ISSN: 2834-7706

Journal
A Real
Research Article of Mathematical to
Approximation Techniques
Riemann andHypothesis
Computational Mathematics
A Real Approximation
A Real Approximation to Riemann Hypothesisto Riemann Hypothesis
J.Rodrigo A. M. Dı́az ; rod.mart.dz@gmail.com
A Real Approximation to Riemann
J.Rodrigo A. M. Dı́az ; Hypothesis
rod.mart.dz@gmail.com
José Rodrigo Alejandro*

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Abstract.
J.Rodrigo A. M.ThisDı́azwork present the requisites to define ζ(s) like an analytic
; rod.mart.dz@gmail.com

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Department of Mathematics,
function Mexico
on real numbers; as well asCorresponding
*
a numerical Author
evaluation
Abstract. This work present the requisites
José Rodrigo
to define
Alejandro,
ζ(s) made
like an
Department
compu-
analytic
ofdiscusses
Mathematics, Mexico
tationally to obtain criteria of convergence. By the other hand
function on real numbers; as well as a numerical evaluation made compu- its
Abstract. This worksome algebraic
present
tationally identities
theobtain
to requisites to
to establish
criteria define where
ζ(s) like the
of convergence. function
anByanalytic zeta
the other Riemann
hand gives
its discusses
place to ζ(s) = 0. Submitted: 2024, Feb 01; Accepted: 2024, Feb 12; Published: 2024, Feb 15
function on real numbers; as well asidentities
some algebraic a numerical evaluation
to establish made
where compu-
the function zeta Riemann gives

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tationally to obtain place
criteria to of convergence.
ζ(s) = 0. By the other hand its discusses
1
someCitation:
algebraicAlejandro,
identities J. R.
to (2024).
establish A Real
where Approximation
the function to Riemann
zeta Hypothesis.
Riemann gives J Math Techniques Comput Math, 3(1),
place to ζ(s) = 0. Introduction.
01-12. 1

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Introduction.
1 Abstract Riemann Hypothesis establish next assessment:
This work presentRiemann
Introduction. the requisites to define establish
Hypothesis ζ(s) like annext
analytic function on real numbers; as well as a numerical evaluation
assessment:
made computationally
The Riemann to obtainhypothesis
criteria ofasserts
convergence.
that allByinteresting
the other hand its discusses
solutions some algebraic identities to
of the equation
E
establish where
Riemann HypothesisThe the
ζ(s) function
= 0
establish lie
Riemann zeta
on aRiemann
certain
nexthypothesis
assessment:gives place
vertical to ζ(s)
straight = 0.
line. Cite: Clay Mathematics
asserts that all interesting solutions of the equationInsti-
tute; December of 2023.

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ζ(s) = 0 lie on a certain vertical straight line. Cite: Clay Mathematics Insti-
PL

1.The
Introduction
Riemann hypothesis tute; asserts
December thatofall interesting solutions of the equation
2023.
Riemann
ζ(s) = 0Hypothesis Establish
Riemann
lie on a certain Next
vertical Assessment
function is defined
straight as next:
line. Cite: Clay Mathematics Insti-
The Riemann
tute; Decemberhypothesis
of 2023. asserts that
Riemann all interesting
function is definedsolutions
as of the equation ζ(s) = 0 lie on a certain vertical straight line. Cite: Clay
next:
1
Mathematics Institute;ζ(s) = Σ∞
December n=1of ns2023.
SH
Riemann
Riemannfunction
functionis defined
isζ(s)
defined=asΣnext: 1
∞ next:
as
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n=1 ns
Where s = σ + it ∈ C such that ℜ(s) > 1
1
ζ(s) = Σ∞
n=1 ns Where s = σ + it ∈ C such that ℜ(s) > 1
Remember that the meaning of a number powered by a complex number have
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Where
Wheres = s= any
σ +σit+∈itC∈suchC definition.
that ℜ(s)
such
Remember thatthat>√ 1Forthe
ℜ(s) >that reason of
1meaning lets use the meaning
a number powered by established
a complex onnumber
Appendix have
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Remember that the meaning 1 ; then i

any definition. = ±
of a number −1For = ±1
powered
that andby
reasontherefore
a complex
lets usefor the
number
the development
have
meaning any of this
definition√.
established onwork
For that
Appendix reason lets use the meaning
√
established
Rememberonthat Appendix ; theni iof
;1then
the 1meaning == ± a± number
−1 = ±1 and therefore
powered
and by a complex
therefore for
forthe
thedevelopment
number
development haveof this work
of this work
any definition.√For that reason lets use the meaning established on Appendix
1 ; then i = ± −1 = Definition. ±1 and therefore Formally, for the a function
development ±
s f=isσ real
oftthis
analytic
work on an open set D in the
B

real line if for any s0 ∈ D one canswrite =σ±t

Like the problem
Definition.
Definition. were established
Formally,
Formally, aa function
function with ff the ideaanalytic
isis real
real to define on
analytic such
on an anequation
open
open set with
set D complex
D in the powers then I will develop next argumentation
in the
using
real a famous
real line
line ifif for any Like
for corollary
any ss00 ∈∈ DDthe
about one
oneproblem
analytic
can
can
∞ write
writewere
functions. established
n with the idea to define2 such equation3 with
f (s) = Σn=0 ansthen =−
(s σ Is±0will a0 + a1 (s − argumentation
)t =develop s0 ) + a2 (s − s0 )using − s0 ) ...
+ a3a(sfamous
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complex
Like thepowers problem were established next with the idea to define such equation corol-
with
lary about analytic functions.
2. Methodology
ffDefinition.
(s)
(s) ==Σ ∞
Σn=0∞ a (s − scomplex
n=0 nna (s −
Formally, s ))nn= a +
a = a
function
00in which +
00 the a
powers
a (s
f(s is−
− s
thens
real
11 coefficients
00 )
) +
I+ a
will
a (s
analytic(s −
− s
develop
s
on ))
a0 , a1 , 0...
22
22+
an + a
next
a
open
0 are real 33(s
(s − s
sets D
numbers
00))33...
argumentation
− ...
in the using a famous corol-
and the series is convergent
Definition.
Likeline
real Formally,
the ifproblem sa0lary
for any were function
to Df oneffor
∈ established
about
(s) is
can real
analytic
s analytic
with
write
in a the on
idea
functions.
neighbourhood anto
opendefinesetsD
of such
0 . in the real linewith
equation if for any s0 ∈ D one can write
in complex
in which
which the powers
the Methodology.
then
coefficients
coefficients I will
aa00,,adevelop
a11,,... arenext
... are realargumentation
real numbers
numbers and and the using
the a famous
series
series corol-
isis convergent
convergent
to lary
fto
(s) about
ff(s)
(s)
= for
Σfor∞ ss analytic
inn (s
n=0 ain
functions.
)n = a0 + aof
aa neighbourhood
− sMethodology.
neighbourhood of(sss0− 2
0.. s0 ) + a2 (s − s0 ) + a3 (s − s0 ) ...
3
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0Proof. 1
1 Independent Researcher- Non Affiliation; Mexico City
in which the coefficients a0, a1, ... are real numbers and the series is convergent to f (s) for s in a neighbourhood of s0.
Methodology.
Proof.
Proof.
in which the coefficients Letsa0take
, a1 , ...
1 Independenttheare realofnumbers
series
Researcher- powers: and the series
Non Affiliation; MexicoisCity convergent
to f (s) for s in a neighbourhood of s0 .
Proof
Lets take
take the
the series
Lets1 Independent series of
ofSpowers:
powers: ∞ Affiliation; Mexico n 2 3
Lets take the series of powers
Researcher- =Σ n=0 an (s − s0 ) = aCity
Non 0 + a1 (s − s 10 ) + a2 (s − s0 ) + a3 (s − s0 ) ...
Proof.
SS ==Σ Σ∞∞ a (s − s )nn = a + a (s − s ) + a (s − s )22 + a (s1− s )33...
n=0 ann (s − s00 ) when
n=0 = a00 + r= a11s(s−−s0s00and ) + an22 (s→− ∞;s00S) must
+ a33 (s − s00 ) ...
fulfilled the condition |r| < 1 to converge.
Lets take the series of powers:
ss− →→S∞; 1
when
whenrrr==
when =
s− s00 and
s−0 sand and
n→ nnRewriting
∞; ∞;
mustSS must
must
fulfilled fulfilled
fulfilled
S expression the
the condition
the condition
with condition
r we 1 to|r|
|r| <have: |r| <
< 11 to
converge. to converge.
converge.
Rewriting S expression with r we have:
S = Σ∞ a
n=0 n (s − s 0 ) n
= a 0 + a 1 (s − s 0 ) + a 2 (s − s 0 ) 2
+ a 3 (s − s 0 ) 3
...
Rewriting
RewritingSSSexpression
Rewriting expression
expression S with
with
with
∞rr we
r we anhave:
we rhave:
n=0have:
n
= Σ = a0 + a1 r + a2 r2 + a3 r3 ...
when r = s − s0 and n → ∞; S must fulfilled the condition |r| < 1 to converge.
SS ==Σ Σ∞∞ a r nn = a + a r + a r 22 + a r 33...
n=0 ann r = a00 +
n=0 a11 r +
Now a22 r +next
consider a33 r ...equation:
Rewriting S expression with r we have:
Now
Nowconsider
Now considernext
consider next
nextequation:
equation:
equation:
∞
S = Σn=0 an r = a0 + a1 r + a2 r2 + a3 r3 ...a =
n 1 1
n =
(n + 1)s (s − s0 )n (n + 1)s rn
11 11
Now consider next equation: aann == =
(n + 1) ss(s − s )nn = (n + 1)ssr nn
J Math Techniques Comput Math, 2024on S equation
(n
Substituting+ 1) (s − s00 ) (n + 1) r
we have: Volume 3 | Issue 1 | 1

Substituting
Substituting on
on SS equation
equation we
we have:
1
have: 1
an = =
(n + 1)s (s − s0 )n (n + 1)s rn
 an = =
(n + 1)s1(s − s0 )n (n + 11)s rn
1 a n = 1 − s0 )n = (n + 1)s rn
s (s
an = (n
= + 1)
on1)Ss (s
(n +
Substituting − s0 )n we (n
equation + 1)s rn
have:
Substituting on S equation we have:
Substituting on S equation we have:
1 1 1 1 1
Substituting on S equation S = Σ∞ n=0 we( have: s n )rn = s 0 + r+ r2 + r3 ...
∞ (n + 11) r n 1 1r (1 + 11)s r1 (2 + 11)s r2 2 (3 + 11)s r3 3
1S = Σn=0 ( 1
(n + 1) s rn 1
)r = s 0 + 1
1r r+ (1 + 1)srr21 + (2 +
r+ 1 1)s r23r + (3 + 1)s r3 r ...
S = Σ∞ n=0 ( s rn
)r n
= s r0
+ r ...
(n + 1) Simplifying 1we have: (1 + 1)s r1 (2 + 1)s r2 (3 + 1)s r3
Simplifying we have: Simplifying we have:
Simplifying we have:
1 1 1 1 1
S = Σ∞ n=0 rn = s + s + s + s + ...
∞ (n + 1 1)s n 11 21 31 41
1 S =n Σn=0 1 (n +1 1)s r1 = 11s + 2s + 3s + 4s + ...
S = Σ∞ n=0 s
r = + s + s + s + ...
with η = (n n+ +11)and 1s
substituting 2 on3 S we4 have:

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with η = n + 1 andwith substituting
η =n+ on1Sand we have:substituting on S we have:
particular
with η = n case + 1 and of series of powers
substituting onis the
we ”geometric series” on this case all co-
particular case of series of powers isSthe have:
”geometric series” on this case all co-
efficients
particular case of a are equal).
n series of powers is the ”geometric series” 1 on this case ∞ all 1 co-
efficients
particularacase n areof equal).
series of powers S is = theΣ∞ ”geometric series” onΣthis
= η=1 case =all
ζ(s)co-
efficients an are case
particular equal). of series of powers is the η−1=0 ”geometric
∞ (η − 11series”
+ 1)s on this η1s all co-
∞ case
efficients
Lets proveannthat a are equal). S 1 = Σ = Σ = ζ(s)
are Zeta Riemann casefunction isη−1=0 ∞ −1
a monotone decreasing sequence,
efficients equal). η=1
s”geometric
Lets prove that particular
S =Riemann
Zeta Σ∞ of series
function issofa=powers
Σ(η
monotone is
1+ the
1)
=decreasing
ζ(s) η sseries” on this case all co-
sequence,

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This equation
Lets prove that Zeta Riemann is alsoThis know as
equation
efficients ”Riemann
η−1=0
function
an are is −
(η also1+
is zeta
equal). function”;
1) as ”Riemann
aknow
monotone η=1being
η s the
decreasing particular
zetasequence, case of
function”; series
being of particular
the powers when all terms (s − s0)n are equal
Lets
toLets
1 (hint:prove that
another Zeta
particular Riemann case of offunction
series is
ofwhen a monotone decreasing sequence,
prove that case Zeta of
This Riemann
series
equation isfunction
powers
also know ispowers
aas isterms
monotone
all
”Riemannthe ”geometric
decreasing
(szeta )nseries”
− s0function”; onbeing
sequence,
are equal this
to case
1the all
(hint: coefficients
another an are equal).
particular
1

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This equation is case also know
Letsofprove as
seriesthat ”Riemann
Zeta{ Riemann
of powers zeta
}
1swhen function”;
allfunction being
terms (sis−asmonotone the
n particular
0 ) are equal to 1 (hint:
decreasing another
sequence,
Lets
caseproveof series that of ZetapowersRiemann when function
all{terms1 is {a η(s }
monotone
s − s0 ) decreasing
n
are equal to sequence,
1 (hint: another
} η1
η s { 1s } 2
evaluating η ∈ {1, 2, 3, ..., i, ...} we have: { ηs }
η 21
evaluating η ∈ {1, 2, 3, ..., i, ...} we have: 2 { }
evaluating η ∈ {1, 2, 3, ..., i, ...} we have: ηs
E
evaluating
1 1 1 η ∈1 {1, 2, 3, ..., i, ...} we have:
11s ,, 21s ,, 31s ,, ...,
evaluating , ... 2, 3, ..., i, ...} we have:
η ∈i1s {1,
1evaluating
s 1 2s 3s1 η..., ∈ {1, 2, 3, ..., i, ...} we have:
s , ...
1 1
1s , 2s ,13,s ,1...,, 1is , ... 1
, ...,
i
, ...
evaluating η ∈ {1, 2, 3, ..., i, ...} we have:
ED
PL

like
11 , 21 , 31 , ..., i1 , ...
s s s s
like
1 s 2 s 3s i s
1 1 1 1
like 1s , 2s1 , 3s , ..., is , ...
like
1 1 1
like
like > > >
11s > 21s > 31s > ... > i1s > ... ... > > ...
1 11s > 21s > ... 3s 1 is
1s > 21s > 31s > 1 > > slike
i... > ...
> 1
> ...
SH
Hence
11 > 21the
s s
sequence
31s
s > 3s > ... > is > ...
isi1sdecreasing
M

Hence the sequence

1 s 2
1
is decreasing
1 1 1
Hence the sequence is decreasing 1s > 2s > 3s > ... > is > ...
Hence
Hence
Now
Hence the
thesequence
taking sequence
the sequencethe is
limit decreasing
isofdecreasing
η when tends to infinite we have:
Now taking the limitisofdecreasing η when tends to infinite we have:
Now taking the limit ofHence η when tends to infinite
the sequence is decreasing we have:
Now
Now taking
taking 1thethe limitlimit of ηofwhenη when tends to
tends infinite we
to infinite have:we have:
SA

lim
Now taking { } = 0
{ ηη1s }the= 0limit of η when tends to infinite we have:
η→∞ s
lim
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η→∞
1
limη→∞ { ηs } = 10 Now taking the limit of η when tends to infinite we have:
lim
By η→∞ definition { η1s } = of 0quotient between ∞.
lim η→∞ { s} = 0
By definition of quotient between
η ∞.
1
By definition of quotient η→∞ { η s ∞.
limbetween }=0
By definition of quotient between ∞.
ByBy definition
Considering
definition
Considering ofthat
of
thatquotient
indexbetween
quotient i increase
index i increase between ∞. by ∞.one
by
unit at time, then we can conclude
one unit at time, then we can conclude
B

that thethat
Considering sequence
indexBy iisincrease
monotone. by one unit at time, then ∞. we can conclude
that the sequence
Considering that index is definition
monotone. of quotient between
i increase by one unit at time, then we can conclude
that Considering
the sequence
Considering thatis index
that monotone.
index i increase
i increase by one by unitone at time,
unit at then
time,wethen can conclude that the sequence is monotone.
we can conclude
that
Finally thewith sequence istherefore
η > Considering
0is monotone. s
ηthat is positive ∀s ∈ ℜ; hence 1
> 0
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that the sequence

Finally with η > 0 therefore monotone. index i increase
η s is positive ∀s ∈ ℜ; hence by oneη1unit s at time, then we can conclude
s > 0
Finally
Finally withwith η >η0>therefore0 therefore
that the η sηsisispositive
sequencepositive
s is ∀s∀s ∈∈ ℜ;
monotone.ℜ; hence
hence η1s > 0η1
Finally
Due to earlywith η > 0 therefore aboutηη sζ(s) is positive ∀s ∈ ℜ; condensation
hence η1s > 0 test can be
Finally
Due to earlywith ηproperties
> 0 therefore
properties about ζ(s)
series; Cauchy
is positive
series; Cauchy∀s ∈ ℜ; condensation
hence ηs > 0 test can be
Due Due used
to to
early to early properties
evaluate
properties aboutabout
convergence
Finally with of ζ(s)
ζ(s) series;
of this
series;
η> Cauchy
series.
Cauchy
0 therefore condensation
s
condensation
η is positive test ∀scan
test be be
∈can
ℜ; used
henceto evaluate
1
> 0 convergence of this series.
used to
Due to early
evaluate convergence
properties about ζ(s) this series.Cauchy
series; condensation test can beηs
used to Due evaluate
to earlyconvergenceproperties about of thisζ(s) series. series; Cauchy condensation test can be
used to evaluate convergence of this series.
UN

Lets
Letsconsider
Lets
used consider
to evaluate
consider thethe
theseriesseries
convergence
Due
series to early of this series.
properties about ζ(s) series; Cauchy condensation test can be
Lets consider the seriesused to evaluate convergence of this series.
Lets
Σ ∞ consider
2ηη η112η = 2the 0 1series 1 1
+ 21 12(1) 2 1 3 1 4 1
Lets
∞ consider
η=0 the 1series
0 02(0) 1 + 22 22(2) 1 + 23 32(3) 1 + 24 42(4) 1 + ...
∞ Σηη=0 1 2 η 2η0 = 1 2 02(0) 1 + 1 2 12(1) 2 + 1 2 22(2) 3 + 1 2 32(3) 4 + 1 2 42(4) + ...
Ση=0 2 ∞ η 2η = 2
η 1 02(0) 0 Lets + 2
1 12(1) +
consider 2
1 1 22(2) +
the2 series 2 + 2
1 32(3) 3 1 42(4) 4 1 + ...
Σ∞
= 1
η=0 1 2η η1
+ 2 1 = 201 2(0)
2η
+ 4 +1 8+ 1 21 2(1)
+ 16 1 1+ + 232 11 +
2 22(2) + ...23 32(3)
1 + 24 42(4) 1 + ...
Σ
=η=0 2 =
1 1 + η22η1 + 4 21402(0)2 4 0 + 2
+∞8 3316 η1+ 1116
6 1 + 2
41 + 3222(2)
2(1) 8 + 2
51 + ... 32(3)
10 + 2 42(4)
+ ...
= 1 11 + 2 11 + 4 11214 + 821316Σ+ 48 10 + 10
1 5...
16 + 32 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1
= 13.2512193300475... η=01248η 2η = 1 5210 02(0)1 + 2 12(1) + 2 22(2) + 2 32(3) + 2 42(4) + ...
= 1 + 2 1 + 4 214 + 8 316 + 16 418 + 32 51 10 + ...
= 1 + 2
= 3.2512193300475...
1 1 + 4 24 + 8 36 + 16 48 + 32 510 + ...
= 3.2512193300475... = 1 11 + 2 11 + 4 214 + 8 316 + 16 418 + 32 5110 + ...
= 3.2512193300475...
And
And lets
letsname
lets name
= 3.2512193300475...
And name thisthis
thisnumber number
number ζtest. ζζtest ..
like like
like
test
And lets name this number like ζtest .
= 3.2512193300475...
And lets name this number like ζ .
The
Andnext
The
The letscondition
next
next
condition
name
condition thisestablish
establish
number
establish if ζ(s)
like
if ζ(s)ζtest
series
if ζ(s) . converge:
testseries
series
converge:
converge:
The next condition establish And lets if ζ(s)
nameseries converge:like ζtest .
this number
The
Σ∞ next
1 condition
Σ∞ η 1establish if ζ(s) series converge:
The∞ next
η=1 η1s ≤condition ∞ 2η η1
η=0 establish if ζ(s) series converge:
2η
∞ Σ 1 η=1 η s∞≤ Σηη=0 1 2 η 2η
Ση=1 ηs∞≤ Σ1 η=0 2 ∞ η 2η η 1 next condition establish if ζ(s) series converge:
The
Σ∞
Ση=1 η1s ≤ ≤
Σ∞
Σ η=0 2η η1 2η
η=1 η s η=0 2 η 2η
∞ 1 η 1 3
Ση=1 ηs ≤ Σ∞ η=0 2 η 2η 3
J Math Techniques Comput Math, 2024
3 Volume 3 | Issue 1 | 2
3
3
3
 η 1
Like Σ∞
η=0 2 η 2η = ζtest (i.e. converge to the number ζtest )

Therefore ζ(s) is convergent.

Like
NextΣtable
Like ∞ η shows
1
η=0 2 η 2η = ζLike
test (i.e.
the (i.e.
result
Σ∞η=0
converge
2to
η 1
converge to the
to the ζnumber
evaluate test from
number
η 2η = ζtest (i.e. converge
η) )= 0tountil
ζζtest
test the ηnumber
= 9. ζtest )

n 2n ζ(s)
Therefore
Therefore ζ(s)isisconvergent. n2n ζ(s) is convergent. n12n
convergent.
Therefore 2n n12n
0 1 1 1 1
Next1 table
Next 2 shows
table showsthe theresult 1
result toevaluate
to evaluateζ ζtest
Next table shows the fromfromη = 01 until
η 0=until η =η9.= 9. 2
test result to evaluate ζtest from η = 0 until η = 9.
2 4 16 1
0.0625 1
0.25
n 2n n2n n 21n n2n
3 8 n 165612 n2n0.000152415790276
n2n 0.001219326322207 2n n12n
0 1 1 n2n1
1
4 216 4294967296
0 1 1 2.3283064365387E-10
1 1
3.72529029846191E-09
12 1
25 432 2.3283064365387E+022
1 16 2 1 4.294967296E-23
0.0625 1.37438953472E-21
10.25 2

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36 864 6.33402866629733E+049
26561 4 1.57877403574267E-50
16
0.000152415790276 1.01041538287531E-48
0.0625
0.001219326322207 0.25
47 16 128 1.48781564719761E+108
3
4294967296 8 6.72126282502512E-109
6561
2.3283064365387E-10 8.60321641603216E-107
0.000152415790276
3.72529029846191E-09 0.001219326322207
58 32 256 2.3283064365387E+022
1.55251809230071E+231
4 16 6.44114876959713E-232
4.294967296E-23
4294967296 1.64893408501687E-229
1.37438953472E-21
2.3283064365387E-10 3.72529029846191E-09
69 64 512 6.33402866629733E+049
5 NUM! 32 1.57877403574267E-50
2.3283064365387E+022 NUM! 1.01041538287531E-48
4.294967296E-23 NUM! 1.37438953472E-21
7 128 1.48781564719761E+1086 64 6.72126282502512E-109
6.33402866629733E+049 8.60321641603216E-107
1.57877403574267E-50 1.01041538287531E-48
Table 1. Evaluation of ζtest for different values of η.
8 256 1.55251809230071E+231

CO
6.44114876959713E-232 1.64893408501687E-229

P
7 128 1.48781564719761E+108 6.72126282502512E-109 8.60321641603216E-107
9 512 NUM! NUM! NUM!
8 256 1.55251809230071E+231
Can be established that ζ(s) series converges to ζtest because 6.44114876959713E-232
the coefficients 1.64893408501687E-229
Table 1. Evaluation of ζ for different values of η.

PA
9 512
test η 1 NUM!
of each term are for main value 2 η2η to small when η = 8; to know a power NUM! NUM!
−229
of around
Can 10
be established ;Table
on LibreOffice
that 1. Evaluation
ζ(s) Table
Calc
series converges is ζ1.
of not
toEvaluation
test ζpossible to
for different
test because ofobtain for more
values
ζtest
the different
of η.values
coefficients values
for of η.
0
η > 8 (note: the value 0 = 1 ηis 1not defined on this software and is necessary
of each term are for main value 2 η2η to small when η = 8; to know a power
Can be established
to around
introduce numberthat
Can ζ(s)
1beatseries
hand). converges
established thatto ζtest because
ζ(s) series the coefficients
converges of each
to ζtest term are for main value 2η 1/η2η to small when η
of 10−229 ; on LibreOffice Calc is not possible to obtain more values forbecause the coefficients
=η8;>to8 know a power of of around 10aredefined
−229
;for
on main
LibreOffice Calc
2η η12ηis and
notsmall
possible to obtain
η = 8;more valuesa for η > 8 (note: the value 00 = 1 is
E
(note: the value each
00 =term
1 is not on value
this software to when
is necessary to know power
not defined
Early onnumber
situationthiscan
software and is−229
necessary to introduce numberwhen 1 at hand).
to introduce of 1be
at understood
hand). ; like; the series increase next term
is added; for η > η8>ζtest
around 10
series increase
on LibreOffice
an
ED
Calc is not possible
0 amount infinitely small, reaching
to obtain more values for
PL

8 (note: the value 0 = 1 is not defined on this software and is necessary

Early
Early situationa can
situation canbe beunderstood
understood like;
like;thetheseries increase when
whennext termis added; for η > 8 ζtest series increase an amount infinitely
term
practically constant
to value. Hence
introduce number ζ(s) 1series
converge
at increase
hand). because ζnext
test is constant.
small, reaching
is added; for η practically
> 8 ζtest seriesa constant
increase value. Hence ζ(s)
an amount converge
infinitely small,because
reachingζtest is constant.
practically
Some useful a constant
number value. Hence ζ(s)
to situation
compare converge are:
early because ζtest is constant.
Early can beresult
understood like; the series increase when next term
Some useful number to compare early result are:
Some useful numberis toadded; for early
η > result series increase an amount infinitely small, reaching
8 ζtestare:
SH
compare
M

ζtest − π = 0.109626676457704...
practically a constant value. Hence ζ(s) converge because ζtest is constant.
ζζtest − π = 0.109626676457704...
test
π = 1.03489525490596...
Some useful number to compare early result are:
ζtest
= 1.03489525490596...
SA

π
eζtest = 25.8218060334812...
LI

ζtest − π = 0.109626676457704...
eζtest = 25.8218060334812...
π ζtest = 41.3374113001018...
ζtest
= 1.03489525490596...
π
π ζtest = 41.3374113001018...
Lets
Letsnote that converge
eζtestcriteria to antoopen set D(s, ) = {s|s0d(s,
sets D(s, ) < ϵ};
) =s0{s| d(s,must be established taking into account the value of ζtest.
B

note that converge =criteria an open

25.8218060334812... s0 ) < ϵ};
Lets note that converge criteria
GiB;intoprocessor set D(s,0s0 )i5-7200
to an openIntel = {s| d(s, s0 )2.5
< GHz
ϵ}; x 4; graphics Mesa Intel HD
must be established taking account the Core value of ζtestCPU .
must be established taking into account the value of ζtest . capacity of 1.0 TB and Ubuntu 20.04.6 LTS
The value of s has been Graphics
π ζtestapproximated 620manually
(KBL
= 41.3374113001018... GT2); disk
calculating ζ(s) on Libre-Office Calc using a laptop Dell Vostro 14 - 3000 series
PU

with
The a memory
value of of
s 7.5
has GiB;
been for different
processor values
Intel
approximated Core ofi5-7200
manually η and comparing
CPU 2.5 GHz
calculating itsxon
result vs the
4; graphics value
Mesa ofHD
Intel . The 620 (KBL GT2); disk
ζtestGraphics
The value of s has been approximated manually calculating ζ(s) onζ(s)
Libre- Libre-
capacity of 1.0
OfficeCalc
Calc TBaand
using alaptop value
Ubuntu
laptop given
20.04.6
Dell was
LTS
Vostro s =
for 1.4. Higher
different values
values for
ofasetand
ηmemoryη were
comparing not considered
its d(s,
result
s0vs due
) <theϵ};to a of ζ . The value given
value
Office using Lets note
Dellthat
Vostro 14 - 14
converge 3000 - 3000
seriesseries
criteria to
with anawith
open
memory D(s,
of 7.5 s0of) 7.5
= {s| test
was s = 1.4. Higher must
valuesbefreeze on the
forestablished graphic
η were not considered interface.
taking intodue to a freeze
account on the of
the value graphic
ζtest . interface.
η = 5000 η = 10000 η = 20000
The value
ζ(s of s has4 been
4 approximated manually calculating ζ(s) on Libre-
UN

= 1.3) 3.67302377623045 3.72163325170118 3.76111828801966

Office Calc using a laptop Dell Vostro 14 - 3000 series with a memory
ζ(s = 1.4) 3.02268924184343 3.04275137310375 3.05795640541761 of 7.5
ζ(s = 1.5) 2.58409249158088 2.59237584867299 2.59823338983623
Table 2. Values
Table of ζ(s) forofdifferent
2. Values ζ(s) for values ofvalues
4 different s and of
η s and η

For s < 1.4, ζ(s) converge For

sooner,
s <i.e. forζ(s)
1.4, η < 5000;
convergewhile for s >i.e.
sooner, 1.4;for
ζ(s)η converge
< 5000; because
while forfors η>> 1.4;
20000;
ζ(s)this result suggest that
Cauchy condensation test can be satisfied
converge fully;
because fori.e.
η> when η tends
20000; thistoresult
infinite.
suggest that Cauchy condensation
test can be satisfied fully; i.e. when η tends to infinite.
The criterion used on this work was next:
The criterion used on this work was next:
S convergence to ζ(s) for a minimum value of s = 1.4
S convergence to ζ(s) for a minimum value of s = 1.4
Lets call this value like constant of convergence or sconvergence.
Lets call this value like constant of convergence or sconvergence .
Like was established before; for any value of s ≤ sconvergence ζ(s) not converge. If convergence criteria is modified to consider all points
Like was established before; for any value of s ≤ sconvergence ζ(s) not con-
J Math Techniques Computverge. If convergence criteria is modified to consider all points that fulfilled Volume 3 | Issue 1 | 3
Math, 2024
Cauchy condensation test; when η is finite (η < 5000); ζ(s) convergence do-
minion could be extended

ζ(s = 0.1); η = 3 3.1878966365702

 Like was established before; for anyLets
valuecall s ≤value
of this sconvergence ζ(s) not
like constant con-
of convergence or sconvergence .
verge. If convergence criteria is modified to consider all points that fulfilled
Cauchy condensation test; when η is finite
Like was(ηestablished
< 5000); ζ(s) convergence
before; do- of s ≤ sconvergence ζ(s) not con-
for any value
minion could be extended verge. If convergence criteria is modified to consider all points that fulfilled
Cauchy condensation test; when η is finite (η < 5000); ζ(s) convergence do-
that ζ(s
fulfilled Cauchy
= 0.1); η = 3condensation test; minion
when η could
3.1878966365702 is finitebe(ηextended
< 5000); ζ(s) convergence dominion could be extended
ζ(s = −0.9); η = 11 3.22114303824938
ζ(s =of0.1);
Table 3. Values of ζ(s) for different values η =η 3small.3.1878966365702
s and
ζ(s = −0.9); η = 11 3.22114303824938
TableTable
Now lets develop topological criteria 3. Values
about of ζ(s)
3. open
Values offor
sets to different
satisfy
ζ(s) values values
of s and
convergence
for different ofofηssmall.
and η small.
ζ(s).
Now lets develop topological criteria about open sets to satisfy convergence of ζ(s).
Now lets develop topological criteria about open sets to satisfy convergence of
Lets take two values s1 and s2 on the zone of convergence such that:
ζ(s).
Lets take two values s1 and s2 on the zone of convergence such that:

ER
PY
sconvergence ≤ s1 ≤ s1 Lets take two values s1 and s2 on the zone of convergence such that:

sconvergence ≤ s2 ≤ s2 sconvergence ≤ s1 ≤ s1
0 ≤ d(s1 , s2 ) = s1 − s2 ≤ s1 − s2 = ϵ
On
Onconvergence
0 ≤ d(s1 , s2 ) =zone
convergence zone
s1 −s sand
2 ≤ ss1exist
1 s1 and
− s2to=be ϵ part of ℜ and satisfy convergence regarding s
2 s2 exist to be part of ℜ and satisfy convergence convergence
criteria.
sconvergence ≤ s2 ≤ s2

CO

P
regarding sconvergence
Hence S converge criteria.
to ζ(s); ∀s ∈ D(s, s0 ) = {s| d(s, s0 ) < ϵ ; ζ(s) ≤ ζtest and
Subtracting second}term
Hence S converge
s ≥ sconvergence of first
to ζ(s); ∀swe ∈ have:
D(s, s0 ) = {s| d(s, s0 ) < ϵ ; ζ(s) ≤ ζtest and
0 ≤ d(s
s ≥ sconvergence } 1 , s2 ) = s1 − s2 ≤On s1 −convergence
s2 = ϵ zone s1 and s2 exist to be 0 ≤part
d(s1of , s2ℜ) =
ands1 satisfy
− s2 ≤convergence
s1 − s 2 = ϵ

PA
Subtracting second term of first weregarding have: s criteria.
0≤ d(s
0 ≤ d(s , s
1 12 ) = s − s ≤ s − s =
, s2 ) =1 s1 −2 s2 ≤1 s1 −2 s2 = ϵ ϵ convergence
Therefore ζ(s) is analytical on the conditions described early.
s0 ) = {s|early.
∀s ∈ D(s,described ≤ ζtestS and
Therefore Henceζ(s) is Sanalytical
converge on to the
ζ(s);conditions d(s, s0 ) < ϵ ; ζ(s)Hence converge to ζ(s); ∀s ∈ D(s, s0 ) = {s| d(s, s
Hence
Hence S S converge
s
converge
Hence S converge ≥ stoto ζ(s); ∀s }∈ D(s, sSubtracting
) = {s| d(s,second
s ) < term
ϵ ; of
ζ(s)
to ζ(s); ∀s ∈ D(s,0 s0 ) = {s| d(s,0 s0 ) < ϵ ; ζ(s) ≤test
convergence first
≤ ζ we have:
and
ζtest ands ≥ s convergence }
s≥ s
s ≥convergence
sconvergence } }
E
Therefore ζ(s) is analytical
Therefore ζ(s)onisthe conditions
analytical 5 described
on early. described early.
the conditions Therefore ζ(s) is analytical on the conditions describ
Therefore ζ(s) is analytical on the conditions described
Therefore ζ(s) is analytical on the conditions described early. early.
ED
PL

5
SH
M
SA

B LI

Graph 1. Cartesian plane and zones of convergence finite (left) and infinite(right)
Graph 1. Cartesian plane and zones of convergence finite (left) and infinite(right)
PU

for ζ(s) regarding Cauchy condensation test.

for ζ(s) regarding Cauchy condensation test.
PrincipleGraph of Analytic Continuation, or Identity Theorem. Let f and ginfinite(right)
Graph
Principle 1. Cartesian
of Analytic 1. Cartesian
plane and zones plane
Continuation, and zones
of convergence of
or Identity convergence
finite (left) finiteLet
and infinite(right)
Theorem. (left)
f and and
for
Graphgζ(s) regarding
1. Cartesian Cauchy condensation
plane and zones test. of convergence fi
Graph be analytic
1. for
Cartesian in a
ζ(s) region
regarding
plane A.
and Suppose
Cauchy
zones of that there
condensation
convergence is a sequence
test.
finite (left) s 1
and, s 2 , ... of dis-
infinite(right) for ζ(s) regarding Cauchy condensation test.
be analytic in a region A. Suppose
Graph 1. Cartesian plane and zones of convergence finite (left) that there is a sequence s , s , ... of dis-
and infinite(right)
tinct
forPrinciple points of A converging to s0 ∈ test. A, such that f (sn ) = 1g(s2n ) for all
ζ(s)
tinct of
regarding
points Analytic
of A Cauchy Continuation,
converging condensation
to s or∈ Identity
A, such Theorem.
that f (s Let
) =f andg(s g be
) analytic
for all in a region A. Suppose that there is a sequence
UN

for ζ(s) regarding Cauchy condensation test.

n = 1, 2, 3, ... Then fof=Analytic g on all0 ofContinuation,
A. The conclusion n
is valid, in n
particular
s1n, s=2
, ...1,of2,distinct
3,Principle
... Then points f of = Ag converging
on all of A.to The s0 ∈ A, such that
conclusion or f(s ) = g(sin
Identity
is nvalid, n
)Theorem.
for all n =Principle
particular 1,Let2, 3,f ...and
Then f = g on all Continuation,
ofg Analytic of A. The conclusion or Identit
if f = g on some neighbourhood of some point in A.
isPrinciple
ifvalid,
Principle f = ginon ofparticular
be analytic
Analytic
some if f = ing aon some
region
Continuation,
neighbourhood neighbourhood
A.
of Suppose
some
of Analytic Continuation, or Identity Theorem. Let f and g or that
Identity
point inof some
A.there point
Theorem.is a in A.
sequence
Let f s
and1 , sgbe
2 , ... of dis-
analytic in a region A. Suppose that there is a se
bebe analytic in tinct
a points
region A. of A
Supposeconverging that to
there
analytic in a region A. Suppose that there is a sequence1 s12, s2 , ... of dis- s 0is ∈a A, such
sequence that
s , s f ,(s
... n )
of =dis-g(s n )
tinct for all
points of A converging to s 0 ∈ A, such that f
Consider first the equation ofs the k-sphere:
Consider
tinct points
Consider first
ofn
firstthe
A= equation
1, 2,
converging
the 3, ...
equation of the
Then
to of k-sphere:
tinct points of A converging to0 s0 ∈ A, such that fn(sn ) = g(s f
the ∈= g
A, on
k-sphere: suchall of
that A. f The
(s ) conclusion
= g(s ) foris
n n ) for all valid,
all in
n particular
= 1, 2, 3, ... Then f = g on all of A. The conclusio
nn =2= 1, 2,1, 3,
2, ...ifThen
f = gf on = someg on neighbourhood
all of A. The conclusion
k 3, ... Then2 f = g on all of A. The conclusion is valid, in particular
of some point in A.
is valid, in particular if f = g on some neighbourhood of some point in A.
if fifrr2= =g Σ (xi −neighbourhood
ci )2
f == Σ gki=1
on i=1
onsome i − cineighbourhood
(xsome ) of of somesome point
point in inA.A.
Consider first the equation of the k-sphere: Consider first the equation of the k-sphere:
Clearing
Clearing
Consider r
first r from
from the k-sphere
k-sphere
equation ofequation
equation the and and substituting
substituting
k-sphere: on ζ(s) on
we ζ(s)
have: we have:
Clearing r from k-sphere
Consider first the equation of the k-sphere: equation and substituting on ζ(s) we have:
∞ 1
r2 = Σki=1∞(xi − ci )2 1 r2 = Σki=1 (xi − ci )2
2 ζ(s) k= Σ ∞ 1 =2 Σ ∞ √ 1
2 r=1 √ Σk (xi −ci )2 )s ...(1) ...(1)
i−
r r= 2 Σ =kΣ
ζ(s) (xr=1r=1 rci )=
s
= i=1Σi=1 (x i r− s ci )Σr=1 ( i=1 r
( Σk (xi −ci )2 )sr
Clearing r from k-sphere
i=1 equation and substituting on ζ(s) we have: Clearing r from k-sphere equation and substituting o
where
where
Clearing
where every
revery
from
every sub-index
sub-index
k-sphere
sub-index r indicate
r indicate
equation
r indicatethe
Clearing r from k-sphere equation and substituting on ζ(s) we have: integer
andthe value
thesubstituting
integer
integer of the
value
value onradius
of
thefor
ofζ(s)
the we each
radius
radiushave: term;
for
for such
each
each that
term;
term; xi ∈ [ci, ] with i, r ∈ {1, 2, ...} for each term.
Letssuch callthat
such that xζ(s) this xfunction
i ∈ [c
i ∈ [ci , r]
i
= Σr=1 , ζ
r]
∞ with1 (s).
rs =
with
k−sphere
i,
i, Σ
r ∞∈
∈ {1,
r r=1
{1, 2, ...}1
√2, ...} for eachfor each term.
...(1) Lets call
term. Lets call this function
this function ζ(s) = Σ∞ 1 ∞ √ 1
r=1 r s = Σr=1 ( Σk (x −c )2 )s ...(1)
ζ ( Σk i=1 (xi −ci ) )r
2 s
k−sphere ∞ ∞(s). 1 1 ∞∞√ 1 1 i=1 i i r
ζ(s) ==
ζk−sphere
ζ(s) Σr=1 Σr=1 r s r=
(s). Σ Σr=1 √k
s = r=1
...(1)
...(1)
Now lets prove this function is analytic by rewriting such equation as the general term of series of power:
( (Σi=1 k(xi(x−c 2 s
Σ i ) i))r2 )s
−c
where every sub-index i=1 i r indicate the integer value of the radius for
r where eacheveryterm;sub-index r indicate the integer value of
where every such
sub-index that rx ∈ [c
indicate , r] with
the i,
integer
where every sub-index r indicate the integer value of the radius for each term;
i i r ∈ {1,
value 2, ...}
of for
the each
radius term.
for eachLets call
term; this
such function
that xi ∈ [ci , r] with i, r ∈ {1, 2, ...} for each ter
J Math Techniques ζ Comput (s). Math, 2024 ζ (s). Volume 3 | Issue 1 | 4
such that x ∈ [c , r] with i, r ∈ {1, 2, ...} for
such that xi ∈ [ci , r] with i, r ∈ {1, 2, ...}6 for each term. Lets call this function
i k−sphere
i each term. Lets call this function k−sphere
ζk−sphere
ζk−sphere (s). (s). 6

6 6
eral
Nowterm of series
lets prove this
Now offunction
power:
lets proveis analytic
this function by rewriting
is analytic such byequation
rewritingassuch
the gen-
equation as the gen-
eral term
Sk−sphere = of series of power:
eral term of series of power:
Sk−sphere = Now lets prove this function is analytic by rewriting such equation as the gen-
S ∞
Σk−sphere√ = 1 eral term
Sk−sphere= √ of
= series1 of power: √
+ 1
+ √ k 1
r=1 ( Σk (x
Σ∞Now √lets
i=1prove
1 i −cithis
)2 )sr =functioni=1is
(√ Σ k 1 ianalytic
(x −ci )2 )s1 + by rewriting
(√ i=1 (xi −csuch
Σk 1 i ) )2 equation
2 s
+ (√Σi=1 as the
1 i −c
(x i ) gen-
2 )s
3
+r=1
...
eral √
∞ ( Σk (x
term of series
i=1 1 S
2 s
i −ci ) )r
∞ of=
( Σk
power:
=
√ i=1 (x
1
2 s
i −ci ) )1 ( Σk
√ i=1 (x
1
2 s
i −ci ) )2 ( Σk
√ i=1 (x
1
2 s
i −ci ) )3
Σ
+r=1
... k−sphere
Σ2 s √ 1
2=
+
√ 1
2+
+
√ 1
2+
√ 1
( k Σi=1 (xi −ci )r=1
)r ( k ( k Σ(x s (x −c k
2 s) )1 (
i −cii ) )i
s k
( k Σ(x (xi )−c
i −ci
s
2 )is) )2 ( ( k Σ(x (xi )−c
i −ci
2 )is) )3 ( Σk 2 s
Σ i=1 i=1 r Σ i=1 i=1 1 Σ i=1 i=1 2 i=1 (xi −ci ) )3
+
=S...√ k 1 = 2Σ ·1 + √ 1 1 1
+∞...
1 i −ci ) )s1r=1 √ (k√Σk =s ·1 √ +k (√ 1
+ 2√ ·1+ 1... + √ k 1
= (k−sphere Σk
1 i −c s
21)is−ci ) ()3 Σ
2
√Σi=1 (x ·1 ( + Σ i=1 k (x
i=1
i −c
(x
i ) 2 )si ) )2 (·1 Σ
r 2 s + i=1
√
(x i −c
i=1i )
(x
1
·1+
k ...
i=1 (xi −ci ) )2
2 s ( Σi=1 (xi −ci )2 )s3
( Σk (x −c ) 2 )s ( Σ (x −c ) ) ( Σ k (x −c ) 2 )s
= √
√
i=1 1 i
1
=Σ(∞ Σkk√(xi −c1i )22 )ss1 (·1 Σ
i
+ =
1 ...
·1
√ +
+=( (x√√
√ 1 i=1 1 1
i i
·1 +
2 (s−s ) 1 i=1 1 i
·1
√ + 0 √
√
i
·11 +
3
·1+
√ ...
(s−s1 0 )2
·1+ ...
1ki −ci ) )1 2 s k Σ k
i −c
k i) 1
1
2 )is−ci )2
(x 2)
s
+Σki=1
)2s2 )s((s−s
√+ik−c
0 )( (xΣ
k 1(x 2k
i )Σ) is−c(xi ) )3 +
2 )12i)−c
2 s
s i() )(3
2 s√ki=1
Σ (s−s
k(xi0
1 2 +2 ...
) i ) )s32 s
−c
√Σi=1
= (r=1 (
i=1
k
(x
Σ i=1 (x i −c
2 )s
i ·1
) ) r + i=1(√ ( Σ i=1
Σ
i=1 k (x
i=1
i1−c
(x i
i) )
−c i 1 (s−s )
( +
Σ i=1
(√
i=1
(x i −c
i=1 i 2 Σ
2 )s (s−s
(x
i=1 0 )2 i
2 +
−c i...
) ) 3
1 i −ci ) = ( 1 Σk (x −ci )2 )s2 √ k −ci))√
= +(√ ...Σi=1 (x =
1 √
·1
√ + √ 1 i=12 1 is ·1
·1 +
+
(s−s00 ) 11 ( Σi=1·1
√ + √
(x1 i+
(s−s 0
+
3 (s−s
√
1 0)
+1 ... ·1+ (s−s0 )2
...
= a( 0 + Σk a1(x (si −c − is)02 ))s1+(( aΣ 2Σ(s
k
k (− (xiΣ s−c
0 +
k )i )(x
2 ...
)i1s−c 2 )s ((s−s Σ k ) (x −c ) 2 ) s
ks (x (s−s (
)
k
s (s−s
2 )Σ (x )
−c 2 ) 2 ) s
(s−s 2 + ...
(xi −c 2 ) 0
k i ( i Σ2 −c ) i
k0 i 2 s 0)
)2i )+)1... 2 ( Σi=1 (xi −ci ) )i=1 Σi=1 (xi −ci ) )3
i=1 i i=1 2 i 0i i=1
3 ( 3
= a0 +i=1 a1 (s − s0 ) + a2 (s i=1− s0i=1 2
2
√ ak (s1− s =)i2+s√a·1(s 1√ 2 1 1 (s−s0 ) (s−s0 )
2 √ k s (s−s2 )s +
√·1sk+ 1 ·1+√...k 1
==Σ
= a0∞ (+ Σ aii=1
1(s(x −i −c s00i)= ) )a (1 0 + Σ
+ (s
2 k a1− (x( is−c
0Σ)iks
− +(x
)20)) s ...
+ ·1a+(s
i −c i2) )(2− Σ
2 s 0 ) (x (+ ...
i −cΣii=1
)2 )(x i −ci ) 0)3 ( Σi=1 (xi −ci )2 )s3 (s−s0 )
2 + ...
i=0
∞ i i=1 i=1 1 i=1 2
= Σi=0 ai (s − s0 ) (s−s20 ) (s−s0 )2
1 √− ks0 )i1+ a2 (s
= =Σ∞√aik(s − s =)=
i a0∞
Σ ·1
+ +1(s
a
a (s − s ) − s 0 ) + +... √ k 1 2 + ...
as r i=0(tends Σi=1to (xi −c zero
0 i ) )to
2 s
1 i=0satisfy i ( the Σi=1 0 requisite
(xi −ci ) )2 to converge;
2 s (s−s 0 ) ( |s Σi=1− (x | <i ) 1)3 condition
s0i −c 2 s (s−s 0)

ER
PY
as r tends
must be fulfilled.to zero to satisfy the requisite to converge; |s − s0 | < 1 condition
−= ∞ a (s − s )2i+ ...
as=r atends
must 0be + fulfilled.
a1to (s zero sas0 )Σ tor+ a2 i (sto
satisfy
tends
i=0 −the s00 )requisite
zero to satisfy to converge;
the requisite |s −tos0converge;
| < 1 condition |s − s0 | < 1 condition
must
By direct be fulfilled.
comparison must be fulfilled.
test we have:
By Σ∞
= direct (s − sas
i=0 aicomparison
i
0 ) r tends test we to zero have:to satisfy the requisite to converge; |s − s0 | < 1 condition
By direct comparison must
By direct be fulfilled.
test comparison
we have: test we have:
asasr tends to zero to satisfy the requisite to converge; |s − s | <|s1− condition
s0 | < 1must be fulfilled.

CO

P
r tends to zero to satisfy the requisite to converge; condition
0 ≤ ζk−sphere (s) ≤ ζ(s) 0
must be fulfilled. By direct comparison 0 ≤ ζk−sphere (s) ≤ ζ(s)test we have:
By direct comparison test we have: 0 ≤ ζk−sphere (s)0≤≤ζ(s)

PA
ζk−sphere (s) ≤ ζ(s)
InByparticular
direct comparison test we have:
In particular 0 ≤ ζk−sphere (s) ≤ ζ(s)
In particular In particular
In particular 0ζk−sphere
≤ ζk−sphere (s) = (s)ζ(s)≤ ζ(s)
E
In particular ζk−sphere (s) = ζ(s)
ζk−sphere (s) = ζ(s)
Like ζ(s) converges by Cauchy condensation test hence ζk−sphere (s) converges.
In particular
ED
ζk−sphere (s) = ζ(s)
PL

Like ζ(s) converges by Cauchy condensation test ζk−spherehence(s) ζk−sphere

= ζ(s) (s) converges.
Like
Like ζ(s)
Now ζ(s)
taking converges
converges Like byby Cauchy
ζ(s) Cauchy condensation
converges condensationby Cauchy test test
hence ζk−sphere
hence
condensation (s) converges.
ζk−sphere test (s) henceconverges.
ζk−sphere (s) converges.
Now taking ζk−sphere (s) = ζ(s)
Now
Now
|s − staking
taking Like
Now ζ(s) taking converges by Cauchy condensation test hence ζk−sphere (s) converges.
0| < ϵ
SH
|s − s0 | < ϵ
M

|sLike
and s0 |ζ(s)
− establish < ϵ converges Now
early |s −condition by
staking Cauchy condensation test hence ζk−sphere (s) converges.
0 | < ϵ for two different points s1 and s2 ∈ ℜ we have:
and establish early condition for two different points s1 and s2 ∈ ℜ we have:
andNow
and establish takingearly
establish |sϵcondition
early s0 | < ϵfor for
−condition twotwo different
different points s1 andsdifferent
points 1s2and∈ ℜswe ∈have:
ℜ we s1have:
and s2 ∈ ℜ we have:
−ϵ 1 < s1 − s0 <and 1 establish early condition for two 2points
SA

−ϵ1 < s1 − s0 < ϵ1

LI

|s − <sss012| − < sϵ0 <and < ϵ1 condition for two different points s1 and s2 ∈ ℜ we have:
−ϵ
−ϵ12 < − s0 <−ϵ ϵϵ12 1 establish
< s1 − s0early
−ϵ2 < s2 − s0 < ϵ2
−ϵand
2+ <establish
Clearing ss02 s< −1 sand 0 <−ϵ
2
early
−ϵ sϵ2212+< <condition
s0ss12 − − ss00 < <for ϵϵ1 two different points s1 and s2 ∈ ℜ we have:
2
Clearing
Clearing
−ϵ + s ss
<1 1andsand s
< 2 sϵ 2 + s
B

2 0 2 2
−ϵ 1 < ss11− s0 −ϵ < ϵ21< 0s2we
Clearing
Subtracting
−ϵ
−ϵ 1+
2
+ ss00 < < ssand both
1 <
2
sϵ21terms
<Clearing
ϵ2 + + ss00 − sand
s1 have 0 <s ϵ2
2
−ϵ1 + s0 < sboth
Subtracting 1 < ϵ1 + s0 we have
terms
−ϵ 2+
−ϵ−ϵ 2 <
ss0s< 2−
ss2s< < ϵ ϵ+ s s1 and s2
PU

2+ ϵ20 < 1− <0 Clearing

sϵ2221terms
+2 s0 s0−
1
Subtracting 12
both −ϵ 1<+ϵ10 we <ϵ2have
s1 < ϵ 1 + s 0
−ϵ + ϵ < s − s < ϵ − ϵ
Subtracting sboth terms s12+we have s1 < ϵ1 + s07
1
Subtracting 2 1
both 2 1 2
Clearing
Subtracting
Also and
1both −ϵterms terms s0wewe< havehave 7
−ϵ1 + ϵ2 < s1 − s2 < ϵ1 − ϵ2
Also
−ϵ ss1s− ϵϵ1s− 7 7
−ϵ 1+
−ϵ + ϵϵ2s< < <ss2 ϵ< + ϵϵ22ϵ2
−(ϵ11+ 1− ϵ22< )
0 < 1s− 1
1− 2s< 2
1< 1ϵ− 0−
1
Also
UN

Also
−(ϵ 7
Also 1 − ϵ2 ) < s1 − s2 < ϵ1 − ϵ2
Also
Later
−(ϵ1 − ϵ2 ) < s1 − s2 < ϵ1 − ϵ2
Later 7
Later
−(ϵ
−(ϵ
d(s 1−
1, − s
ϵϵ2 )) <
) 2= < |s
ss1 −
1− −s2ss|22<< <ϵϵϵ111−− −ϵϵϵ222= ϵ∗
1
Later 2 1
∗
d(s 1 , s2 ) = |s1 − s2 | < ϵ1 − ϵ2 = ϵ
Later
Later
Therefore
d(s1 , s2 ) = |s1 − s2 | < ϵ1 − ϵ2 = ϵ∗
Therefore
Therefore
d(s 1 ,, s 2 ) = |s |s11 − − ss22 || to < 1−
< ζϵϵk−sphere ϵ2 = ϵϵ∗∗
d(s
S 1 s2 ) =converge
k−sphere 1 − ϵ2 =(s) to an open set ∈ ℜ defined by direct com-
Therefore
Sparison
Sk−sphere
k−sphere
converge
test like:
converge to ζ to
k−sphere ζ (s) to
k−sphere
an open
(s) toset an∈open ℜ definedset ∈by ℜ direct
defined comparison
by directtest com- like:
Therefore
Therefore
parison
Sk−sphere test like: to ζk−sphere (s) to an open set ∈ ℜ defined by direct com-
converge
∀s ∈
parison D(s, test s 0 ) = {s| d(s, s0 ) < ϵ and |s − s0 | < 1} ∈ ℜ
like:
S
Sk−sphere
∀s ∈
converge
converge = {s| to
to ζζk−sphere (s)
s0 ) < ϵ (s)
to an open
andto|s an − sopen set ∈
set ∈ℜ ℜ defined
defined by by direct
direct com- com-
0 | < 1} ∈ ℜ
k−sphere
D(s, s ) d(s,k−sphere
Hence (s) is analytic.
0 like:
parison
parison
Hence ζ test
test
ζk−sphere like:
∀s ∈ D(s, s0 ) = (s)
k−sphere {s| is d(s, analytic.
s0 ) < ϵ and |s − s0 | < 1} ∈ ℜ
Hence ζ (s) is analytic.
Lets ∈takeD(s,now
∀s ∈ k−sphere {s|
∀s
Lets
D(s, s00 ) = {s| d(s, ss00 )) <
s ) = d(s, < ϵϵ and and |s |s − − ss00 || < < 1} 1} ∈ ∈ℜ ℜ
Hencetake now
ζk−sphere (s) is analytic.
Lets
Hence take now (s) is analytic.
ζζk−sphere
Hence
JLets
Math k−sphere (s) is analytic. 2024 Volume 3 | Issue 1 | 5
take now Comput Math,
Techniques
1 1
Lets take now Σ∞ r=1 s = Σr=1  k
∞
Lets take now r1 ∞ ( Σi=1 (x 1i − ci )2 )sr
Σ∞ r=1 s = Σr=1  k
r1 ( Σi=1 (x1i − ci )2 )sr
Note that like we´ve been Σ∞ r=1 substituted
s
= Σ∞ r=1  k-sphere equation into η term as well
r1
1 = Σconvergence∞ ( Σi=1 (x
k 1
1i −both ci )2 )ζ(s)s
as defined conditions to Σ∞ ∞ establish ∞  for r and ζ (s);
 ∀s ∈ D(s, s0 ) = {s| d(s, s0 ) < ϵ and |s − s0 | < 1} ∈ ℜ
Lets take now
Hence ζk−sphere (s) is analytic.
∞ 1 ∞ 1
nowrs = Σr=1  k
Lets takeΣr=1
( Σi=1 (xi − ci )2 )sr

Note that like we´ve been substituted k-sphere 1 equation into1 η term as well
Σ∞
as defined conditions to establish convergence r=1 s = Σ ∞
for  ζ(s) and ζk−sphere (s);
both
r=1
r ( Σki=1 2 s
− cconditions
(xithe i ) )r
convergence to an open set D ∈ ℜ must be established with
given for both equations.
Note that like we´ve been like
Note that substituted
we´ve beenk-sphere equation into
substituted η termequation
k-sphere as well asinto
defined conditions
η term as well to establish convergence for both
ζ(s) and ζ
Lets define (s);
as
k−sphere
convergence
defined to an
conditions open set
to establish
D ∈ ℜ must be
convergence established
for bothwith
the arbitrary sequence s1 , s2 , ... of m distinct points of ℜ converg-
ζ(s)the
andconditions
ζk−spheregiven
(s); for both equations.
convergence to an open set D ∈ ℜ must be established with the conditions
ing to s0 = sconvergene ∈ ℜ
Lets define thegiven for sequence
arbitrary both equations.
s1, s2, ... of m distinct points of ℜ converging to s0 = sconvergene ∈ ℜ
Let be
Let be Lets define the arbitrary sequence s1 , s2 , ... of m distinct points of ℜ converg-

ER
PY
ing to s0 = 1sconvergene ∈ ℜ
{sm } = sconvergence · (m m )

the term Let be

the 1
termofofsuch
suchseries.
series.
m = 1 when m → ∞
m
1

Like {sm } = sconvergence · (m m )

CO

P
Like
hence
m m = 1 whenthe term
∞ of such series.
1
m→

PA
sm converge to sconvergence
hence Like 8
therefore ζ(sm ) = ζk−sphere (sm ) for all m = 1, 2, 3, ...
sm converge to sconvergence
E
Like d(s, s0 ) = |s − s0 | < 1
therefore ζ(sm ) = ζk−sphere (sm ) for all m = 1, 2, 3, ... 8

ED
PL

and
Like d(s, s0 ) = |s − s0 | < 1

d(s, s0 ) < ϵ
and

musts0be
) <concluded that
SH
d(s, ϵ
M

ϵ = 1 be concluded that
must

ϵtherefore
=1
SA

LI

therefore
D(s, s0 ) = {s| d(s, s0 ) < ϵ = 1 ; ζ(s) ≤ ζtest and s ≥ sconvergence }
D(s, s0 ) = {s| d(s, s0 ) < ϵ = 1 ; ζ(s) ≤ ζtest and s ≥ sconvergence }
i.e.
B

i.e.
ζ(s) = ζk−sphere (s)
PU

ζ(s) = ζk−sphere (s)

on a neighbourhood of s ∈ ℜ
on a neighbourhood of s ∈ ℜ
The meaning of ζ(s) = 0
The meaning of ζ(s) = 0
Letsconsider
considerthatthat(c(c1,(cc,12c,, cc, 32c,,...,
c3 ,c..., ck )the
arepoint
the of
point of theofcenter
some of some k-sphere
UN

Lets
Lets consider that , ..., ) are the center k-sphere
kck ) are the point of the center of some k-sphere
∈ ℜ and (x1, x2, x3, ..., xk) ∈ [c, r] is some point inside
∈ ℜ
such and (x
geometrical
1 , x , x
2 object
3 ,
1 ..., 2
suchx 3)
k that∈ [c, r] is some point inside such geometrical object
∈ ℜ and
such that(x1 , x2 , x3 , ..., xk ) ∈ [c, r] is some point inside such geometrical object
such that

r = ( Σkki=1 (xi − ci2)2s)s ∈ N
r=( Σi=1 (xi − ci ) ) ∈ N
Note that
thatall
allpoints
points (x, 1x, x, x2 , x 3 , ..., x∈ ∈; N
k) N ; that satisfied early condition de-
Note
Note that all points (x(x
1
,1x2, 2x3, 3..., xkx) k∈) N;
, ..., that satisfied
that early
satisfied condition
early defines
condition de- the boundary (frontier, perimeter, surface, etc...) of
fines the boundary (frontier, perimeter, surface, etc...) of such k-sphere.
such
fines k-sphere.
the boundary (frontier, perimeter, surface, etc...) of such k-sphere.

Valuatingζζk−sphere
Valuating (s)with
(s) with this
this conditions
conditions we have:
we have:
Valuating ζk−sphere(s) with this conditions we have:
k−sphere

11
Σ∞
∞ √
r=1
r=1
√ kk ==√ √k k1 1 2 s + + √ (x1k −c1)2 )s +2(√
√ + √1 −c 1 +...
+...
i −c
(( ΣΣi=1 (x(x 2 )2
i )i )
i −c
s s
r )r Σ (xi −c
( (Σi=1 ) )i1)2 )s( Σ(k
(xii−c s k ( (x
2 i ) ) Σi=1
i i −c
i=1Σ i (x )2 )is3−ci )2 )s
Σi k i (x
i=1 i=1 1 i=1 2 i=1 3
11 1 1
=
= 11ss +
+ 2s1s ++3s1s++......
2 3
∞ 1
=
=Σ ∞ rs1
Σr=1 ==ζ(s)
ζ(s)
r=1 r s

J Math Techniques Comput Math, 2024 Volume 3 | Issue 1 | 6

9
9
when s = 0 and taking a0 = 1; ∀a ∈ N we have:

ζk−sphere (s = 0) = 1 + 1 + 1 + ... = ζ(s = 0)

By the other hand if we take the limit of s when tend to infinite we have:

lims→∞ ζk−sphere (s) =

1 1
lims→∞ (Σ∞
r=1
√ ) = lims→∞ ( √ )+lims→∞ ( √ k 1 )+

ER
Σk( 2 s
i=1 (xi −ci ) )r ( Σk 2 s
i=1 (xi −ci ) )1 ( Σi=1 (xi −ci )2 )s2

PY
lims→∞ ( √ k 1 ) + ...
( Σi=1 (xi −ci )2 )s3

= lims→∞ ( 11s ) + lims→∞ ( 21s ) + lims→∞ ( 31s ) + ...

1
= lims→∞ (Σ∞
r=1 r s ) = lims→∞ ζ(s)

CO

P
In specific

PA
lims→∞ ζk−sphere (s) =

1 1 1
lims→∞ (Σ∞
r=1
√ ) =( √ 2 lims→∞
)+( √ 2 lims→∞
)+
( Σk 2 s
i=1 (xi −ci ) )r ( Σk
i=1 (xi −ci ) )1 ( Σk
i=1 (xi −ci ) )2
E
1
( √ 2 lims→∞
) + ...
( Σk
i=1 (xi −ci ) )3

= ( 1lim1s→∞ ) + ( 2lim1s→∞ ) + ( 3lim1s→∞ ) + ...

ED
PL

1
= lims→∞ (Σ∞
r=1 r s ) = lims→∞ ζ(s)

Simplifying we have:
SH
M

lims→∞ ζk−sphere (s) = 1 + 0 + 0 + ... = lims→∞ ζ(s)

Hence
SA

LI

lims→∞ ζk−sphere (s) = lims→∞ ζ(s) = 1

with
B

1
ζ(s) = ζ1 (s) + Σ∞
i=2 r s
PU

calling second term like ζ(s) therefore:

lims→∞ ζ(s) = 0

besides with 1
ζk−sphere (s) = ζk−sphere1 (s) + Σ∞ √
UN

r=2 ( Σk (x −c )2 )s
∞ i=1 1 i i r
ζk−sphere (s) = ζk−sphere1 (s) + Σr=2 √
( Σk (x i −c i ) 2 )s
calling second term like ζk−sphere (s) i=1 r

calling second term like ζk−sphere (s) 10

lims→∞ ζk−sphere (s) = 0
lims→∞ ζk−sphere (s) = 0
therefore
therefore
lims→∞ ζ(s) = lims→∞ ζk−sphere (s) = 0
lims→∞ ζ(s) = lims→∞ ζk−sphere (s) = 0
to fulfilled condition to be analytic and converge to an open set D(s, s0 ) ∈
toto
ℜ;fulfilled
can be condition
fulfilled used totobebe
the former
condition analytic andand
requirements
analytic converge
definedtoto
converge an open set D(s,
toestablish
an open the s0) ∈sℜ;
0 ) can
theorem
set D(s, ∈ be used the former requirements defined to establish
of
the
ℜ; theorem
analytic
can be usedof analytic
continuation continuation
(identity
the former (identity
theorem)
requirements theorem)
taking
defined into taking into
account
to establish account that:
that:
the theorem of
analytic continuation (identity theorem) taking into account that:
S converge to ζ(s); ∀s ∈
S converge to ζ(s); ∀s ∈
D(s, s0 ) = {s| d(s, s0 ) < ϵ = 1 ; ζ(s) ≤ ζtest ; lims→∞ ζ(s) = lims→∞ ζk−sphere (s) =
0 ands0s) ≥
D(s, = s{s| d(s, s0 )}< ϵ = 1 ; ζ(s) ≤ ζtest ; lims→∞ ζ(s) = lims→∞ ζk−sphere (s) =
convergence
J0Math
and sTechniques Comput
≥ sconvergence } Math, 2024 Volume 3 | Issue 1 | 7
i.e. for a k-sphere located everywhere inside the zone of convergence of s; the
condition ζ(s) = 0 located
i.e. for a k-sphere is satisfied; to knowinside
everywhere the condition
the zone of of Riemann
convergenceHypothesis.
of s; the
condition ζ(s) = 0 is satisfied; to know the condition of Riemann Hypothesis.
In particular when
 analytic continuation (identity theorem) taking into account that: 0
ℜ; can be used the former requirements defined to establish the theorem of to fulfilled condition to be analytic and converge to
to fulfilled
analytic
S converge condition
to ζ(s); ∀sto
continuation ∈be analytic
(identity and converge
theorem) to an
taking into open set
account D(s, s0 ) ∈
that: ℜ; can be used the former requirements defined to es
ℜ; can be used the former requirements defined to establish the theorem of analytic continuation (identity theorem) taking into
analytic
S converge
D(s, s )= continuation
d(s, s∀s)(identity
to ζ(s);
{s| < ϵ = 1 ;theorem)
∈ ζ(s) ≤ ζ taking
; liminto account that: ζ
ζ(s) = lim
0 0 test s→∞ s→∞ k−sphere (s) =
0 and s ≥ sconvergence } S converge to ζ(s); ∀s ∈
S converge to ζ(s); ∀s ∈
D(s, s0 ) = {s| d(s, s0 ) < ϵ = 1 ; ζ(s) ≤ ζtest ; lims→∞ ζ(s) = lims→∞ ζk−sphere (s) =
0 and
i.e. forsa≥k-sphere
sconvergence located} everywhere inside the zone of convergence of s; the D(s, s0 ) = {s| d(s, s0 ) < ϵ = 1 ; ζ(s) ≤ ζtest ; lims→∞
D(s, s0 ) = {s| d(s, s 0 ) < ϵ = 1 ; ζ(s) ≤ ζ test ;
condition ζ(s) = 0 is satisfied; to know the condition of Riemann Hypothesis.lim s→∞ ζ(s) = lim s→∞ ζ k−sphere (s) = 0 and s ≥ sconvergence }
0 and
i.e. forsa≥k-sphere
sconvergence located} everywhere inside the zone of convergence of s; the
i.e. for a k-sphere located everywhere inside the zone of convergence of s; the condition for=a0k-sphere
i.e.ζ(s) is satisfied; to know
located the condition
everywhere inside the zone
condition
In particular ζ(s)when = 0 is satisfied; to know the condition of Riemann Hypothesis.
of i.e.Riemann Hypothesis.
for a k-sphere located everywhere inside the zone of convergence of s; the condition ζ(s) = 0 is satisfied; to know the condition
conditionσ + it ζ(s)
sIn=particular = σwhen =
± 0t is satisfied; to know the condition of Riemann Hypothesis.
In particular when In particular when
sIn = particular
σ
with σ = 2+ it 1= σ when
± t
s = σ + it = σ ± t
stwith = σ + it 1= σ ± t
∈ ℜσdefines
= 2 the zone of convergence for the open set D(s, s0 ) when theorem

ER
PY
of function1 analytic for ζ(s) is satisfied. with σ = 12
t twith∈∈ℜℜdefines
= 2 the
σdefines thezone
zoneofofconvergence
convergencefor forthe
theopen
opensetsetD(s,
D(s,s0)swhen theorem of function analytic for ζ(s) is satisfied.
0 ) when theorem
of function analytic for ζ(s) is satisfied.
Note that this condition maintains without consideration about the dimen- t ∈ ℜ defines the zone of convergence for the open se
Note ∈ ℜthat
tsionality this
defines condition
the
of such k-sphere.zone maintains
of convergence without for consideration
the open set about
D(s, s the
0 ) dimensionality
when theorem of such k-sphere.analytic for ζ(s) is satisfied.
of function
of function analytic for ζ(s) is satisfied.
Note that this condition maintains without consideration about the dimen-
In particular s cannot bebe equal
CO
to to
1/21dueduetotoconvergence
convergencecriteria
criteriaabout sconvergence.

P
sionality
In of such
particular k-sphere.
s cannot equal about sconvergence . Note that this condition maintains without considera
Note that this condition maintains 2without consideration about the dimen- sionality of such k-sphere.
sionality
In other
In of
otherwords
particular such
wordsevery
s k-sphere.
everys1s,1s,2s, 2...
cannot be , ...∈ ℜ
equal that tends to infinite and defines
k 1k due to convergence criteria about s
to the power of the r term; i.e. the radius of a k -sphere in1 ℜk is a
.

PA
∈ ℜ 2 that tends to infinite and defines the
convergence
In particular s cannot be equal to 2 due to converge
zero
power of ζ(s).
of the r term; i.e. the radius1of a k -sphere in ℜ is a zero of ζ(s). k
In particular s cannot be equal to k due to convergence criteria about sconvergence .
In other words every s1 , s2 , ... ∈ ℜ2 that tends to infinite and defines the
in ℜ k In other words every s1 , s2 , ... ∈ ℜk that tends to in
About
power
About the
oftheobtainment
the r term; i.e.
obtainment of ζ(s)
theofand its and
radius
ζ(s) relation
of a its
k with
k -sphere ζk−sphere
relation (s).
withis aζk−sphere
zero of ζ(s).
(s).
In other words every s1 , s2 , ... ∈ ℜ that tends to infinite and defines the power of the r term; i.e. the radius of a k -sphere in
E
k
power
About of the
the r term;
obtainment i.e. theof radius
ζ(s) of
and a k
its-sphere
relationin ℜwithis aζ zero of ζ(s).
(s).
Lets Letstaketakek-sphere
k-sphereequation equation k−sphere
About the obtainment of ζ(s) and its relation
rAbout
Lets
2
= take
Σki=1the 1
k-sphere
1
=c Σ)k2equation
obtainment of
ED
2 ζ(s) and its relation with ζk−sphere (s).
PL

(xr 2i − i i=1 i (x −c i )
Lets take k-sphere equation
Now
Now Lets
2
r =Σ taking
take the
k k-sphere
Applying
i=1 (xithe
taking inverse
− cinverse
i) multiplicative
2equation
square root fromfrom both
both sides
sides
multiplicative from both sides we have we
we have
have
1 1
r2 = Σki=1 (xi − ci )2
2 = kk 2
r =Σ
2
Σi=1 (x −c
1
i=1 (xiithe
−ic)√ i)
2 1
r =
Now taking inverse multiplicative from both sides we have
SH
Σk r=1 (xi −ci )
2
11 Now taking the inverse multiplicative from both side
M

Applying
Now taking square
the inverseroot from both sides
multiplicative fromwe both
havesides we have
And powering to s we have 11
1 √ 1 11
r = 1 −c )√ 1 11
Σk (x
r=1r s i = i
2
SA

( k
Σi=1 (xi −ci ) ) 2 s
LI

And powering to s we have

Giving values to r ∈ {1, 2, 3, ...} we have
1 1
rs = √ 1 (x −c√ 1
1s = ( Σk
( Σk
i=1 i
2 s
i) )
2 )s
i=1 (xi −ci )
B

Giving values r ∈ {1,1 2, 3, ...} we have

1 to √
2s = k ( 2 s
Σi=1 (xi −ci ) )
1 1
= √
PU

1s 1 (x −c )2 )s 1
( Σk
i=1
3s = √
i i
( Σk 2 s
i=1 (xi −ci ) )
1 1
2s = √
( Σk. .(x.i −ci )2 )s
i=1

1 1
3s = √
( Σkand
i=1 adding
(xi −c 2 s
i) ) all terms we will have:
UN

. . . 1 1
ζ(s) = Σ∞ ∞
r=1 r s = Σr=1
√ = ζk−sphere (s)
( Σk 2 s
i=1 (xi −ci ) )r
and adding all terms we will have:
From early procedure we can see that ζ(s) have an identity linked with k-
sphere.
1 √ k 1
ζ(s) = Σ∞ ∞
r=1 r s = Σr=1 2 s
= ζk−sphere (s)
( Σi=1 (xi −ci ) )r
Endnote: If well analytic function requisite would be proved by Cauchy cri-
From early procedure we can see that ζ(s) have an identity linked with k-
From early procedure
terion mustwebe canunderstood
see that ζ(s)that
haveifanthe
identity
powerlinked
by a with ksphere.
complex number is not a
sphere.
mathematical operation with a clear definition, then this operation cannot be
Endnote: If well analytic function requisite would be proved by Cauchy criterion must be understood that if the power by a complex
developed.
Endnote: If well analytic function requisite would be proved by Cauchy cri-
number is not a mathematical operation with a clear definition, then this operation cannot be developed.
terion must be understood that if the power by a complex number is not a
Same situation happens for the ”theoretical problem” to define a negative
mathematical operation with a clear definition, then this operation cannot be
Same situation happens
length for the
for some ”theoreticalobject.
geometrical problem” Totoend
define
thisawork
negative length for
its present some geometrical object. To end this work its
developed. √ a brief dis-
present a brief discussion
cussion aboutabout square,
square, Cartesian
Cartesian planeplane
andandthe
themeaning
meaning ofof i = −1.
Same situation happens for the ”theoretical problem” to define√a negative
Appendix 1. The geometrical meaning of i = −1
length for some geometrical object. To end this work its present
√ a brief dis-
J Math Techniques Comput Math, 2024 Volume 3 | Issue 1 | 8
cussion about square, Cartesian plane and the meaning of i = −1.
Next operation is a famous result of ”The System of Complex Numbers”
√
Appendix21. The geometrical meaning of i = −1
i = i · i = (0, 1) · (0, 1)
Next operation is a famous result of ”The System of Complex Numbers”
 developed.
be understood that if the power by a complex number is not a
al operation with a clear definition, then this operation cannot be
Same situation happens for the ”theoretical problem” to define a negative
length for some geometrical object. To end this work its present√ a brief dis-
cussion
ion happens about
for the square, Cartesian
”theoretical problem”plane and athe
to define meaning of i = −1.
negative
ome geometrical object. To end this work its present √ a brief dis-
√
ut square,Appendix
Appendix 1. The
Cartesian geometrical
1. The
plane meaningmeaning
andgeometrical
the meaning of i = −1.
of of i = −1
√
1. The Next
Nextoperation
operation
geometrical is a famous
is result
a famous
meaning of =of ”The
iresult System
of ”The
−1 of Complex
System Numbers”
of Complex Numbers”

i2 = i · result
ion is a famous · (0, 1)System of Complex Numbers”
i = (0,of1)”The

1) (0 · 0 − 1 · 1, 1 · 0 + 0 · 1)
0, 1) · (0, =
Early result is established using the rule of complex multiplication defined as:
· 1, 1 · 0 += Early
· 1) result
0 (−1, 0) = −1 is established using the rule of complex multiplication defined as:
Early result
result is is established
established using using the rule rule of complex
complex multiplication
multiplication defineddefined as: as:

ER
Early (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1the y2 + y1 xof

PY
(x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = 2)
Early result is established using the
(x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + y1 x2 )rule of complex multiplication defined as:
−1
(x1,,yy11)(x
(x )(x22,,yy22)) = = (x11xx22 − +12
− y11yy22,,xx11yy22 + yy11xx )
In 1particular note (x that theyresult of such 22)
multiplication without to consider
In particular
any other ”complex note that the result
algebraic of suchto
operation” multiplication
establish the without
number to i isconsider
InIn
In
any particular
particular
particular note
other ”complex note
note 12
that that
the
that the result
result
the
algebraic result suchof multiplication
ofoperation”
of such multiplication
such multiplication
to without
establish without
to toi consider
consider
thewithout
number to consider
any other ”complex algebraic operation” to establish the
is
any
number otheri is ”complex algebraic operation” to establish the number i is
any other ”complex algebraic

CO
operation” to establish the number i is

P
2
i = (−1, 0)
i2 = (−1, 0)
2
ii2 =
By
= (−1,
(−1,0)
the other
0)
hand; lets note that to define the result of

PA
By the other hand; lets note that to define the result of
By the
By the other
other hand;hand; letslets note
note that
that to to define
define the the result
result ofof
(−1, 0) = −1 ...(α)
is(−1, 0) = −1to...(α)
necessary use a ”projection function”; i.e. early result is expressed more
(−1, 0) = −1 −1to ...(α)
properly=by
(−1,
is 0)
necessary ...(α)
use a ”projection function”; i.e. early result is expressed more
E
is necessary
is necessary to use
to use aa ”projection
”projection function”;
function”; i.e. i.e. early
early result is is expressed
expressed more more
properly
isproperly by
necessarybyto use a ”projection function”; i.e. early result result
is expressed more properly by
fproperly by
projection (a, b) = (a)

ED
PL

fprojection (a, b) = (a)

ffprojection
projection(a,
Hence
(a, b) = (a)
for α b) = (a)
Hence for α
Hence for
Hence for αα
fprojection (−1, 0) = (−1)
SH
fprojection (−1, 0) = (−1)
M

ffprojection
Thisprojection(−1, (−1, 0) =
detail has 0)
= (−1)
not been
(−1)
disregarded in the elaboration of this work.
This
Thisdetail
detail hashasnotnotbeen disregarded
been disregarded in theinelaboration of this work.
the elaboration of this work.
This detail
This detail has has notnot been
been disregarded
disregarded in in the
the elaboration
elaboration of of this
this work.
work.
Due to this problem an alternative explanation has been developed to argu-
Due
Duetoto this problem an an
alternative
i and explanation has been developed to argument the value of number i and its use to define ”power
SA

ment the this

valueproblem
of number alternative explanation
its use to define has beenoperation”.
”power developed to argu-
operation”.
LI

Due
Due
mentto tothe this
this problem
problem
value of numberan alternative
an alternative explanation
i and its explanation
use to definehas has been operation”.
been
”power developed to
developed to argu-
argu-
ment the
ment the value
value of of number
number ii and and its use use to to define
define ”power
”power operation”.
operation”.
Equation to obtain the area of anitssquare can be used sometimes to represent
Equation
Equationtoto
geometrically obtain
the the
obtain areaarea
the
square of anofoperation.
root square can becan
an square used besometimes to represent
used sometimes geometrically the square root operation.
to represent
Equation
Equation
geometrically to obtain
to obtain the area
the
the square area ofoperation.
rootof an square
an square can can be be used
used sometimes
sometimes to to represent
represent
B

If we
we considerate
geometrically
geometrically
If considerate thethat
the square root
square
that
root operation.
operation.
If we considerate that
If we
If we considerate
considerate that that
PU

ASquare = Side · Side = Side2

ASquare = Side · Side = Side2
A
ASquare
Square = Side ·· Side
= Side Side = Side22
= Side
Then clearing ”Side” variable using square root we have:
Then clearing ”Side” variable using square root we have:
√ Then clearing
clearing ”Side” variable using square root we have:
Then
√Area = Side ”Side” variable using square root we have:
UN

√√Area = Side
Area =
Area = Side
This meansSide that the result to request the ”square root” to a number that rep-
This means
This means that
thatthe the
result to request
result to the ”square
request root” toroot”
the ”square a numberathat represent the area of an square gives like result the length of
resent the area of an square gives like result the length oftothe number
side thatthat formsrep-
the
This
This side
resent that
means
means
the areaforms
that such
the
thatofobject.
the geometrical
result
an result to
squaretogives object.
request
request the
like the
result”square
”square root”
root” of
the length to
tothea number
a number
side that that
that rep-
rep-
forms
such geometrical
resent
resent the area
the
such geometrical area of ofobject.
an square
an square gives
gives likelike result
result the the length
length of of the
the side
side that
that forms
forms
This
suchoperation
such geometrical
geometrical can be used without to take into account a system of reference to be draw; i.e. can be used to measure squares drawn
object.
object.
This operation can be used without to take into account a system of reference
with
This help of
operation compass,can be straightedge
be used to withoutand other
to takegeometrical
intodrawn tools aofsystem
account design. reference
to be draw; i.e. can used measure squares with help of of compass,
This
This operation
to beoperation can be used without to take into account a system ofcompass,
reference
straightedgedraw; i.e. andcan can be
other beused
usedwithout
to measure
geometrical to take
tools into drawn
squares
of design. accountwith a system
help ofof reference
Into
to specific
be draw;
be draw; i.e.
straightedge when i.e. wecan
andcan use
otherbethe Cartesian
used
be used to plane
measure
to measure
geometrical to draw
squares
toolssquares
of design.an square
drawn we
with could
help find
of
drawn with help of compass, the problem show on next diagram:
compass,
straightedge and other geometrical
straightedge and other geometrical tools of design. tools of design.

13
13
13
13

J Math Techniques Comput Math, 2024 Volume 3 | Issue 1 | 9

 In specific when we use the Cartesian plane to draw an square we could find
the problem show on next diagram:

Graph 2. Theoretical Squares of Negatives Sides on Cartesian System. Geoge-

Graph
bra 2023. 2. Theoretical Squares of Negatives Sides on Cartesian System. Geoge-
bra 2023.
We can see that draw an square into quadrants II and IV shows the problem
We can with
to deal see that drawone
at least an side
square intoofquadrants
length negative II and IV shows the problem
value.
to deal with at least one side length of negative value.
On the elaboration of this work has been sought to not pass by any ”math-
On the elaboration
ematical operation”ofthat thiscould
workbe hasimportant
been sought to notsome
to define pass ”mathematical
by any ”math-
ematical operation” that could be important to define some ”mathematical

ER
procedure” not established formally; for the author of this work this situa-

PY
procedure” not established
tion is particularly important; formally;
taking forintothe author of this
consideration only work this situa-
mathematical
tion is particularly Graph
important;2. Theoretical
taking Squares
into of Negatives
consideration
operations that could have some geometrical and algebraic representation; only Sides on Cartesian
mathematical forSystem. Geogebra 2023.
We can seethe
operations
example thatequation
thatdraw Graph
couldan square
have 2. into
some
to describe quadrants
geometrical
Theoretical II and IV
Squares
conic sections; and ofshows
algebraic
in Negatives
the the problem
sense to Cartesian
representation;
Sidesis on
that dealfor
usually with atSystem.
least oneGeoge-
side length of negative value.
example the equation
considered on algebraic to
bra 2023. describe
geometry. conic sections; in the sense that is usually
On the elaboration
considered of this geometry.
on algebraic work has been sought to not pass by any “mathematical operation” that could be important to define

CO

P
some ”mathematical
For this reason; to procedure”
We can seenot
considerate established
that
withoutdrawa an formally;
proof square forofthe
into
the use author
quadrants
the ofIIthis
operation work
and”ab- this situation
IV shows is particularly important; taking
the problem
into
For consideration
solutethis reason;
value” only
to to to
define mathematical
considerate
deal
the with
length at ofoperations
without
least
suchaone
proof thatinto
side
sides could
the thehave
use
length of thesome geometrical
operation
negative
Cartesian has and algebraic representation; for example the
value.”ab-
plane

PA
equation
solute to describe
value”
been avoided. conicthe
to define sections;
lengthinofthesuch sense that into
sides is usually consideredplane
the Cartesian on algebraic
has geometry.
been avoided. On the elaboration of this work has been sought to not pass by any ”math-
For this reason;
Instead has beento considerate
ematical without
considered operation”
that the a proof
that
length thecould
ofuse
suchofbethe operation
important
sides when isto”ab- solutesome
define
establishedvalue” to define the length of such sides into the
”mathematical
Cartesian
Instead
negative;hasplane
is an has
been been
useful avoided.
considered
procedure”
result that
(and the
notmore length
established
elemental)offormally;
such sidesforwhen
product theuse
to is the
established
author of this work this situa-
”scale”
E
negative; is an useful
of the Cartesian tionresult
plane. (and moreimportant;
is particularly elemental) taking product to consideration
into use the ”scale”only mathematical
Instead has been considered
of the Cartesian plane. that that
the length
could of such sides when is established negative; is a useful result
for (and more elemental)
product
operations
to use the “scale” of thethe Cartesian
have
plane.
some

ED
geometrical and algebraic representation;
PL

The geometrical example

representation equation
of the square, to describe
endowed conicwith sections; in the sense that is usually
the algebraic
The geometrical
equation to definerepresentation
considered
the length of onof the square,
algebraic
the side an endowed
of geometry. with theearly,
square described algebraic
gives
The
like geometrical
result next representation
equation to define the
relations: length of the square, endowed with the algebraic equation
of the side of an square described early, gives to define the length of the side of an square
described early, gives like result next relations:
like result next relations:
For this reason; to considerate without a proof the use of the operation ”ab-
solute value” to define the length of such sides into the Cartesian plane has
SH
AQII = Area of square of quadrant II = Sidex · Sidey = (−1) · (1) = −1
M

AQII = Area of square been of quadrant II = Sidex · Sidey = (−1) · (1) = −1

avoided.
also considering euclidean distance we have:
also
alsoconsidering
consideringeuclidean
euclidean
Instead distance
distance
has been we have:
we have:
considered that the length of such sides when is established
negative; is an useful result (and more elemental) product to use the ”scale”
SA

(−1, 0) and (0, 0)

(−1, 0) and (0, 0)
LI

 of the Cartesian plane.

(−1 − 0)2 + (0 − 0)2 = −1
 The geometrical representation 14 of the square, endowed with the algebraic
(−1 − 0)2 = −1 equation to define the 14
length of the side of an square described early, gives
B

 like result next relations:

(−1)2 = −1
AQII = Area of square of quadrant II = Sidex · Sidey = (−1) · (1) = −1
PU

AQIV = Area of square of quadrant IV = Sidey · Sidex = (−1) · (1) = −1

also considering euclidean distance we have:
also considering euclidean distance we have:

(0, −1) and (0, 0) (−1, 0) and (0, 0)

UN


(0 − 0)2 + (−1 − 0)2 = −1 14

(−1 − 0)2 = −1

(−1)2 = −1

While when we obtain the square root for the first two equations we have:
   √
AreaQII = Sidex · Sidey = (−1) · (1) = −1
   √
AreaQIV = Sidey · Sidex = (−1) · (1) = −1

Remember that
√
i= −1

JBy
Math Techniques
early Computwas
argumentation Math, 2024
established that Volume 3 | Issue 1 | 10

i = ±(−1) = ±1

For the elaboration of this work Argand´s discussion about complex number
 Area
 QIV = Side  y · Sidex = (−1)  · (1) = −1√
AreaQIV = Sidey · Sidex = (−1) · (1) = −1
Remember that
Remember that
√
i = −1√
i = −1
By early argumentation was established that
By early argumentation was established that
i = ±(−1) = ±1
i = ±(−1) = ±1
For the elaboration of this work Argand´s discussion about complex number
For
i wasFor the
the elaboration
elaboration
considered of
of this
”incomplete” this work Argand´s
work”product
and Argand´s ofdiscussion
discussion about
a theoreticalabout complex
complexnumber
numberi was considered ”incomplete” and ”product of a
misinterpretation
theoretical
abouti was use ofmisinterpretation
the considered ”incomplete”
the Cartesian aboutand
plane”. the”product
use of theofCartesian plane”.
a theoretical misinterpretation
about the use of the Cartesian plane”. 
In specific
In specific can can be argue
be argue thatthat
thethemeaning
meaningofofthe theterm
term (−1,  0) is
is not
notdefined
definedwhen is requested the square root of a 2-tuple.
whenInisspecific
requestedcanthe
be square
argue that rootthe of ameaning
2-tuple. of the term (−1, 0) is not defined

ER
PY
This
whencriterion establish
is requested the that
square Complex
root ofAnalysis
a 2-tuple.program must be reappraise to avoid future mistakes; for example: the requisites to
Thisdefine an analytic
criterion establishfunction establish Analysis
that Complex somewhere that a ”pretended”
program Cauchy criterion
must be reappraise to about partial derivatives must be satisfied; when
avoidThis
this criterion
future establish
differentiation
mistakes; principle thataround
for example: Complex Analysis
thecomplex toprogram
functions
requisites anmust
is not
define verybe reappraise
well
analytic to therefore is not workable.
defined and
func-
Same
tion avoid
establishsituation
future occurs
mistakes;
somewhere about
for
that ”zero of
aexample:
”pretended”theanalytic
Cauchyfunctions”
requisites and
to defineabout
criterion other
an analytic equation
partial func-
”commonly
tion
derivativesestablish
must used”
be in complex
somewhere
satisfied; that
when aanalysis.
”pretended”
this Cauchy
differentiation criterion
principle about
around partial
com-
Same situation occurs about ”zero of analytic functions” and other equation ”commonly used” in complex analysis.

CO

P
plex derivatives
functions ismust be satisfied;
not very well definedwhenand thistherefore
differentiation principle around com-
is not workable.
Appendix
plex functions 2. isThe identity
not very n · Ln(x)
well defined Ln · (xn ) is not workable.
= therefore
and

PA
I will show why is not possible to use Ln to clear coefficients of power from
15
some equation.
15
Ln(xn ) = n Ln(x) ...(1)
E
Remember that

ED
PL

x dt
Ln(x) = 1 t

(1) could be rewrite like

SH
 xn x
M

dt dt
1 t =n 1 t

Using definition of Riemann´s Integral on early equality we have:

SA

Definition Riemann´s Integral is such that

LI

b
a
f (x)dx = limm→∞ Σm
i=1 f (xi )∆x

where
B

xi ∈ x0 = a, x1 , x2 , ..., xm = b; ∆x = b−a
m
PU

Applying this definition to Ln property we have

xn −1 x−1
∆xlef t = m and ∆xright = m

while
UN

(xn −1)i (x−1)i

xilef t = m and xiright = m

substituting on Riemann sum we have

n
1 x −1 1 x−1
limm→∞ Σm m
i=1 (xn −1)i ( m ) = n limm→∞ Σi=1 (x−1)i ( m )
m m

expanding we have
n n n
limm→∞ ( (xn1−1)1 ( x m−1 ) + 1
(xn −1)2 ( x m−1 ) + 1
(xn −1)3 ( x m−1 ) + ...)
m m m

=
1
n(limm→∞ ( (x−1)1 ( x−1
m )+
1
(x−1)2 ( x−1
m )+
1
(x−1)3 ( x−1
m ) + ...))
m m m

simplifying
16
Jlim
Math
m→∞ ( 11 + 12 + Comput
Techniques
1
3 + ...) Math, 2024 Volume 3 | Issue 1 | 11

n(limm→∞ ( 11 + 1
2 + 1
3 + ...))
 1
n(limm→∞ ( (x−1)1 ( x−1
m )+
1
(x−1)2 ( x−1
m )+
1
(x−1)3 ( x−1
m ) + ...))
m m m

simplifying

limm→∞ ( 11 + 1
2 + 1
3 + ...)

n(limm→∞ ( 11 + 1
2 + 1
3 + ...))

therefore

( 11 + 1
2 + 1
3 + ...) = n( 11 + 1
2 + 1
3 + ...)

ER
PY
in particular

1 n
1=n; 2 = 2; ...

Being false ∀n ∈ ℜ when n ̸= 1

CO

P
This
Thisdefinition
definition is
is commonly usedon
commonly used oncomplex
complexanalysis
analysis and
and in in particular
particular in in analysis of Riemann functions to clear coefficients of
analysis of Riemann functions to clear coefficients of powers.
powers.

PA
References
1.1 Marsden, J. E., & Hoffman, M. J. (1999). Basic complex analysis. Macmillan.
References
2. Riemann, B. (1859). Ueber die Anzahl der Primzahlen unter einer gegebenen Grosse. Ges. Math. Werke und Wissenschaftlicher
E
Nachlaß, 2(145-155), 2.
Basic Complex Analysis; Chapter 1 and 6. Marsden, J.E.; Hoffman, M.J.; W.
3. Thomas, A. D. (1977). Zeta-functions: an introduction to algebraic geometry. (No Title).
ED
PL

H. Freeman and Company; 2ed. 1987.

Ueber die Anzahl der Primzahlen unter einer gegebenen Grösse; Riemann, G.
F. B.; Monatsberichte der Berliner Akademie; 1859
SH
Zeta-functions: An introduction to Algebraic Geometry; Thomas, Alan David;
M

Research notes in mathematics; London : Pitman; 1977

SA

B LI
PU

17
UN

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J Math Techniques Comput Math, 2024 https://opastpublishers.com Volume 3 | Issue 1 | 12