until the input suddenly change to 9 r An error signal
proportional to 90 - 9t appears at the amplifier input and the motor is
energised to null the error.

One important point must now be emphasised. The torque delivered

by the motor to the load is directly proportional to the error; it acts
only on the inertia of the load, which therefore accelerates at a rate
proportional to the error. As the error reduces so the acceleration
reduces, until it reaches zero with zero error.

But this is not a satisfactory state of affairs, for the load acceleration is
in one sense only and that to increase its velocity. Saying that the
acceleration is zero at zero error simply means that the load has
reached a steady speed when we require it to be stationary. Further,
since there is nothing to stop it, it keeps moving past the required
position.

The error signal produced, and, therefore, the torque applied to the
load, now reverses in sense to slow down the load. Since, however,
the components operate symmetrically about the null, the pattern of
deceleration is a mirror image of the original acceleration.

The load stops when it has overshot by the initial error, and from there
the performance is repeated. The resulting load oscillation about the
demanded position is illustrated graphically in figure 7.

Fig. 7 RESPONSE TO A STEP INPUT - NO FRICTION

Ramp Input - No Friction

The description of the response can be followed in the diagram. In the

early states of the ramp, while the error signal is small, the load
accelerates slowly and lags behind the input.

-6-
The error signal grows as the lag increases, building up the
acceleration. Eventually the load speed equals the input speed but
since a substantial position error exists it continues to accelerate.
When its speed exceeds that of the input the position error starts to
decrease; the acceleration reduces and the load reaches a constant
speed at zero position error with no error signal.
The load speed, however, exceeds the input speed and an overshoot
results. That the outcome is a continuous oscillation can be easily
imagined from this point.

Fig. 8 RESPONSE TO A RAMP INPUT - NO FRICTION

Effect of Restraints

The oscillatory responses are obviously not desirable, and luckily,

restraints on the load have a stabilising effect. Various inherent
factors are to oppose the load movement; they include static friction,
kinetic friction, eddy currents, air resistance, viscous lubricants and
many others.

Lumping them all together for the moment the general effect is to
reduce the amplitude of each successive swing until gradually the
output becomes steady. The oscillations are known as transients and
they are effective during the transient response period, or settling
time. Once the output has settled it has reached the steady state.
While restraints are beneficial in stabilising, or damping, the
response, they do have certain detrimental effects. One of these is
that power is wasted; another is the introduction of error in the steady
state.

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Steady State Errors
Examination of the various restraints present would show that their
effect is in part due to a small constant magnitude force known as
coulomb friction and in part to viscous friction that increases with
speed.
Coulomb friction is that part of the frictional force that is independent
of speed, eg a shoe on a brake drum.
The resistance due to coulomb friction tends to degrade the sensitivity
of a servo, for a torque that overcomes it must be generated before any
movement of the load takes place. To provide this torque the load
error must reach some finite size, and any errors less than this will
not be corrected. Figure 9 shows the effect of coulomb friction on the
response to a step input.
The load comes to rest somewhere within a band of error, known as
the dead space, the width of which depends on the amount of
coulomb friction. For most modern servos the coulomb friction is very
small, and its effect is often neglected.

Time *• ...........Coulomb friction

Fig. 9 RESPONSE WITH COULOMB FRICTION TO
A STEP INPUT

Viscous friction does not produce a dead space in the step input case
since it has no value when the speed is zero. It does however produce
a similar effect when the ramp input is considered.
In the steady state the load is moving with constant speed; it is
therefore being resisted by viscous friction. An error signal must be
produced to overcome this therefore an error must exist.
The response is illustrated in figure 10 and the error necessary to
overcome the friction is known as velocity lag.
The output shaft rotates at the same speed as the input shaft but lags
behind it by some constant angle. This positional error is velocity lag.

-8-
Coulomb friction may be considered small compared with viscous
friction during a ramp input, but, of course, it also contributes to this
error. However, the greater part is due to viscous friction, and since
this increases with speed the error is generally reckoned to vary-
directly with speed.

Fig. 1O RESPONSE WITH VISCOUS FRICTION

TO A RAMP INPUT

Response of a RFC Servo to a Step Input (Negligible Coulomb Friction)

Figure 11 shows a basic rpc servo system.

Let us assume that the output shaft is driving a load, and that it has
taken up a position which agrees with that demanded by the input
shaft (6. = 9;).

The error signal is therefore zero, and the servo is stationary in a

steady state condition.

Fig. 11 BASIC RPC SERVO

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 Sudden change in input demand G,

Fig. 12 RESPONSE CURVE

Now suppose that the input shaft is suddenly turned through a
certain angle in order to bring the load into a new position, ie an input
known as a 'step input' is applied. The sequence of events is
illustrated in figure 12,

(a) The input demand 9 is suddenly change to a new value at point

a. The output shaft cannot immediately follow this change in
demand because of the inertia of the load. Therefore there is now
a difference between 6 0 and 6 ; and an error signal is produced.
(b) The error signal, after amplification, causes the motor to
accelerate in an attempt to bring the output shaft to the new
demanded position. Because of the inertia of the load this takes
time; there is therefore a time lag during which the output angle
Q, is changing in response to the change in demand (b in figure
(b) above).
(c) As the motor turns the load, the output angle 6 D approaches the
demand 6 r The error signal, which is proportional to (9 i - 90}
therefore decreases but the driving force remains until 8 0 equals 0 j
at point c; this is the required load position.
(d) By the time 6 D has reached the demanded position, the load has
acquired considerable momentum and consequently overshoots
(point d\.
(b) The error signal now increases in the opposite direction ((6 0
greater than Q-) and the motor applies a reverse torque which
eventually stops the load and brings it back to the required
position at point e.
(f) Once again, however, the momentum of the load carries it past
the required position and another overshoot occurs at /

- 10 -
The load may thus oscillate about its final required position many
times before it comes to rest; a servomechanism that does this is said
to be 'hunting'.

IMPROVEMENT OF TRANSIENT RESPONSE

For many applications the simple servo using its inherent friction for
damping is perfectly adequate. This is usually the case for small
position servos, but when large loads are involved the transient
response is unsatisfactory.

Time and energy is wasted during this period, and bearing wear is
increased. It is evidently desirable to reduce the number of
oscillations, and also the response time. Two methods commonly
employed are described.

Viscous Damping

This method is simply a controlled increase of the inherent viscous

damping to achieve the required response. One device in use is the
eddy current damper as shown in figure 13.

This simple device consists of a thin disc of metal with high electrical
conductivity (usually aluminium), which is attached to the output
shaft. It spins between the poles of electromagnets mounted round its
periphery.

Eddy currents are induced of magnitude proportional to the field

strength and to the disc velocity. These eddy currents set up
magnetic fields that act against the inducing fields and forces
opposing the disc rotation are created.

- 11 -
These forces are closely proportional to the disc velocity, and therefore
provide parallels to the inherent viscous forces. Adjusting the current
flow to the electromagnets can control them.

Varying degrees of damping can be applied. The next diagram shows

some of the stages, coulomb friction being ignored for simplicity. Using
only inherent friction under damping is achieved.

Too much extra viscous friction will produce a very sluggish response
and the system is over damped. The degree of damping which just
prevents any overshoot is known as critical damping.

Slightly less damping than this, to allow one small overshoot, is

optimum damping which gives the smallest settling time.

Most designs are aimed at this condition.

The effect on the transients for a ramp input can be similarly adjusted
to reduce optimum damping. A snag arises, however, for any increase
in viscous friction also increases the velocity lag.

Thus to remove the transient oscillations completely a considerable

velocity lag must be expected. Figure 15 illustrates the response for
two degrees of damping for a ramp input.

Velocity Feedback Damping

This form of damping is similar to viscous friction damping in one

respect; the compensation produced is proportional to the velocity, or
rate of movement, of the output shaft. Velocity feedback damping has
the advantage, however, that it consumes very little power.

- 12 -
In an rpc servo we are required to move the load from one position to
another as quickly as possible without causing instability (ie hunting)
or wasting power.

We have already seen that a step input applied to a servo causes the
servomotor to apply a torque, which accelerates the load. As the load
gathers speed and approaches the desired position we require some
arrangement that will 'anticipate' that the load is going to overshoot
and so reverse the motor torque before the desired position is reached.
If the arrangement is adjusted correctly the result is that the load
comes to rest just as it reaches the required position; overshooting and
hunting are therefore prevented.

For a servomechanism, this arrangement is achieved by attaching a

tacho-generator to the output shaft. A tacho-generator is a small ac or
dc generator that produces a voltage proportional to the angular
velocity of the output shaft.

A suitable fraction of this voltage is fed back to the input of the

amplifier in opposition to the error signal (negative feedback) to
provide the necessary compensation; this is known as velocity
feedback damping, because the voltage fed back is proportional to the
velocity of the output shaft.

The aim with velocity feedback is to reduce the net input to the
amplifier to zero and then to reverse it before the output shaft reaches
its required position.
If the amount of feedback is correctly adjusted - and this can be done
fairly easily by means of a potentiometer - the forward momentum of
the load, acting against the reversed torque, causes the load to come
to rest just as it reaches the required position.

- 13-
The action is illustrated by the graph (figure 16). Initially, when the step
input is applied, the output shaft does not move and the full amplified
error is applied to the motor (no velocity feedback since the load is at
rest).
The motor accelerates the load and as the input and output shafts come
into alignment, the error falls; at the same time, because the load is now
moving rapidly, a large velocity feedback voltage is applied in opposition
to the error voltage.

The net input to the amplifier therefore drops rapidly and then increases
in the opposite direction as the velocity feedback voltage becomes larger
than the error signal. A decelerating torque is thus applied to the load
before it reaches the demanded position. As the motor slows down, the
velocity feedback voltage falls; so also does the error signal because the
output and input shafts are coming more into alignment.

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When the required position is reached, the motor stops; velocity feedback
is then zero and so also is the error signal, the input and output shafts
being aligned.

So transient response can be improved in two ways, by applying extra

viscous friction or by velocity feedback. Both increase velocity lag in
response to ramp inputs, but of the two, velocity feedback is preferred
since power is not wasted.

Just a re-cap on velocity lag on a servomechanism with a ramp input and

velocity feedback damping.

The feedback voltage from the tacho-generator to the amplifier is in

opposition to the error signal.

In a servo that is being driven at a constant speed there must always be

an error signal to keep the load moving, however this error signal will
have to be larger than required as it has to be greater than the velocity
feedback voltage. Therefore, velocity lag is greater than required, ie
greater positional error between input and output shafts.

We shall now look at common methods to reduce velocity lag in step input
and ramp input systems.

Transient Velocity Feedback

This type of damping is often referred to as 'acceleration feedback

damping' and is used in an angular velocity system to reduce velocity lag.

As you can see inserted between the tacho-generator and the amplifier is
a differentiating network.

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In a speed control servo, the velocity feedback provides damping when
transient speed changes occur, however when the speed is constant
no damping is required, however the signal is still being fed to the
amplifier and causing excessive velocity lag.

The transient velocity feedback system is designed therefore to provide

damping during changes in speed, but when the speed is constant,
provide no damping and therefore reduce velocity lag to a minimum.

When the speed of the output shaft is constant, the tacho-generator

voltage is constant, after the initial charging current the voltage across
R falls to zero, no output from the network, no damping to the system,
velocity lag reduced.

When the speed changes, ie damping required, the capacitor charges or

discharges through R to give an output to the amplifier to provide the
necessary damping.

The tacho-generator output is therefore differentiated by CR giving

damping only when the load speed is changing.

Phase Advance Damping

Stabilisation of a servomechanism to obtain a good transient response

in rpc system and a good steady state response in a velocity system,
reducing velocity lag can also be achieved by inserting a suitable
network in the input to the amplifier.

A typical arrangement using a correction network, known as a phase-

advance network is shown in figure 18.

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In an rpc system when a step input is applied, there is a large error
signal, the current through R and the charging current through C are
in the same direction. The input to the amplifier is therefore IR + Ic
(modified error signal), this causes the servomotor to accelerate
rapidly. As the error signal decreases, C commences to discharge
through R, the total current therefore into the servo amplifier is then IR
- Ic-

By suitable choices of C and R, ie controlling the time constant of the

network, it can be arranged that the signal itself becomes zero, before
the error signal is zero, providing a retarding torque before the load
reaches the required position, overshooting is prevented and stability
during the transient period improved. Velocity feedback damping is
omitted, the network is doing the same job but is not introducing
velocity lag.

For a velocity control system (ramp input), the network provides

damping on the initial switch 'on' and for any speed change as
described for the step input system. However, at steady state the error
is very small indeed and velocity lag is greatly reduced. So this system
by removing velocity feedback damping has reduced velocity lag, the
correction network providing the necessary damping.

Other types of correct network are used, depending upon the response
required. Some rpc servos require only a rapid response velocity lag
being unimportant; in other rpc servos, velocity lag must be taken into
consideration. In systems required to rotate at a constant angular
velocity, velocity lag must be reduced to a minimum. Different
combinations of C and R in the network may be used to produce the
desired response.

Error Rate Damping

Another method used to reduce velocity lag in am angular velocity

control system is error rate damping. One possible arrangement is
shown in figure 19.

One tacho-generator is mounted on the output shaft and produces a

voltage proportional to the speed of the shaft. A second tacho-
generator is mounted on the input shaft produces a voltage
proportional to the input speed. There are therefore three input
signals to the amplifier. The combined input is a voltage proportional
to the error plus a voltage proportional to the input speed minus a
voltage proportional to the output speed.

If you remember in a velocity feedback system in the steady state ie

input and output shafts rotating at the same speed, the velocity lag
was mainly caused by the signal from the output tacho-generator.

- 17-
In this system the input tacho-generator is cancelling this signal in the
steady state, so velocity lag is reduced to a minimum. The position
error reducing any velocity lag that does exist.

In principle, this arrangement seems fine but it is very difficult to get

two tacho-generators to give exactly the same output, especially with
time.

However a simplification of this arrangement is possible. The two

tacho-generators are producing voltage outputs proportional to input
minus output speed, or proportional to the speed of the error signal. The
velocity of this error is equal to rate of change of error with respect to
time. This can be achieved by using a differentiator, ie differentiating
the error with respect to time.

- 18 -
Therefore by combining the derivative of the error signal and
combining it with the actual error, the net input to the amplifier is a
voltage proportional to the error plus a voltage proportional to speed
(input minus output). So therefore in the steady state the system has
very low velocity lag. In the transient state the differentiator will
provide the necessary damping signals.

At start up rate of change of error signal is high and the input to the
amplifier will be high to accelerate the load. As the input and output
shaft speeds come into line the output of the differentiator opposes the
position error signal to provide a retarding torque before the load
reaches the required speed. At steady state the differentiator output is
zero, position error signal reduces velocity lag.

Integral Control

The methods so far described reduce velocity lag, but have no effect on
lag and dead space caused by inherent friction. A common method of
dealing with these residual steady state errors is known as Integral
Control.

The differentiator D (figure 21) acts as previously described for error

are damping. The integrator is connected as shown, ie integrating the
error signal and feeding into the amplifier. An integrator is a device
that takes on input signal and slowly builds up that input signal on
its output.

When the servo system reaches its steady state with a small residual
error, the integrator output will have built up to provide an additional
signal to drive the load to the alignment position.

Adjustment of the integrator output can be made to ensure that when

the error signal is zero its output is just sufficient to counter inherent
friction.

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Summary

Most servos in aircraft systems are damped by inherent friction, extra

viscous friction or velocity feedback. However in some application,
improved sensitivity and reduction of velocity lag are required. The
diagram below shows a comparison of damping methods.

SERVOMECHANISM COMPONENTS

Servomechanisms may be ac or dc operated.

DC Servo Components

The positional feedback signal would be from a potentiometer in most

cases. The error detector would be potentiometer circuits or electronic
circuits producing an error signal proportional to the difference
between input and output shaft rotations. The servo amplifiers must
produce sufficient power to drive the servomotor; this power
requirement will depend on the system. The power amplifiers used in
conjunction with voltage amplifiers (to provide gain) will thus vary in
power output.

DC servomotors must be capable of being reversed and the torque

developed must be proportional to the error signal input. As torque is
proportional to the product of the armature current and the field
current, the armature current is kept constant, and the torque can be
controlled by varying the field current (error signal).

-20 -
So separate supplies are used, the armature current being fed from a
constant current source and the field being fed from the servo
amplifier. The diagram shows a de-operated servomotor. Attached to
the motor is a servo amplifier, feedback is provided by a
potentiometer, the wiper of which is driven by the motor.

The dc tacho-generator mounted on the output shaft of the

servomechanism. It is small, separately excited dc generator. It will
therefore produce a dc voltage that is directly proportional to the
speed at which it is driven and whose polarity depends upon the
direction of rotation.

AC Servo Components

The positional feedback signal may be from potentiometers, synchros,

LVDT's, RVDT's. The servo amplifier is a conventional transistorised
amplifier with voltage and power amplifiers.

AC servomotors capable of producing moderately high torque are

usually induction motors. Induction motors run at a constant speed
(related to the frequency of the ac supply), but their torque and their
direction of rotation can be controlled fairly easily by the amplified
error signal, without the use of complex circuitry.

Two-phase and three-phase induction motors are in common use in ac

servo systems; the two-phase type is more usual.
The two-phase induction motor (figure 24) requires two ac supply
voltages 90° out of phase with each other. One phase is fed to the
control system and then through the servo amplifier to one stator
winding of the motor; this supply is controlled by the error signal. The
other phase, known as the 'reference phase', is fed directly to the other
phase winding of the motor.

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When the reference phase to one stator winding and the error-
controlled phase to the other winding are both present, a rotating
magnetic field is produced; the squirrel-cage rotor follows this field and
so rotates.

The direction of rotation depends upon the sense of the error signal, ie
on the direction of misalignment between input and output shafts of
the servo,

As the misalignment signal passes through the zero error signal

position, the phase of the error-controlled voltage reverses and this
reverses the direction of rotation of the motor. When the error is zero,
the error-controlled phase voltage is zero also and no rotating
magnetic field is produced; the motor thus stops.

The torque developed by the motor depends upon the magnitude of the
error signal; the greater the error, the larger is the torque.

Fig. 24 TWO-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Hysteresis motors may also be used as ac servomotors. A typical

arrangement is shown in figure 25. A two-phase supply is required,
the reference phase voltage being applied to phase windings AAi, and
the error-controlled voltage to BBi. At one instant, A will act as a N-
pole and Ai as a S-pole; B and 31 will be neutral.

The rotor - a cobalt steel ring - will therefore have a S-pole induced at
X and a N-pole at Y. A quarter of a cycle later, B will act as a N-pole
and Bi as a S-pole, A and Ai will be neutral. However, the rotor,
which is made of a large hysteresis loop material, will have retained its
S-pole at X and its N-pole at Y. So point X on the rotor is attracted to
the B stator winding and Y is attracted to BI.

- 22 -
Since a torque is being exerted on the rotor it will turn to follow the
rotating magnetic field and will continue to do so until the error signal
falls to zero. The direction of rotation depends upon the phase of the
error-controlled voltage relative to the reference voltage and this, in
turn, depends upon the sense of the error. The torque developed
depends upon the magnitude of the error.

Servomotor Construction

The diagram shows a two-phase induction motor, the two phase

winding accommodated in slots in the stator. The rotor is of the
squirrel cage construction generally with aluminium conductors.

The stator and rotor slots are skewed, this prevents the reluctance of
the rotor to move away from one of a number of positions where the
slots in the rotor and stator are aligned and so ensures smooth torque
output.

The ac tacho-generator is used to provide velocity feedback damping in

ac servo systems, is mounted on the output shaft so that it rotates at
the same speed as the load.

The ac tacho-generator is usually a drag-cup generator that produces

an alternating voltage of the same frequency as the ac supply.
However, the amplitude of the voltage depends upon the speed of
rotation; and the phase of the voltage leads or lags the ac supply
depending upon the direction of rotation.

The drag-cup generator has a two-coil stator whose axes are at right
angles, as in a two-phase induction motor. The rotor, however, is a
copper or brass cup with a stationary iron cylinder fitted inside it to
complete the magnetic path for the stator.

- 23-
AC is applied to only one stator coil - the primary coil. As the output
shaft drives the rotor, voltages are induced in it by interaction with the
field produced by the current in the primary stator. At any instant,
maximum voltage is induced in that part of the cup passing through
the primary axis.

Maximum circulating (eddy) currents are therefore in this axis, and

these currents produce a secondary magnetic field that is at right
angles to the axis of the primary field.

This secondary field alternates at the frequency of the supply current

but its magnitude depends upon the amplitude of the circulating eddy
currents induced in the rotor by the primary field; this, in turn,
depends upon the speed or rotation.

-24 -
The secondary stator winding of the tacho-generator is at right angles
to the primary axis and so has a voltage induced in it by the secondary
field only.

This is the output voltage whose amplitude is proportional to the

speed of rotation and whose phase relative to the reference ac supply
depends upon the direction of rotation. A typical ac tacho-generator
provides a velocity feedback voltage of 0.5V per 1,000 rpm of the rotor.

-25-
 SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMITTERS

The Desynn System

The Desynn is a dc system of transmission that indicates continuous

variation of shaft position. It is a relatively simple system, which
because it produces a low torque, is useful only for remote indication of
angular position; as such it is ideal where a simple pointer and scale
indicator is adequate.

As in all electrical remote indication systems, the input shaft is

connected to a transmitter element that is connected to the receiver
unit by wires. The receiver unit drives the output shaft that operates
the remote indicator.

In the Desynn system (figure 29), the transmitter is a circular

potentiometer which has three fixed tapings {a, b and c) spaced 120°
apart, connected to the receiver unit. A rotating spring loaded
mechanism (to take up backlash/) mounted on the input shaft carried
two sliding contacts or wipers that are arranged exactly opposite one
another. The wipers are fed, via slip rings and brushes, from the
positive and negative terminals of a dc supply.

-26-
The receiver has three coils (a, b and c) with axes 120° apart
(connected in star). Within them is a permanent magnet rotor which
is capable of rotation through 360° and which carries a pointer over a
calibrated scale. The three air-cored coils in the receiver are
connected to the tapping points a, b and c on the transmitter by the
three lines shown in figure 29.

A weak circular magnet which plays no part in the normal operation

of the indicator, will return the points to an "OFF SCALE" position if
the power supply fails or is switched 'OFF' (See figure 31).

When a dc supply is connected to the transmitter wipers, the voltages

at the tapping points a, b and c in the transmitter cause currents to
flow through the three stator coils in the receiver, a resultant magnetic
field is produced and the rotor magnet aligns itself with this field. For
example, with the input shaft in the position shown at a in figure 32
point a is at 24V with respect to supply negative, while b and c are both
+8V.

With a positive by the same amount to both b and c, current flows

from a through coil a in the receiver; it then divides equally and half
the total current goes through coil b and half through coil c back to
the transmitter. The magnetic fields f a, fb and fc associated with these
currents and also the resultant magnetic field are shown by vectors
and the rotor magnet aligns itself with this field.

If the input shaft is rotated 120° clockwise, as at fa in figure 32 the

voltage distribution is such that the total current flows through coil b,
it then divides equally through a and c and flows back to the
transmitter. The vectors show that the resultant magnetic field has
also rotated 120° clockwise from its initial position and the rotor
magnet aligns along itself this new axis.

The magnitude and polarity of the voltage at each tapping point on the
transmitter therefore vary according to the position of the wipers.
Thus, if the input shaft is rotated, the variation of voltage at a, b and c
produces changes in the currents flowing in the stator coils, and a
magnetic field rotating in sympathy with the input shaft is produced.
The rotor magnet remains aligned with this field at all times and so
rotates in. synchronism with the input shaft. A pointer, moving over a
calibrated scale, is attached to the rotor so that a remote indication of
the position of the input shaft is immediately available.
A typical example of the use of the Desynn is remote indication of
wing flap angle, the flap shaft acting as the 'input' shaft.

-27-
The Desynn is said to be self-synchronous because the output shaft
continuously moves in sympathy, or in synchronism, with the input
shaft.

- 28 -
Any change in the position of the input shaft results in an immediate
and corresponding change in the position of the output shaft; this
synchronous movement is inherent in the system, ie it is self-
synchronous.

The Desynn also gives a continuous indication of change of position

through 360°. It is, however, only a low power device, the current
being limited by the resistance of the transmitter potentiometer. The
desynn is therefore only suitable for operating indicating pointers and
similar light loads.

Figures 33 and 34 show a Desynn system used to indicate flap position

on a small passenger carrying jet aircraft. Note the linkage between the
flap and the transmitter and the available adjustments.

Typical Desynn Faults

The table below shows some of the possible faults and subsequent
actions.

- 29 -
-30-
- 31 -
Maintenance Checks on Adjustment of Transmitter

On the desynn system there will usually be two forms of adjustment,

one adjusts lever length and the other lever angle. It may be useful
now to discuss these two adjustments in a bit more detail. (Refer to
figure 35).
Lever length on the transmitter is the distance between the lever pivot
point X and the connection to the link at Y; this arm is adjustable as
shown in detail A-A figure 34. It should be noted that making the
extension arm longer would increase lever length and decrease
indicator pointer movement. Making the extension arm smaller will
decrease lever length and increase indicator pointer movement.

The basic adjustment then of this type of system is to set the flap to
various positions and checking pointer indication and adjusting the
lever length as required ensuring correct pointer indication at all flap
positions.

It should be noted that adjusting lever length generally only

counteracts a regularly increasing or decreasing error, eg for each 1
unit movement it only moves 0.8. In other systems, adjustment of
lever angle may be possible. This is the angle between the adjustable
link arm and the extension arm in figure 34. (Note. It cannot be
adjusted on this system).

-32 -
Unlike lever length adjustment, lever angle adjustment is not a
constant value, ie for each adjustment the pointer deflection becomes
progressively greater for each indication position.

Therefore on systems with both types of adjustments, it will be

necessary to adjust each in turn to obtain the desired pointer
indications.

- 33 -
 SYNCHROS

In many cases on modern aircraft it is necessary to transmit

information from a remote point and transfer this data to control box
or instrument. A typical data transmission system used to do this
uses 'synchros'.

There are four basic types are:

1) Torque synchros
2) Control synchros
3) Differential synchros
4) Resolver synchros

Torque Synchros

The basic construction of this type of synchro is shown in figure 37.

The stator is star connected with the windings 120° apart, the rotor
has a single winding which is fed with single-phase ac via slip rings.

The torque synchro circuit is shown in figure 38. It consists of a

TORQUE (T) TRANSMITTER (X) and a TORQUE (T) RECEIVER (R).

The TX and TR are similar but the TR has some form of damper
mechanism to prevent oscillation. The TR can be used as a TX but
the TX cannot be used as a TR as it has no damping. Note the circuit
symbol in figure 39.

- 34-
Operation of Torque Synchro System

In this system ac is fed to both synchro rotors, assuming the rotors

are in identical position then the ac applied to the rotor is acting like
the primary of a transformer and emf s will be induced into the stator
windings.

These emfs will depend on rotor position.

If the rotors are in identical position then the emfs in the TX and TR
stator windings are identical and no current flows between the two-
synchro stators. This is known as the 'NULL' position.

- 35-
Fig. 40 EFFECT OF VARIOUS INTERCONNECTIONS
IN THE TORQUE SYNCHRO SYSTEM

- 36 -
The TX is usually mechanically coupled to an input shaft and the rotor
of the TR is coupled to a pointer of an instrument. A typical
application on older aircraft would be flap position indication. The TX
being in the flap transmitter near the flap and the TR being in the flap
indicator on the flight deck.

If the flap is now moved (TX input shaft moves, say 20°) then the emf s
in the TX stator will change due to change of rotor position. These
emfs are no longer equal to the TR stator voltages, therefore current
must flow between the two stators. This causes a resultant magnetic
field in the TX and TR stator's.
The TX rotor cannot move as it is mechanically coupled to the flap.
The TR rotor is free to move and lines up with this resultant field
(which is 20° from the NULL position). As the rotor lines up with this
field, the two rotors are again in the same position, the emfs induced
in the stators are the same, no current flows and the flap position
indicator now shows the new flap position.
The effect of interchanging the rotor and stator connections are shown
in Figure 40, particularly notice that reversal of rotor connections (b)
produces an output that is 180" out from the input rotation and
changing over any two stator connections gives reversed direction of
rotation of TR.
It should be noted that the output of the TR produces a very low
torque, enough only to drive a light pointer mechanism.

CONTROL SYNCHROS

The control synchro system provides an error voltage signal in the

receiving element. This error signal is an indication of the
displacement of the two rotor windings relative to each other. The
control synchro system comprises two synchros the control (C)
transmitter (X) and the control (C) transformer (T).
The control transmitter (CX) is similar in construction to the TX
except the windings are of high impedance.

The control transformer (CT) also has windings of high impedance; the
rotor winding is wound on a laminated cylindrical former and
distributed in slots that are skewed to prevent 'lock-on' effect.
The control synchro can be used to indicate control surface position
with the CT in the indicator, or used in a servo system to provide a
signal to a control surface servomotor.

-37-
One of the two important things to note is that the ac supply is fed
only to the CX rotor and the discriminator amplifier, and the other is
that in the NULL (no error signal) position the rotors are at 90° to one
another.

In the null position the ac voltage applied to the CX rotor acts like the
primary of a transformer and voltages are induced in the CX stator
windings. These voltages will be different, and this difference in
potential will drive a current through the CT stator windings.

-38 -
These currents produce magnetic fields around each coil; the fields
combine to form one resultant field. In this null position this resultant
field cuts the CT rotor at 90° so no emfis induced into the CT rotor
winding.

If the CX rotor input shaft is moved the voltages in the CT rotor will
change, due to change of rotor position. These new voltages will
change the currents flowing through the CT stator windings and
therefore the position of the resultant magnetic field.
Whatever angle the CX rotor had been turned, the resultant magnetic
field across the CT will also have moved that amount. As this
resultant field is no longer at 90° in the rotor but at an angle to it, then
an emfis induced in the rotor winding.
This induced emf Is fed to the discriminator amplifier where its phase
relationship is compared with that of the supply to provide the correct
error voltage and phase relationship to the two phase induction
control phase and drive the motor in the correct sense.
The motor drives through a gearbox to the indicator {in this example)
and also to the rotor of the CT. When the motor has driven the CT
rotor until it is 90° to the new field, no voltage will be induced, motor
stops, and indicator shows the movement of the CX input shaft. The
two-synchro rotors are once again in the NULL position ie 90° to one
another.

Again in this system if two of the stator windings between the CX and
CT are swapped then for a clockwise input to the CX rotor the output
signal to indicator will be anti-clockwise, ie the indicator will show
reverse indication.

What would be the effect of swapping the rotor leads Ri and R2 on the
a) CX rotor?
b) CT rotor?

DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHROS

These are used as an additional synchro (TDX or CDX) inserted

between a TX and TR in a torque differential system and between a CX
and CT in a control differential system. They give an output
proportional to the sum or difference of two inputs.
The torque differential transmitter (TDX) is similar in construction to
the control differential transmitter (CDX).

- 39 -
The rotors have three windings instead of the usual single winding,
spaced 120° wound on a slotted core connected in the star
configuration. One end of each winding is connected to a slip ring on
the rotor shaft.
The stator windings are the normal star connected windings at 120° to
one another. The next diagrams show the basic construction with
electrical and schematic diagrams. The CDX has higher impedance
windings than the TDX.
TORQUE DIFFERENTAIL SYNCHO SYSTEM

With reference to figure 45 note the input shaft 1 is attached to the TX

rotor and input shaft 2 is connected to the rotor of the TDX. The TR
rotor is connected to a pointer, giving the sum of difference between
the input shaft angles 1 and 2. Power supply is connected to the TX
and TR rotor.

If input shaft 1 is rotated, say 15° clockwise and input shaft 2 is kept
still, the voltage changes in TX stator windings to cause current to
How in the TDX stator.

- 40-
This produces a field which cuts the TDX rotor and this induced emf
drives currents through the TR stator windings, producing a field which
has moved 15° clockwise and the rotor, free to move, will line up with
this field, indicating the movement of input shaft 1. So in this condition
the TDX is acting as a transformer.
Assume input shaft 1 is kept still and input shaft 2 is rotated 15°
clockwise. Moving the TDC rotor clockwise is equivalent to moving the
field 15° anti-clockwise. The induced emf in rotor produces voltages that
drive currents through the TR stator that causes the field produced to
rotate 15° anti-clockwise and the TR rotor will line up with this,
indicating the movement of input shaft 2.
If now input shaft 1 in rotated 45° clockwise and input shaft 2 is rotated
15° clockwise then the output will be the difference between the two
inputs ie 30° clockwise output of TR.
If the stator windings between TX and TDX are crossed {81-83, S 3-Si) and
TDX to TR (Ri-S3, Rr-Si) are crossed then 45° clockwise rotation of the
TX rotor and 15° clockwise rotation of the TDX rotor will give the sum
of the two inputs.

Crossing over (81-83, 83-81) between TX and TDX produces an output

that is the reverse of the sum of the two inputs, see next diagram.

Just crossing over (Ri-Ss, Ra-Si) between TDX and TR produces the
reverse difference between the two inputs.

-42 -
CONTROL DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO SYSTEM

As can be seen this is very similar to the torque differential system

with the CDX between the CX and CT. AC supply being fed to the CX
only, the output being an error signal proportional to the sum or
difference of the two shaft rotations.

The operation is similar to that of the torque synchro system.

Frequency and Supply Voltages

The supply frequency will be 400Hz and input voltages are 115 volts
or 26 volts giving induced line voltages of 90 volts and 11 -Sv
respectively and control transformer maximum outputs of 57.3v and
22.5v respectively.
The following table gives a list of the possible faults and subsequent
actions.

-43 -
RESOLVER SYNCHROS

An alternating voltage can be represented by a phasor length r and the

angle it makes with the x-axis.

We can split this phasor into its two component parts as shown in
figure 52.

-44-
Where x = r cos 0 and y = r sin 0

These are called the CARTESIAN co-ordinates of the phasor.

A resolver synchro can convert from poZarto Cartesian ie feed in an ac

voltage and rotate the shaft i/a_and it will give two outputs r sin © and r
cos ©. It can also convert Cartesian to polar ie feed in a sine and
cosine voltage and it resolves them into a voltage and shaft rotation.

The resolver synchro as shown in next diagram, has two windings on

the stator at 90° to one another and two windings on the rotor at 90°
to one another.

We shall now look at the resolver synchro operation in both modes.

Polar to Cartesian

In this mode the rotor winding RsR4 is shorted and we feed our
alternating voltage r onto RiRa. With the system stationary,
winding is directly opposite so maximum voltage is induced into it,
while stator winding 8384 is at right angles to this supply and no
voltage is induced.

- 45 -
 •

If the rotor is now moved angle 6 then the voltage in Si82 will fall and
that in 8384 will begin to rise and at 90° rotation the emf induced into
SiS2 will be zero and that induced into 8384 will be maximum. If this
rotation continued than a 8182 = r cos 9 (cosine waveform) and 8384 =
r sin 9 (sine waveform) will be formed.

So by rotating the rotor an angle 9 we have split the input voltage into
its two Cartesian components.

Cartesian to Polar

Note here the cosine voltage (r cos e) is applied to the stator winding
SiSa while the sine voltage (r sin 9) is applied to the stator winding
8384. These two voltages produce fields in the stator that combine to
form one field that cuts the rotor windings RiR2 and RsRi. The emf
induced into RiR2 is fed to an amplifier.

The amplifier output is fed to a servomotor that is mechanically

coupled to a load and the rotor of the synchro. So the rotor and load
are turned, when the rotor winding RiR2 is at 90° to the stator field
there is no emf induced into RiR2 and the servomotor stops.

- 46 -
The rotor winding RsR4 at this time is aligned with the stator field and
the voltage induced will be the resultant of the input voltages Vx and
Vy-

Fig. 57 PHASOR DIAGRAM

The voltage output and the angle the rotor has turned through
represents the polar co-ordinates.

The resolver synchros are used in aircraft instruments and navigation

systems.

SLAB SYNCHROS

These are synchros consisting of wound stators and rotors; typical

uses are in gyroscopic instruments where the rotor is connected to
one component and the stator on another. For example to measure
roll movement in a vertical gyroscope, where the stator is mounted on
the case and the rotor on the outer gimbal, so any roll movement
moves case relative to outer gimbal.

-47-
THE SYNCHROTEL

This can be used as a low torque control transformer or transmitter. The

next diagram shows the quite unusual construction.

The stationary rotor coil fits into the highly permeable case over the
central core. The conventional three-phase stator also fits over the
core. The rotor is an aluminium hollow cylinder with an oblique
section that rotates in the air gap between the stator and the coil. The
rotor shaft is supported in jewelled bearings.

Because of the low torque required to operate the synchrotel they are
ideal for connection to capsule operated devices eg Pilot-static capsules.
When used as a control transformer it will.be connected to a control
transmitter as shown in figure 61.

- 48-
The transmitter (CX) is typically fed with a 26v 4QOHz supply, the
induced voltages in its stator are connected to the synchrotel stator
and the current flow through the windings produces a magnetic field
that cuts the rotor. The rotor position having been determined by the
capsule movement.

As the rotor is around the core then a component of the flux cutting
the rotor will flow along the core and cut the rotor winding. The
output from this winding is fed to the servo-amplifier where it feeds
the control winding of a 2-phase servomotor that drives the indicator
and also the CX rotor.

- 49 -
This changes the CX stator voltages and therefore synchrotel stator
current and flux. This will continue until the synchrotel stator flux is
no longer producing an output from the rotor winding ie NULL
position. The indicator now shows a position of the pressure applied at
that instant.

When used as a transmitter the rotor winding is energised producing

an axial flux along the core, this causes a current flow in the rotor.
This rotor current produces a radial flux that cuts the stator coils and
induces an emf into them. The emf induced is a function of rotor
position determined by input pressure measurement.

- 50 -
 INDUCTANCE TRANSMITTERS

The 'E' and T Bar

This type of sensor is used in older servo instruments acceleration
sensors, air data computers.
The fixed laminated E shaped core has an alternating supply
connected to its central limb, the outer two limbs are wound with coils
connected in series opposition. The laminated I shaped core sits
parallel to the E core and is attached to whatever we are trying to
measure the movement of, eg in a servo altimeter the I bar is
connected to the capsules.

In the following diagram the I bar is parallel to the E bar and the ac
fed to the central limb creates a magnetic flux which will flow as
shown. The flux in the top and bottom lirnbs will be the same as the
air gaps between the I bar and E core are equal. The emf induced into
the two coils B and C will be the same but of opposite phase, so the
output will be zero.

- 51 -
When the I bar is moved by the sensing element, as shown in figure 59,
the air gaps are now unequal, there is now more flux cutting coil B (less
air gap) and less flux cutting coil C (larger air gap). The emf induced in
coil B is greater than that in coil C, the output is therefore the
difference between these two giving an output that is 'in phase' with the
input. The amplitude of the output will depend on the amount of
movement of the I bar.

The next diagram shows the I bar moved in the opposite direction, in
this case the emf induced coil C is greater than coil B and the output
will be 'anti-phase' to the input, again the amplitude will depend on the
amount of movement of the I bar.

THE LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

The LVDT consists of a primary coil of a transformer; the secondary has
two coils connected in series opposition. In between the two coils is an
iron core that can be moved in a linear manner by the system whose
displacement is to be measured.

- 52-
Figure 65 shows the LVDT with the core central, the outputs of the
two coils A and B will be equal but of opposite phase, the output of
the LVDT is therefore zero.

If the core is displaced as shown in the next diagram, the output of

coil A increases (iron core full in line} and that of coil B decreases (air
gap only}. The output is therefore the difference and is 'in phase' with
the input, the amplitude depends on the amount of displacement.

If the core is displaced downwards, as shown in the next diagram,

then coil B output increases (iron core fully in line) and that of coil A
decreases (air gap only), once again the output is the difference
between the two and is 'anti-phase' to the input, the amplitude
depends on the amount of displacement.

The LVDT is used extensively for control surface position indication,

being attached to the servo actuator. They are also used in Engine
Pressure Ratio Transmitters, accelerometers and some older fuel flow
transmitters.

- 53 -
There is another version of this transformer called the ROTARY
VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (RVDT) that works on the
same principle, but as the name implies the central core moves in a
circular movement.

One of the uses is to measure control column movement. With

reference to figure 68, as the control column is moved a cable assembly
is attached to the RVDT input drum and therefore rotates the central
core of the RVDT's to give an output to, for example, a spoiler control
module.

- 54-
 CAPACITANCE TRANSMITTERS

The most common use of capacitance transmitters is in fuel quantity

indication systems. The sensor being in principle two concentric tubes
with the fuel being the dielectric. The capacitance of a capacitor
depends on, the distance between the plates, the area of the plates and
the dielectric constant of the material between the plates. As the
distance between the plates and the area of the plates is set the only
variable is the dielectric constant of the material between the plates.

Air has a dielectric constant of one and aircraft fuel has a dielectric
constant of approximately two. This means whatever the capacitance
was with air as the dielectric, when fuel replaces the air the
capacitance will approximately double eg lOOpF to 200pF. So this is
therefore a good way of measuring fuel quantity as the tank is filled
with fuel the dielectric changes gradually from air to fuel increasing
the capacitance as fuel level increases.

This same principle is used for measurement of hydraulic fluid level in

a hydraulic reservoir.

Another type of transmitter used in digital air data systems is the

formation of a capacitor by depositing a metallic film on a small area in
the centre of a diaphragm to form a capacitor (figure 69).

As pressure is applied to the diaphragm the two metallic films come

closer together changing the distance between the 'plates' and
changing the capacitance. This forms part of a capacitive bridge
network that will change its output depending on pressure applied.
These are used as pressure transducers in some digital air data
computers.
n n nnnnn nnnn »

- 55 -