Enseñanza y Aprendizaje de la Lengua Extranjera (Inglés)

Unit Two: Theories of Learning

and Second Language Acquisition

Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language

Dr. José-María Mesa-Villar / Dª. Katrin Schuette

Grado en Educación Primaria

Modalidad presencial
Unit 2: Theories of Learning and Second Language Acquisition

2.1. Historical Review and Main Issues in SLA

(Second Language Acquisition)

Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language

Dr. José-María Mesa-Villar / Dª. Katrin Schuette

Grado en Educación Primaria

Modalidad presencial
2.1. Historical review and Main Issues in SLA (Second Language Acquisition)

‘Acquisition’ versus ‘learning’ Imagen 1

Personas hablando
Acquisition occurs when one internalizes a
language in a subconscious way, through
immersion in an environment where a given code is
used on a daily basis (i.e. that language is seen as the
‘natural way’ of communicating with other people).

In such a situation, which resembles how children

learn their L1, the focus in on skill development and
meaning, rather than form. It develops ‘naturally’ as
well because there’s no external guidance.
Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vect
or-gratis/dibujado-mano-diseno-
plano-personas-
hablando_16863870.htm#query=habl
ar&position=7&from_view=search&tr
ack=sph

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2.1. Historical review and Main Issues in SLA (Second Language Acquisition)

‘Acquisition’ versus ‘learning’ (continued) Imagen 1

Personas hablando
Learning is a fully conscious process, in the sense
that it usually takes place in formal instruction
contexts. The focus is on form and knowledge about
the language (morphology, syntax…).

Adult learners usually follow this process whenever

they get enrolled in L2 courses. This is also the kind
of experience one gets when learning a language at
school. Students are therefore made aware of the
rules operation in the target language in an explicit
manner.
Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vect
or-gratis/dibujado-mano-diseno-
plano-personas-
hablando_16863870.htm#query=habl
ar&position=7&from_view=search&tr
ack=sph

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2.1. Historical review and Main Issues in SLA (Second Language Acquisition)

‘Second language’ versus ‘foreign language’

The key difference between these two terms lies in the number of
Imagen 2
official languages in one’s country of residence. As we have Palabra ‘hola’ en idiomas diferentes
already noted down, one’s mother tongue is the language
acquired in our early years, usually in the bosom of one’s family.
Since our mother tongue is also referred to as L1, the term ‘L2’ or
“Second Language” is used to highlight every single language
that you may have attained after your mother tongue. This means
that it is incorrect to talk about one’s ‘third’ or ‘fourth’ language,
in the sense that it doesn’t really matter whether this is the third
or fourth language (in terms of order) that you learn, but just the
fact that they are not your mother tongue.
Please note that one’s L2 may be also labelled as ‘Foreign Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vecto
r-gratis/patron-palabras-hola-idiomas-
Language’ if it is NOT an official language in one’s country. If diferentes_2620767.htm#query=langua
that’s not the case, it may be labelled as L2, but not as ‘FL’. For ges&position=14&from_view=search&t
rack=sph
instance, compare “learning Catalan language in Spain (L2, but
not FL)’ versus “learning Portuguese in Spain” (L2 and FL).
5
2.1. Historical review and Main Issues in SLA (Second Language Acquisition)

The Field of Applied Linguistics

Applied Linguistics is a field covering the function that Imagen 3
Plano de personas hablando
language has in everyday life experience. It is an
interdisciplinary field, in the sense that it collects
information from a wide variety of sources (psychology,
sociology, pedagogy, anthropology, communication
research, education, etc.).

Since we are genuinely interested in how a second

language is learned, we will be considering one of the
BRANCHES of Applied Linguistics: Second Language
Acquisition (SLA). A crucial step, therefore, is to study a
variety of theories on how learning and teaching take place,
and how these continue to have an influence on the way we
teach today (and on how students learn, of course).
Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vecto
r-gratis/dibujado-mano-diseno-plano-
personas-
hablando_18277288.htm#query=talkin
g&position=6&from_view=search&trac
k=sph
6
2.1. Historical review and Main Issues in SLA (Second Language Acquisition)

Is the Language-Learning Process Fully Predictable? Imagen 3

Plano de personas hablando

While some factors are indeed crucial in one’s path

towards the attainment of an L2 (motivation, self-
perception, extroversion, anxiety…etc.) we need to stress
the fact that this process cannot be predicted. This is, there
is not an unequivocal set of steps that are always taken in
the same way whenever learning a new L2.

There is not a single way in which students learn, since Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vecto

individual characteristics and a degree of variability also
need to be taken into account whenever exploring this
process.
r-gratis/dibujado-mano-diseno-plano-
personas-
hablando_18277288.htm#query=talkin
g&position=6&from_view=search&trac
k=sph

7
 2.1. Historical review and Main Issues in SLA (Second Language Acquisition)

The Concepts of ‘Input’, ‘Intake’ and ‘Output’ Imagen 4

Estudiando curso en línea

The term ‘Input’ refers to the language data that learners are
exposed to. It is thanks to this that students are able to figure
out and grasp the rules in L2.
Students, nonetheless, do not retain and store everything that
they are exposed to: there is a difference between that ‘input’
and what they actually take in, which would be labelled as
‘intake’.
Imagen 5 - Alumnos estudiando The latter provides a basis
for their linguistic
production, which is the Fuente(s):https://img.freepik.com/vector-
external manifestation of gratis/estudiante-laptop-estudiando-curso-linea_74855-
5293.jpg?w=1380&t=st=1676304848~exp=1676305448~h
what they have acquired / mac=245870da2c7166351f8c6aa127c5569778cd55cb90c9
learned (output). 9a114dc51eebf20c7f75

Fuente(s):https://img.freepik.com/vector-gratis/grupo-estudiantes-estudiando-juntos-haciendo-tarea_107791-
11934.jpg?w=1060&t=st=1676304977~exp=1676305577~hmac=1fb4acc0d98394d9f59ec7358da6b07ec58047dd179cee5990e33c5ed615d549
8
 Imagen 6
Concepto de atención plena

2.2. Learning Theories:

Behaviourism, Connectivism,
Cognitivism, and
Constructivism Applied to
the Second-Language
Teaching and Learning
Process.
Fuente: https://www.freepik.es/vector-gratis/ilustracion-concepto-
abstracto-atencion-plena-meditacion-consciente-calma-mental-
timidez-enfoque-liberacion-estres-tratamiento-alternativo-ansiedad-
hogar_10783016.htm#query=mental%20development&position=16&
from_view=search&track=ais
9
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

This section is meant to provide answers on how the Imagen 7

Ilustración del concepto de aprendizaje
learning process takes place in a foreign language
teaching (FLT) setting. Therefore, we need to start by
answering the following questions:

a) How do we learn?

b) What should we learn?

c) How is this connected to the process of learning a Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-

gratis/ilustracion-concepto-
second language (in this case, also a foreign language). aprendizaje_10769187.htm#query=aprender&posi
tion=23&from_view=search&track=sph

10
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

a) How do we learn? Imagen 7

Ilustración del concepto de aprendizaje

There are three main theories explaining how we learn.

• Behaviourism emphasizes the essential role that the

environment, plus a ‘reinforcement or punishment’ dynamics,
have on the learning process.
• Mentalism focuses on the individual’s innate characteristics
enabling him/her to acquire a language.
• Constructivism regards students as active meaning-seekers
who are responsible for the construction of their own learning.
Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/ilustracion-concepto-
Their findings have been applied to the field of SLA (Second aprendizaje_10769187.htm#query=aprender&posi
Language Acquisition) to explain how languages should be learned. tion=23&from_view=search&track=sph

11
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

a) How do we learn? (continued)

Imagen 7
Ilustración del concepto de aprendizaje
Behaviourism (Spa. ‘conductismo’) was a dominant
psychological approach to learning throughout the first half
of the twentieth century. Its main tenets (i.e. principles) on
how people acquire their mother tongue went as follows:

• Language is a structure of habits –that is to say, our

language is constructed as a result of the bonds between
certain stimuli and some particular responses.
Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/ilustracion-concepto-
• Learning is the result of a process based on the binding aprendizaje_10769187.htm#query=aprender&posi
tion=23&from_view=search&track=sph
between stimulus and response.

12
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

a) How do we learn? (continued)

Imagen 7
Ilustración del concepto de aprendizaje
• The role that the environment plays in the learning
process is essential, since it provides the stimuli in which
it is based. Those stimuli are also the ones that shape our
responses.

Researchers such as Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson

developed a framework which focused mainly on observable
processes (this means ‘environmental stimuli’ and
Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
‘behavioral responses’). This leads to a distinction between gratis/ilustracion-concepto-
aprendizaje_10769187.htm#query=aprender&posi
‘Classical Conditioning’ (Ivan Pavlov) and ‘Operant tion=23&from_view=search&track=sph

Conditioning’ (B. F. Skinner)

13
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

Classical Conditioning
Vs. Operant Conditioning

Vídeo 1
Diferencia entre condicionamiento clásico y operante

Nota. ¿Por qué los humanos reaccionan al estímulo con ciertos

comportamientos? ¿Pueden los comportamientos cambiar en
respuesta a consecuencias? Peggy Andover explica cómo el
cerebro puede asociar estímulos sin relación con respuestas,
probadas en los famosos experimentos de 1890 de Ivan Pavlov y
cómo el reforzamiento y el castigo pueden ocasionar cambios de
comportamiento. La diferencia entre el condicionamiento clásico y
operante Peggy Andover - YouTube
14
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

a) How Do We Learn? (continued)

Imagen 8
As Wahome (2022) points out, Operant Conditioning (also B. F. Skinner
known as ‘Instrumental Conditioning’) focuses on the
effect(s) that rewards and punishments have on our
behavior.

Stimuli can be classified into ‘appetitive’ and ‘aversive’, in

the sense that some of them will certainly be desirable and
others will be most likely of the sort we would like to avoid.

Within Operant Conditioning, the ‘positive’ or ‘negative’

labels attached to reinforcement mean that behavior
associated with something pleasant will most likely be Fuente(s):https://hips.hearstapps.com
repeated. In the absence of such stimulus or the presence of /hmg-prod/images/gettyimages-
83956845.jpg?resize=1200:*
punishment, a behavioral response will most likely tend to
be eliminated or reduced to its minimum expression.
Rewarded actions are more likely to become habits.
15
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

a) How Do We Learn? (continued)

Imagen 9
Mentalism (Cognitivism) emerged in the 1960s as a direct Noam Chomsky

response to the tenets still promoted by behaviorists.

Mentalists claimed that the language samples that children
utter in the process of learning their mother tongue are not
merely (or not exclusively) a direct result of the input
received from the environment (for example, from their
relevant ones). To understand this, we may well ask ourselves
the following:
• Do children simply imitate what others have told them
before?
• Are their utterances just a ‘collage’ or ‘combination’ of what Fuente(s):https://www.actualidadliteratur
they have heard other people say? a.com/wp-
content/uploads/2008/11/Quie%CC%81n-
• Are these children being creative as they make attempts at es-Noam-Chomsky.jpg

using their mother tongue?

16
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

a) How Do We Learn? (continued)

Imagen 9
Noam Chomsky
Similarly, mentalists believe that learning cannot be
explained exclusively on the basis of our responses to
external stimuli (that would be a too reductive and too
mechanical way of putting it).
Being such a complex tool for communication, language
cannot be reduced to a structure of habits.
In order to develop our language, to ‘create’ our language, it
is paramount to get lots of people around involved: their
active participation never fails to encourage children to
adopt an equally active role in the process of acquisition. And
Fuente(s):https://www.actualidadliteratur
what is more, our actions and our linguistic behavior have a a.com/wp-
lot to do with thinking (and not just ‘reacting’ to a set of content/uploads/2008/11/Quie%CC%81n-
es-Noam-Chomsky.jpg
stimuli).

17
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

a) How Do We Learn? (continued)

Imagen 9
Noam Chomsky
From a mentalist / cognitive perspective, language cannot
be described in terms of ‘behavior’ but of a mental process.
Hence, even though we may perceive changes in terms of
behavior, these are just an indication of what is happening
inside the learner’s head (and these are non-directly
observable processes).
Another crucial tenet here is that the only condition for
acquisition to take place is one’s exposure to a rich
linguistic environment.
As we will see later, when examining second language Fuente(s):https://www.actualidadliteratur
acquisition theories, learning in such a context is a.com/wp-
content/uploads/2008/11/Quie%CC%81n-
characterized by the formulation and testing of es-Noam-Chomsky.jpg
hypotheses.

18
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

a) How Do We Learn? (continued)

Imagen 10
Jóvenes que hablan diferentes idiomas
By stating that human language could not be explained on the
basis of experiments focused on animal behaviour,
Chomsky delivered a vigorous attack upon behaviourist ideas.
His ‘Innateness Hypothesis’, also known as ‘Nativist Theory’,
explained that language is a “uniquely human, biologically-
based cognitive capacity”. Human beings must bear an
inborn ability enabling them to learn a language.
Natively equipped with a Language Acquisition Device
(LAD) humans are able to seek out linguistic processes and
construct their own language from the linguistic data in Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/ilustraciones-jovenes-que-hablan-
their environment. There is, nonetheless, a greater diferentes-
emphasis on the role of mental processes in the development idiomas_6198534.htm?query=hablar#from_view=
detail_alsolike
of language.

19
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

a) How Do We Learn? (continued)

Imagen 11
Diseño del concepto de familia
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) brought together behavioural and
cognitivist aspects in a single theory about human
development. That theory, known as ‘Constructivism’
claims that we humans generate knowledge and meaning
on the basis of our experiences.

Learning is therefore seen as a consequence of the child’s

interaction with his/her environment due to his/her active
participation. Hence, the environment (behaviourist view) Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vect
or-gratis/diseno-plano-dia-
as well as the mental processes (mentalist view) play an internacional-concepto-
familia_7448940.htm#query=ni%C3%B
important role in the process of language acquisition. 1os%20y%20padres&position=12&fro
m_view=search&track=ais
20
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

a) How Do We Learn? (continued) Imagen 12

Padres preparan a su hija para la escuela

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) brought together behavioural

and cognitivist aspects in a single theory about
human development. That theory, known as
‘Constructivism’ claims that we humans generate
knowledge and meaning on the basis of our
experiences.
Learning is therefore seen as a consequence of the
child’s interaction with his/her environment due to
his/her active participation. Fuente(s):https://img.freepik.com/vector-
gratis/padres-preparan-su-linda-hija-escuela-
Hence, the environment (behaviourist view) as well amor-estudio-mochila-ilustracion-plana-
ilustracion-dibujos-animados_74855-
as the mental processes (mentalist view) play an 14475.jpg?w=900&t=st=1676411292~exp=167
important role in the process of language acquisition. 6411892~hmac=23fefc96aff7c63fb3b917b3ac4
c69142d63ce52619b49115039bac05ceef69f

21
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

a) How Do We Learn? (continued)

Imagen 13
According to Jean Piaget, the child has a special capacity to Niños con lupa

adapt him/herself to life. Two main processes (connected to

such an ability) are responsible for learning:

Assimilation and Accommodation

• ‘Assimilation’ stands for the way in which the information

received from the environment is arranged in the child’s mind.
• Accommodation makes reference to how the child re-
establishes / re-structures his schedules every time he is getting
new information. Fuente(s):https://img.freepik.com/foto-
gratis/ninos-lupa-tiro-completo_23-
In this way, as far as SLA is concerned, a learner can build his 2149668693.jpg?size=626&ext=jpg

language knowledge by means of the interaction of both

processes.

22
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

a) How Do We Learn? (continued)

Imagen 13
Niños con lupa
Children are seen as active learners and equally active
thinkers. They make sense of the world where they live and
the bonds they establish with others. Children construct their
own knowledge by thriving with objects and ideas.

Children continually interact with the world around them,

solving problems and taking action to solve them. This is
how learning takes place. Since their sense-making is
limited by their (not so wide) experience, teachers (and other
meaningful / relevant people around these children) should Fuente(s):https://img.freepik.com/foto-
employ methods or procedures that involve them actively gratis/ninos-lupa-tiro-completo_23-
2149668693.jpg?size=626&ext=jpg
and pose reasonable challenges to make them progress.

23
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

a) How Do We Learn? (continued)

Imagen 14
In his theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget pointed out Piaget-padre de la psicología educativa
the existence of four stages in this process:
Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years): intelligence takes the form of
motor actions.
Pre-operation period (3-7 years): intelligence is intuitive in
nature.
Concrete operational stage (8-11 years): the cognitive
structure is logical but depends upon concrete referents.
Stage of formal operations (12-15 years): thinking involves
abstractions.
Fuente(s):https://www.menteasombrosa.com/
This theory puts forward the need to consider what type of wp-content/uploads/2019/05/biografia-jean-
piaget.jpg
knowledge a mind is able to assimilate or accommodate in
accordance with age factors.
24
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

Connectivism
Imagen 15
Personas conectadas
Access to information has turned into a universal process
with the advent of the Internet. This has generated other
ways of learning on the basis of communication
strategies, routines aimed at fostering understanding,
and the development of a vast amount of data.

The way in which Connectivism sees the process of

learning is based upon Constructivism: both are
articulated through linking processes, interaction with
other people and the re-elaboration and communication
of information.
Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/personas-que-tienen-conectados-iconos-
circulo-espacio-
copia_3585385.htm#query=connections&positi
on=19&from_view=search&track=sph

25
2.2. Learning Theories Applied to the SL Teaching and Learning Process

Connectivism
Imagen 15
Personas conectadas
It is a “theory of learning” promoted by Stephen Downes and
George Siemens. This theory seeks to explain complex
learning in a rapidly changing social digital world.

The ‘2.0 Web’ provides a great variety of possibilities to make

the student active. It is a place to share information and also a
dynamic collective intelligence (due to the cooperation of
many individuals).
There is a need to introduce the Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs) in our classroom. Our Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
students are considered to be digital natives, that is, the gratis/personas-que-tienen-conectados-iconos-
circulo-espacio-
generation born during or after the general introduction of copia_3585385.htm#query=connections&positi
digital technology. on=19&from_view=search&track=sph

26
 Imagen 16
Composición idiomas

2.3. Contrastive Analysis,

Error Analysis and
Interlanguage

Fuente: https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/composicion-idiomas-diseno-
plano_2609860.htm#query=language%20communication
&position=8&from_view=search&track=ais

27
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Since we are interested in describing the process of learning a new Imagen 17

language, it is essential for us to answer the following questions: Aprendizaje de idiomas

-What do we mean by ‘learning’? This one has already been

answered in our previous section.
-What does ‘language’ consist of? Here, we will have top pay
attention to three main perspectives (structuralism, functionalism
and interactionism).
-How should this be applied to the process of learning a second
language / a foreign language?

To these we need to add another one: Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vect

Is the process of learning a new
language exactly the same as that of
learning our L1?
or-gratis/ilustracion-concepto-
abstracto-campamento-aprendizaje-
idiomas_12291316.htm#query=langu
age%20communication&position=42
&from_view=search&track=ais

28
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language
Imagen 17
Aprendizaje de idiomas
1) Supporters of the Structural View regard language as a
system of structures. To handle a language efficiently,
students need to get used to those patterns and structures.
Then, they would simply have to ‘fill in the gaps’ with the
words that may fit in each corresponding slot.
This also entails developing a sound knowledge of
paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations.
Syntagmatic relations are the ones taking places between
words within the same sequence (in praesentia).
Paradigmatic relations connect each of the words in a Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vect
sequence with other words that are not there –but could or-gratis/ilustracion-concepto-
abstracto-campamento-aprendizaje-
occupy their position and fulfil the same function (in idiomas_12291316.htm#query=langu
absentia). age%20communication&position=42
&from_view=search&track=ais

29
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language (cont.) Imagen 17

Aprendizaje de idiomas
Students are encouraged to engage in pattern practice and
drilling exercises enabling them to become fully familiar
with the structures of L2 and compare them with the ones in
their L1. This also helps them to spot the reasons for
interference. The image below provides an example of how
drills included in commercial textbooks look like:

Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vect
or-gratis/ilustracion-concepto-
abstracto-campamento-aprendizaje-
idiomas_12291316.htm#query=langu
age%20communication&position=42
Fuente(s):Coles, M. & Lord, B. (1975) Starting Out (Access to English). Oxford: O.U.P., pp. 13 &from_view=search&track=ais
(Contenido incluido por motivos estrictamente educativos)
30
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language (cont.) Imagen 17

Aprendizaje de idiomas
Bearing in mind only the tenets advanced by Structuralists, one
may get the impression that getting to know a language just
consists in storing a set of patterns in mind, knowing how to
manipulate structures and filling each of the gaps with
suitable words. However, while this is a part of what we do when
using the language, there are many variables, strategies,
situations, etc. that this perspective on language does not address.
Functionalists complained that language is not merely a set of
structures: the code we use to communicate with others stands
as a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. Jakobson,
who brought together structural and functional views in his work, Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vect
created a model that explained how communication takes place or-gratis/ilustracion-concepto-
abstracto-campamento-aprendizaje-
and the functions that language usually holds. Studying a idiomas_12291316.htm#query=langu
language under this paradigm involves addressing the reasons / age%20communication&position=42
&from_view=search&track=ais
purposes why we create/receive certain messages and not others.
31
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language (cont.)

Imagen 17
Aprendizaje de idiomas
Hence, according to the Functional View of language, the messages
we encode or decode in oral or written communication are
organized not only in terms of structure (and grammatical
correctness) but also according to the meanings and functions that
they are expected to express and fulfil, respectively.
Imagen 18
Language functions (Roman Jakobson)

Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vect
or-gratis/ilustracion-concepto-
abstracto-campamento-aprendizaje-
idiomas_12291316.htm#query=langu
age%20communication&position=42
&from_view=search&track=ais

Fuente(s):https://lindseypullum.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/636a9-120816Jakobsonsummary figure.jpg
32
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language (cont.)

Imagen 18
Communicative language teaching (CLT) borrowed from Language functions (Roman Jakobson)

this perspective when including a notional-functional

view in its classroom syllabuses.
One example would be that students need to learn the
basic rules and structures connected to the use of the
imperative for a variety of purposes (for instance, giving
orders to other people, writing the steps in a recipe…).
Another example: students are asked to focus on the
grammatical properties of ‘will’ with a view to its inclusion
in sequences having to do not only with the expression of
the future, but also those having to do with volition or Fuente(s):https://lindseypullum.files.wordpress.
com/2017/01/636a9-120816Jakobsonsummary
with a polite request. figure.jpg

33
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language (cont.)

Imagen 9
Chomsky, whom we mentioned before in relation to the Language Noam Chomsky

Acquisition Device and the Mentalist view of learning, also

criticized excessively structural views on language because
these did not address the contrast between ‘surface’ and ‘deep’
(or ‘underlying’) structure.
A key point was not only that students might end up completing
drilling exercises in an absent-minded or mechanical manner:
meaning is not only determined by structure; we may well
have two sequences with the same structure and different
meaning. This is a key reason for considering not only the surface,
but also a deeper sphere encoded in any message. Compare:
Fuente(s):https://www.actualidadliteratur
a.com/wp-
John is eager to please content/uploads/2008/11/Quie%CC%81n-
es-Noam-Chomsky.jpg
John is hard to please

34
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language (cont.)

Imagen 19
Habilidades e interacción social
Last, but by no means least, followers of the Interactional View
claim that language is “a vehicle for the realization of
interpersonal relations and for the performance of social
transactions between individuals” (Richards & Rogers, 1986).
This emphasis has been highly influential, in role-play activities
and the task-based approach, to cite two examples.
The Interactional View of language focuses on these three
dimensions, too:
a. Bonds between ‘language’ and ‘cognition’: our language is also
influenced by the knowledge of the world that we have.
b. The innate feature of some specific knowledge: innate abilities Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/ilustracion-vector-concepto-abstracto-
for language acquisition (a point in common with Chomsky). habilidades-interaccion-social-habilidades-
comunicacion-construccion-redes-sociales-
c. The existence of interactive processes between adults and discapacidad-interaccion-diagnostico-autismo-
children: the data provided by / extracted from one’s actividades-adultos-metafora-abstracta_1166
4348.htm#query=interaction&position=1&fro
environment are the basis for subsequent language construction. m_view=search&track=sph
35
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning

Imagen 20
Búsqueda de ideas
Here we will focus on several theories dealing with how a second
language is learnt. These also consider the extent to which this
process is always the same (or not) and the points in common it
has with the development of one’s mother tongue. Before we
proceed, we should highlight that it is not possible to predict how
every stage in this process will take place: this means that
learning a new language is not the same as learning one’s L1. This
also depends on variables such as age, motivation… or the
differences and similarities between the codes we learn. One
thing we know for sure: the more languages one knows, the easier
it will be to learn more languages (because the ones we have
Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
already become familiar with will show patterns helping us gratis/piense-concepto-caja-abra-su-cerebro-
handled others in an efficient manner). busque-nuevas-ideas-que-impulsaran-su-
negocio-su-trabajo-creatividad-ayudar-ver-
In the following slides we will consider two theories and one oportunidad-negocio-vision-idea-descubrir-
nueva-solucion_21586017.htm#query
hypothesis dealing with SLA (second language acquisition). =aprendizaje&position=9&from_view=search&
track=sph
36
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

Imagen 21
Robert Lado
The theory of Contrastive Analysis was formulated by Robert
Lado in the late 1950s, and it became particularly influential
throughout the two subsequent decades. It was meant to explain
why some features of the target language often are more
difficult to take in than others.
This perspective was still heavily influenced by behaviorism, in the
sense that language learning was viewed as a process of habit
formation that could be reinforced or impeded by existing
habits (and these habits were determined by one’s mother tongue
or L1).
Supporters if this theory considered that students who found
difficulties in mastering certain aspects of an L2 did so because of
the differences between their L1 and the language that they
Fuente(s):https://lado.edu/wp-
were attempting to learn. And what is more, one’s L1 sometimes content/uploads/2015/09/DRLADO.jpg
‘gets in the way’ when trying to grasp and use certain L2 elements.
37
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

Imagen 21
Robert Lado
Together with the influence from Behaviourism, Contrastive
Analysis (CA) also relied on a Structural view of language. This
approach tried to explain the acquisition of a language by means of
a comparison between learners’ L1 and L2. Its main goal was to
improve the efficiency in the L2 teaching and learning process.

Following notions in structural linguistics, the focus of CA is on the

surface forms of both L1 and L2 systems (and NOT samples of
language use by students). Likewise, following the tenets of
Behaviourism, proponents of CA assumed that language acquisition
Fuente(s):https://lado.edu/wp-
essentially involves habit formation in a process of Stimuli- content/uploads/2015/09/DRLADO.jpg

Response- Reinforcement.
38
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

Imagen 21
Robert Lado
One may talk about ‘positive transfer’ when the same structure is
deemed appropriate in L1 and L2. For example, a student may
make an attempt at translating from his mother tongue (in this
case, English) into French and create a successful sequence:

Eng. I saw Pascal and Jean. Fr. Je vois Pascal et Jean.

However, we may incur in ‘negative transfer’ (interference) when

the result of such a process is by no means successful. This is seen
as an error provoked by the interference of one’s L1.

Eng. The dog has eaten them. Fr. Le chien a mange les. Fuente(s):https://lado.edu/wp-
content/uploads/2015/09/DRLADO.jpg

39
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.) Imagen 22

Stephen Pit Corder
Contrastive Analysis was criticized for a number of reasons:
-Interference is not the only reason why errors take place.
-Addressing structural differences between the L1 and L2 systems
is not enough to predict errors in the L2 acquisition process.
-The classification of errors in CA was quite limited (and this
affected the way in which the process of L2 acquisition was
depicted).
In the early 1970s, Stephen Pit Corder introduced the ‘Error
Analysis’ theory, which demonstrated that Contrastive Analysis had
its limitations, in the sense that it could not predict the vast
majority of errors that students may incur in. The most relevant
aspects in CA were nonetheless incorporated into the study of
language transfer. Unlike CA, Error Analysis focuses on actual Fuente(s):https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe
samples produced by students to better understand the SLA dia/commons/thumb/2/25/Pit_Corder_photo.j
process. pg/1200px-Pit_Corder_photo.jpg

40
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

Imagen 22
Stephen Pit Corder
The basic task of Error Analysis is to describe how learning occurs
by examining the learner’s output and this includes his/her
correct and incorrect utterances. Learner’s errors allow for the
prediction of difficulties involved in the L2 acquisition process.
Therefore, “EA provides us with a picture of the linguistic
development of a learner and may give us indications as to their
learning process”. The starting point for Corder’s proposal was the
recognition that the L2 learner’s language is different from that
of native speakers of the L2, but nevertheless idiosyncratic.

Corder interpreted the making of errors as evidence of that the L2

learner is actually trying to make sense of the target language data
Fuente(s):https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe
as children do with their L1. dia/commons/thumb/2/25/Pit_Corder_photo.j
pg/1200px-Pit_Corder_photo.jpg

41
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

Imagen 22
Stephen Pit Corder
Corder discussed Interlanguage (IL) processes in terms of
‘hypothesis formulation’ and ‘hypothesis testing’. Corder,
(1976), suggested that learners form hypotheses about the
structural properties of the target language on the basis of the
input data they are exposed to. In this way, they build a
‘hypothetical grammar’ (hypothesis formulation). Then, these
hypotheses are tested receptively and productively, through
communication. The result is that:
- Hypotheses are confirmed if learners’ interpretations are
plausible and their productions accepted without comment or
misunderstanding.
- Hypotheses are discarded if learner’s understanding is
defective. In such cases, learners may restructure their
formulation. Fuente(s):https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe
dia/commons/thumb/2/25/Pit_Corder_photo.j
pg/1200px-Pit_Corder_photo.jpg

42
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

Imagen 22
Stephen Pit Corder
There is an important distinction made by Corder that we
must take into account. According to him, learning is
considered a process that involves errors, but we must
distinguish between:
Error: it is an evidence of competence in TL. They are usually
systematic.
Mistake: it is not systematic nor reflect entirely the linguistic
competence of the learner. The learner is capable of
identifying and correcting his/her own mistakes.
Unlike Contrastive Analysis and according to EA, the
interference of the L1 is not the only source of errors.
Fuente(s):https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe
dia/commons/thumb/2/25/Pit_Corder_photo.j
pg/1200px-Pit_Corder_photo.jpg

43
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

Imagen 22
Stephen Pit Corder

Corder laid out the procedure to be followed when analyzing

L2 learner’s errors. This was a five-stage process that
comprised:

1- Collection of a sample of learner language

2- Identification of errors

3- Description of errors

4- Explanation of errors
Fuente(s):https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe
5 – Evaluation of errors dia/commons/thumb/2/25/Pit_Corder_photo.j
pg/1200px-Pit_Corder_photo.jpg

44
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

Imagen 22
Stephen Pit Corder
Processes in Error Analysis:

1.Identification:
a)Overt errors: it is ungrammatical utterances at the
sentence level.
b)Covert errors: grammatical but not interpretable within
the context of communication.
2. Classification: errors can be classified according to the
level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical
errors, syntactic errors
3. Description: errors can be classified according to 4 basic
types: Fuente(s):https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe
dia/commons/thumb/2/25/Pit_Corder_photo.j
pg/1200px-Pit_Corder_photo.jpg

45
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

Imagen 22
Stephen Pit Corder
Processes in Error Analysis: (cont)
4 basic types of errors:
-Omissive: *She sleeping
-Additive: *I went to the Marrakesh
-Substitutive: *The dog eated the chicken
-Related to word order: *He is a dear to me friend
The following is a characterization of possible sources of errors
between:
➢ Interlingual: errors resulting from the interference of the
learner’s L1.
➢ Intralingual or developmental: errors resulting from general
Fuente(s):https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipe
processes of language development similar to those observed dia/commons/thumb/2/25/Pit_Corder_photo.j
in L1 acquisition pg/1200px-Pit_Corder_photo.jpg

46
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Interlanguage,
Fossilization,
and Translanguaging

Video 2
InterLanguage, Fossilization and Translanguaging

Nota. This video (which can be found at Kate Anderson’s channel

on Youtube) deals with three key concepts in Larry Selinker’s
Interlanguage Theory and projects them onto real life situations
related to both classroom settings and the SL learning process.
URL: Interlanguage, Fossilization, and Translanguaging - YouTube

47
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.) Imagen 23

Logro-Éxito-Aspiraciones

Larry Selinker’s Interlanguage Theory (1972) claimed that a

second language (‘SL’ or ‘L2’) is not an imperfect copy of the target
language but a rule-governed linguistic system in its own right.
This view resulted from the joint potential of cognitive psychology,
on the one hand, and mentalist linguistics, on the other. Within this
theory, errors are regarded as:
-Markers highlighting both progress and processing routines on
part of students.
-Samples allowing us to analyse and understand the cognitive
processes taking place in our students’ minds.
-Evidence of the active role that students hold in the acquisition Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/logro-exito-aspiraciones-profesionales-
process –and also of the hypothesis testing process, since their IL promocion-laboral-crecimiento-personal-
system (Interlanguage System) is constantly being reassessed and trabajador-motivado-empresario-volando-
reconfigured due to these and other factors cohete-motivacion-determinacion-ilustracion-
concepto_11668460.htm#query=avanzar&posi
tion=2&from_view=search&track=sph
48
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

According to Selinker, there are five key processes in the Interlanguage System; these are:

Language transfer Overgeneralization Transfer of training Strategies of L2 learners Communication strategies in L2

1) By ‘language transfer’ we mean the sort of errors that occur because of the interference of one’s L1
(this has been addressed before in this unit as ‘negative transfer’ or ‘interference’).

Correct in Spanish Incorrect in English Correct in English

Es un punto importante
En la comunidad existen muchos problemas
Quiero que mi profesora explique este
concepto
*Is an important point. It / This is an important point.
*In the community exists many problems In the / this community there are many
problems.
*I want that my teacher explains this concept I want my teacher to explain this concept.

49
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

Imagen 24
Logro-Éxito-Aspiraciones
2) Overgeneralization: this sort of errors are caused by our
trying to use a rule in a context or situation where it does not
apply. For instance:
*You has a happy family (overgeneralized use of the third person
singular form, instead of using the second person singular form).
*Have you taked your medicine? (overgeneralized use of a regular –
ed past form, instead of using the correct form of this irregular
verb).
3) Transfer of training: some Interlanguage elements (for
instance, some fossilizable ones) may derive from the way in
which the learners were taught. This sort of transfer may be Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
positive or negative depending on whether or not it helps students gratis/logro-exito-aspiraciones-profesionales-
apply what they have learned in the classroom to real life promocion-laboral-crecimiento-personal-
trabajador-motivado-empresario-volando-
situations (Mahmood & Murad, 2018). cohete-motivacion-determinacion-ilustracion-
concepto_11668460.htm#query=avanzar&posi
tion=2&from_view=search&track=sph
50
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.) Imagen 24

Logro-Éxito-Aspiraciones
To this, Quolain (2022) adds several examples of ‘transfer of training’,
paraphrased below:
By getting engaged in excessively repetitive drilling of some structures,
students may end up grasping a certain grammatical concept but, if the
sequences they have practiced so many times are not habitually used in
daily-life interaction, they will sound a bit odd when using them in a
conversation with proficient speakers.
If a teacher constantly emphasizes that –ly is what makes it clear that a
word is an adverb, his students may end up using forms such as ‘*friendlily’
(instead of ‘in a friendly manner/way’) in the belief that it would be a correct
way of turning the adjective ‘friendly’ into an adverb).
Last, but not least, not too proficient teachers may end up using non-English Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
patterns, sounds or words which students may pick up and use in the belief gratis/logro-exito-aspiraciones-profesionales-
promocion-laboral-crecimiento-personal-
that they are correct (for instance, using /x/ instead of /h/ when trabajador-motivado-empresario-volando-
pronouncing the word ‘house’). cohete-motivacion-determinacion-ilustracion-
concepto_11668460.htm#query=avanzar&posi
tion=2&from_view=search&track=sph
51
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

4) Strategies of L2 learners: these are strategies that not too proficient Imagen 25
students use to compensate for the flaws / imperfections they are aware Logro de metas
of in their linguistic competence. Whenever handling L2 material (i.e.
material in the target language) they develop these strategies to get through
the situation. For instance, if a student finds it really difficult to use verb
complementation correctly, he / she may assume that every verb has to be
followed by ‘to + infinitive’. Another possibility would be that of ‘avoidance’,
as in the following example in Quolain (2022), where we can easily see that
students tend to leave aside auxiliary verbs or even the main verb, while
trying to preserve ideas related to ‘location’, ‘instrument’ or ‘destination’ in
the resulting sequences:

—*I go to clothes shop. (Instead of ‘I’ll go shopping for clothes’).

—*I not play the computer. (Instead of ‘I don’t use a computer’.) Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/logro-metas-promocion-profesional-
—*I ready to home. (Instead of ‘I am ready to go home’.) graduacion-escolar-trayectoria-educativa-
estrategia-capital-educativo-determina-su-
concepto-forma-educativa_10782710.htm#
Do not forget that the asterisk (*) in these and other examples means that a given from_view=detail_alsolike
sequence is NOT grammatically correct. These are used here for pedagogical purposes.
52
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

5) L2 Communication Strategies: whenever taking part in a Imagen 25

Logro de metas
conversation, students may also deploy one or more strategies to
strengthen message production and/or comprehension, or to
compensate for any lack of knowledge affecting a successful exchange
of messages among participants. While using them may not always
yield the desired effect, the strategies below many times help
students avoid the pitfalls in such a context:
5-1) Foreignizing: if a student does not remember how to say
something in L2, he/she may end up using an L1 word with an L2
pronunciation. This sort of ‘adjustment’ may also apply to the use of
L2 suffixes with an L1 root. Comment on the following examples:
-A Spanish student does not remember how to say ‘molestar’ in Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
English, but still, he / she approaches one of his English friends to ask gratis/logro-metas-promocion-profesional-
“Is he molesting you?” in the attempt of saying something like “¿Te graduacion-escolar-trayectoria-educativa-
estrategia-capital-educativo-determina-su-
está molestando?”. However, the resulting sequence in English does concepto-forma-educativa_10782710.htm#
not really mean what he expected. from_view=detail_alsolike

53
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

Another example of foreignizing: while visiting a museum, a student Imagen 25

Logro de metas
wants to ask “¿es una obra al óleo?” but he / she does not know how to
say ‘óleo’ in English. Hence, he/she asks “*Is it an óleo painting?” and
pronounces the word as /’əuliəu/. Something similar would happen if
r
he / she uses the term ‘*arbotant’, pronounced as /’a: bəutənt/ instead
of ‘flying buttress’, which would be the correct term in English for such
a purpose.

5-2) Code-switching: this strategy consists in using a lexical item from

one’s mother tongue without changing its pronunciation while
speaking in L2. For example: a student does not remember / does not
know how to say ‘lunares’ when referring to patterns in items of
clothing. Hence, while looking for a spotted skirt, she approaches one of
the shop assistants and says “Excuse me, I’m looking for a skirt
with….*lunares”.
Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/logro-metas-promocion-profesional-
graduacion-escolar-trayectoria-educativa-
estrategia-capital-educativo-determina-su-
concepto-forma-educativa_10782710.htm#
from_view=detail_alsolike

54
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

5-3) Appeal for help: Asking for aid from the interlocutor either Imagen 25
Logro de metas
directly (e.g., What do you call…? / How do you say…… in English?) or
indirectly (e.g., using rising intonation, making a pause, maintaining
eye contact, offering a puzzled expression…, etc.).

Aside from the five processes that we just explained in the previous
slides, Selinker must also be credited for the concept of ‘fossilization’,
which attempted to explain why non-target language forms may
become fixed in one’s interlanguage. This also explains why learners of
an L2 find it extremely difficult to achieve native-like competence.

“Fossilizable linguistic phenomena are linguistic items, rules and

subsystems which speakers of a particular native language (NL) will
tend to keep in their Interlanguage (IL) relative to a particular target
language (TL), no matter what the age of the learner or amount of
explanation and instruction he receives in the target language (TL).”
(Selinker, 1972: 215).
Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/logro-metas-promocion-profesional-
graduacion-escolar-trayectoria-educativa-
estrategia-capital-educativo-determina-su-
concepto-forma-educativa_10782710.htm#
from_view=detail_alsolike
55
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

Imagen 26
Creative Construction Theory (CCT) was the second major theory of Equipo montando rompecabezas
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) established in the 1970s. It sprang
from an American school of thought that attempted to pose an
alternative to Selinker’s Interlanguage Theory.

Researchers around CCT endorsed the idea that there was an

invariant order and natural sequence of acquisition in SLA. In
their view:
-Many errors that superficially appeared to be interference errors could
be interpreted whether as overgeneralizations or constructions made by
children while acquiring the same language as an L1.
Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
-There seemed to be a surprisingly uniform developmental course that all gratis/equipo-negocios-armando-
rompecabezas-aislado-ilustracion-vectorial-
learners take in learning English. plana-socios-dibujos-animados-que-trabajan-
conexion-concepto-trabajo-equipo-
-This observed developmental course showed striking similarities with asociacion-cooperacion_10606197.htm#
query=puzzle&position=3&from_view=search
the sequence of development observed in English FLA. &track=sph
56
2.3. Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and Interlanguage

Theories of language learning (cont.)

Imagen 26
Creative Construction Theory (CCT) –continued Equipo montando rompecabezas

According to this hypothesis, both Foreign Language Acquisition and

Second Language Acquisition involved similar kinds of processing
linguistic data. Hence, L1 was considered to play a minor role in
second language acquisition. In other words, L1 did not provide the
database for L2 acquisition: that basis came from L2 input.

This approach held that learners activate their language acquisition

devices (LAD) used to internalise a mother tongue: they would use the
same process of creative construction to internalise a native
language and a second language.
Fuente(s):https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/equipo-negocios-armando-
rompecabezas-aislado-ilustracion-vectorial-
plana-socios-dibujos-animados-que-trabajan-
conexion-concepto-trabajo-equipo-
asociacion-cooperacion_10606197.htm#
query=puzzle&position=3&from_view=search
&track=sph
57
 Imagen 27
Rompiendo barreras

2.4. The Input Hypothesis

(Stephen Krashen’s
Theory of Second Language
Acquisition)

Fuente: https://www.freepik.es/vector-gratis/rompiendo-barreras-
ilustracion-concepto_11120220.htm#query=barrera&position=
3&from_view=search&track=sph

58
2.4. Stephen Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

Krashen’s theory of SLA (Second Language Acquisition) includes five

hypotheses aimed at describing the processes underlying our attainment
Imagen 28
of an L2. Seminarios web – Estudiando en línea

i) The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis leads us back to one of the

distinctions we made at the beginning of this unit –that between
‘acquisition’ (as a subconscious process) and ‘learning’ (as a fully conscious
process). The former, contributing to the development of the so-called
‘acquired system’, is the one that most closely mirrors the way in which
we learn our mother tongue (L1) –that is, on the basis of meaningful
interaction and natural communication. The focus is not on the extreme
correction of forms, but on delivering messages and making oneself
Fuente:
understood –while also understanding others. The ‘learned system’, on https://www.freepik.es/vector-
the other hand, emerges from formal instruction contexts, a focus on gratis/estudiantes-viendo-seminarios-web-
computadora-estudiando-
deductive approaches to learning and keenness on the correction of linea_13146648.htm#query=education&pos
ition=3&from_view=search&track=sph
grammar forms. In an L2 learning process, inductive approaches lead to
acquisition (Schutz, 2019).
59
2.4. Stephen Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

ii) The Monitor Hypothesis rests upon the previous hypothesis in the sense
that our subconscious knowledge (which we acquire) is the one we use to
produce utterances in an L2. However, at this point we may ask ourselves: Imagen 28
“And how do we check if the sequences we encode are correct or not?” Well, Seminarios web – Estudiando en línea

the answer is easy: our learned language (the one we obtained thanks to a
conscious process and deductive approaches to the learning and teaching
process) is the one providing us with the resources to monitor our
production (and that of others), enabling us to self-correct whenever needed.
This, as you may see, is also connected to the distinction between ‘mistake’
and ‘error’ previously dealt with in this unit.

iii) The Natural Order Hypothesis: although we may not learn every
language in exactly the same way, certain grammatical structures are Fuente:
usually learned earlier than others –and so, this order can be predicted. https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/estudiantes-viendo-seminarios-web-
This, as Schultz (2019) notes, occurs independently of factors such as ‘age’, computadora-estudiando-
linea_13146648.htm#query=education&pos
‘motivation’, etc. In addition to this, it should be noted that Krashen did not ition=3&from_view=search&track=sph
aim at promoting ‘strict grammatical sequencing’, since he also claimed that it
is inductive –not deductive- teaching which leads to acquisition.
60
2.4. Stephen Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

iv) The Input Hypothesis: comprehensible input is necessary to Imagen 27

Rompiendo barreras
progress ahead in the development of our communicative skills. We
may spend hours listening to any sort of input in a given language
without making any progress because that input is by no means
comprehensible.
By ‘input’ we mean everything (in written or oral language) that we
are exposed. If that input is comprehensible, we use it as a basis for
constructing our progression in that particular language.
As teachers, if we want to make students strengthen what they have
already acquired (please note that this hypothesis applies only to
‘acquisition’, not ‘learning’), we should use a kind of input that is
‘finely-tuned’ or perfectly adjusted to the level that they have. Fuente: https://www.freepik.es/vector-
However, if we want our students to go up a level / proceed onto the gratis/rompiendo-barreras-ilustracion-
concepto_11120220.htm#query=barrera& position=
next stage, it is necessary to provide a kind of input that is slightly 3&from_view=search&track =sph

above their level, offering a manageable dose of challenge (that is,

‘roughly-tuned input’). 61
2.4. Stephen Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

iv) The Input Hypothesis (continued): being aware of the difference Imagen 27
Rompiendo barreras
between the ‘finely-tuned’ and ‘roughly-tuned’ types of input is
essential whenever selecting the input that is going to be offered to our
students: if they get the impression that such input always includes
things they already know, they won’t feel spurred to go ahead
(because of a lack of challenge). However, if the level of that input is way
above their level, they may end feeling frustrated and, therefore,
switching-off.

v) The Affective Filter Hypothesis: the so-called ‘affective filter’

actually is a barrier in between learners and the input offered at them.
This barrier may be higher or lower depending on a variety of factors
(self-perception, lack of interest, negative emotions, etc.). The higher
Fuente: https://www.freepik.es/vector-
the barrier is, the lower input our students will get (and, therefore, gratis/rompiendo-barreras-ilustracion-
their intake will be poorer and their output, too). As teachers, we need to concepto_11120220.htm#query=barrera& position=
3&from_view=search&track =sph
keep that barrier (that affective filter) as low as possible, to make sure
that a greater quantity of input reaches out students.
62
 Imagen 29
Manténgase conectado a la gente

2.5. Communicative
Competence

Fuente: https://www.freepik.es/vector-gratis/mantengase-
conectado-gente-concepto-abstracto-ilustracion-vectorial-
autoaislamiento-conexiones-redes-sociales-reunion-amigos-
comunicacion-linea-distancia-social-metafora-abstracta-quedarse-
casa_12469219.htm#query=communication&position=4&from_view=
search&track=sph
63
2.5. Communicative Competence

As previously seen in this unit, Chomsky drew a distinction between:

Competence: the monolingual speaker-listener’s knowledge of language. Imagen 30

Gente hablando

Performance: (the actual use of language in real situations)

Hymes (1972) defined ‘Communicative Competence’ not only as an

inherent grammatical competence but also as the ability to use
grammatical competence in a variety of communicative situations,
thus bringing the sociolinguistic perspective into Chomsky’s linguistic
view of competence.

Communicative Competence can be defined as the language user's
grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the
like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use
utterances appropriately.
Fuente: https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/gente-hablando-ilustracion-
concepto_16482629.htm#query=conversation&posi
tion=44&from_view=search&track=sph

64
2.5. Communicative Competence

This concept of ‘Communicative Competence’ was subsequently

modified and expanded by a variety of authors:
Imagen 30
In 1980, Canale and Swain published their model of Gente hablando

communicative competence, which included these four

components:
• Grammatical competence has to do with one’s mastery of
the linguistic code (verbal or non-verbal), which includes
knowledge on the rules operating in the dimensions of
morphology, syntax, semantics, phonetics, lexis and
orthography. This competence enables the speaker to use
knowledge and skills needed for understanding and Fuente: https://www.freepik.es/vector-
expressing the literal meaning of utterances. gratis/gente-hablando-ilustracion-
concepto_16482629.htm#query=conversation&posi
tion=44&from_view=search&track=sph
• Socio-linguistic competence, strategic competence and
discourse competence (see next slide)

65
2.5. Communicative Competence

Canale and Swain’s model (1980) - continued

• Socio-linguistic competence: (see next slide) to make sure that Imagen 30
the forms and meaning that we encode / decode are appropriate, we Gente hablando

also need to understand socio-cultural rules and their effect on

communication. It may be defined as one’s knowledge of rules and
conventions which underlie the appropriate comprehension and
language use in different sociolinguistic and sociocultural contexts.
• Discourse competence enables users to create / deal with logical,
coherent, and cohesive texts. It may be defined as the mastery of
rules that determine ways in which forms and meanings are meant
to be combined to achieve a meaningful unity in spoken or written
texts. Fuente: https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/gente-hablando-ilustracion-
• Strategic competence: it includes verbal and non-verbal strategies concepto_16482629.htm#query=conversation&posi
tion=44&from_view=search&track=sph
aimed at compensating communication pitfalls and breakdowns.

66
2.5. Communicative Competence

In 1996, Bachman and Palmer issued a more comprehensive

model of communicative competence, which considered the Imagen 30
following components: Gente hablando

Fuente: https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/gente-hablando-ilustracion-
concepto_16482629.htm#query=conversation&posi
tion=44&from_view=search&track=sph

67
2.5. Communicative Competence

According to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR):

Imagen 30
Gente hablando

Fuente: https://www.freepik.es/vector-
gratis/gente-hablando-ilustracion-
concepto_16482629.htm#query=conversation&posi
tion=44&from_view=search&track=sph

Source: CEFR Chapter 5: The user’s/learner’s competences.

68
ÍNDICE
CONTENIDOS
Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. S. (1996). Language testing in practice: Designing and
developing useful language tests. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bagarić, V., and Djigunović, J. M. (2007). Defining communicative competence.
Metodika Review paper, 8, 94-103.
Baralo, M. (1999). La adquisición del español como lengua extranjera. Madrid: Arco
Libros. Col. Cuadernos de Didáctica del Español/LE.
Bruner, J. S. (1960). El proceso mental en el aprendizaje. Barcelona: Narcea, 1978
Canale, M. y Swain, M. (1980). “Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to
Second Language Teaching and Testing”. App/Applied Linguistics, 1, pp. 1-47.
Canale, M. (1983). “From communicative competence to communicative language
pedagogy”. En J. Richards y R. Smith (eds.). Language and Communication, Londres,
Longman, pp. 2-27.

69
ÍNDICE
CONTENIDOS
Ellis, R. (1985). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Fisiak, J. (1981). Contrastive linguistics and the language teacher. Oxford:
Pergammon.
Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. sociolinguistics, 269, 293.
Krashen, S. (1981). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language
Learning. Oxford: Pergamon
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition (pp. 1982-
1982). Pergamon: Oxford.
Krashen, S. (1985). The Input Hypothesis. Recuperado de: http://goo.gl/2On9Fa
Mahmood, A. H. & I. M. A. Murad. (2018). Approaching the Language of the Second
Language Learner: Interlanguage and the Models Before. English Language Teaching;
Vol. 11, No. 10; 2018 ISSN 1916-4742 E-ISSN 1916-4750, pp. 95-108.
70
ÍNDICE
CONTENIDOS
Piaget, J. (1966). El nacimiento de la inteligencia en el niño. Madrid: Aguilar, 1969.
Quolain, G. (2022). Interlanguage and Its Implications to Second Language Teaching and Learning.
Pacific International Journal, Vol. 5(4), 08-14; 2022 ISSN (Print) 2663-8991, ISSN (Online) 2616-
4825, pp. 1-14.
Richards, J. C., Rodgers, T. S. (1986). Enfoques y métodos en la enseñanza de idiomas. Madrid:
Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Rustipa, K. (2011). “Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis and the Implication to Language
Teaching”. Ragam Journal Pengembangan Humaniora, 11, 1.
Selinker, L. (1972). “Interlanguage”. IRAL-international review of applied linguistics in language
teaching, 10, 209-232.
Schütz, R. E. (2019). Stephen Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition. English Made in
Brazil (Online): https://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash-english.html
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and
comprehensible output in its development. Input in second language acquisition, 15, pp.165-179.

71
Dr. José-Maria Mesa-Villar / Dª Katrin Schuette
jmvillar@ucam.edu / kschuette@ucam.edu

UCAM Universidad Católica de Murcia

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© UCAM