CHAPTER 1

REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
LIFE SPAN
1. The period from birth to the natural death of an organism is called life span.
2. List of life span of some organisms: -

ORGANISMS LIFE SPAN

1. Elephant 60-85 years
2. Rose 5-7 years
3. Banana plant 25 years
4. Cow 20-25 years
5. Crow 15 years
6. Parrot 140 years
7. Rice plant 3-4 months
8. Fruit fly 2 weeks
9. Banyan tree 200-300 years
10. Tortoise 100-150 years

3. Life spans of organisms are not necessarily correlated with their sizes, e.g., the sizes of
crows and parrots are not very different yet their life spans show a wide difference.
Similarly, a mango tree has a much shorter life span as compared to a peepal tree.
4. no individual is immortal, except single-celled organisms. There is no natural death in
single-celled organisms because when they grow, they divide i.e., mother cell divides into
two daughter cells and thus no body part left to die.

REPRODUCTION
1. Biological process in which an organism gives rise to young ones (offspring) similar to
itself.
2. The organism’s habitat, its internal physiology and several other factors are collectively
responsible for how it reproduces.

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
It is of two types: Asexual and Sexual.

1.1 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. uniparental.
2. Can occur with or without gamete formation but gametic fusion is absent.
3. The individual produced are clone of each other and their parents.
4. Clone is a group of morphologically and genetically similar individuals. Each member of a
clone is called ramet.
5. It is common among Monera, Protista, Algae, Fungi and Sponges. Higher plants also
exhibit asexual reproduction known as vegetative reproduction.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. BINARY FISSION: - Here a cell divides into two halves and each rapidly grows into an
adult, e.g., Amoeba, Paramecium and Bacteria.
 2. BUDDING: - In yeast, the division is unequal and small buds are produced that remain
attached initially to the parent cell which, eventually gets separated and mature into new
yeast organisms (cells).

Note: -
BINARY FISSION BUDDING
1. Cell division is equal. It is unequal.
2. A protuberance/outgrowth is not formed. A protuberance/outgrowth is formed.
3. Nucleus divides first followed by division Nucleus divides later, before which
of the cytoplasm. cytoplasm gives out an outgrowth.
4. The identity of parent cell is lost. The identity of parent cell remains.
3. SPORULATION: - It is the process of spore formation. It is common in Monera, Protista,
Algae and Fungi.
Motile spores are called planospores, or zoospores which are most common asexual spore
of algae.
Non-motile spore are aplanospores like hypnospores, akinetes, oidia, sporangiospores,
conidia, etc. Conidia are the most common spores of fungi.
Some spores are produced exogenously, e.g., conidia in Penicillium and some
endogenously, e.g., sporangiospores in Rhizopus.
Note: -
1. Asexual reproduction can also occur by exogenous budding, e.g., Hydra or endogenous
budding by the production of gemmules, e.g., sponges like Spongilla. Budding and
gemmule formation are common asexual methods seen in lower animals.
2. In some organisms, if the body breaks into distinct pieces (fragments) each fragment
grows into adult capable of producing offspring (e.g., Hydra). This is also a mode of
asexual reproduction called fragmentation.
3. Under unfavourable condition the Amoeba withdraws its pseudopodia and secretes a
three-layered hard covering or cyst around itself. This phenomenon is termed as
encystation. When favourable conditions return, the encysted Amoeba divides by
multiple fission and produces many minutes amoeba or pseudopodiospores; the cyst
wall bursts out, and the spores are liberated in the surrounding medium to grow up into
many amoebae. This phenomenon is known as sporulation.
4. Vegetative reproduction (Propagation): - It is a form of asexual reproduction in which
new plants grow from a fragment of the parent plant (somatic/vegetative part) or grows
from a specialised reproductive structure called vegetative propagules like runner,
rhizome, sucker, tuber, offset, bulb, etc.

Natural Methods of Vegetative Reproduction

1. Stem: -
(i) Underground stem: - Like tuber (e.g., potato), rhizome (e.g., ginger and banana), bulb
(e.g., onion and garlic) and corm (e.g., Amorphophallus, Colocasia).
 (ii) Sub-aerial stem is a weak stem that spreads on ground or on water. It includes offset
(e.g., Eichhornia-water hyacinth and Pistia-water lettuce), suckers (e.g., Ananas,
Chrysathemum), runners (e.g., grasses).
(iii) Bulbils are larger sized fleshy buds which fall from plants and propagate in soil to form
new plant, e.g., Agave, Dioscorea.
(iv) Turions are fleshy aquatic buds, e.g., Potomogeton.
Note: - Water hyacinth i.e., Eichhornia (Terror of Bengal) most invasive weeds and was
introduced in India because of its beautiful flowers and shape of leaves. It is found in
standing water, and drains oxygen from the water, which leads to death of fishes.

2. Leaves: - The adventitious buds arise from the notches present at leaf margins, e.g.,
Bryophyllum, Kalanchoe, Begonia and fern like Adiantum.
3. Roots: - Adventitious buds sprout in in some roots also, e.g., Dahlia.

Artificial Methods of Vegetative Reproduction

1. Cutting: - Stem cutting (e.g., Rosa, Duranta), Leaf-cutting (e.g., Sansevieria), root
cutting (e.g., Citrus, Tamarindus).
2. Layering: - It is common in plants whose soft stem branch are present near to the soil,
e.g., blackberry, raspberry.
Air-Layering (=gootee) is common in Citrus, Litchi, etc.
3. Grafting: - It is performed to develop composite plant and is common in dicot like
mango, apple, guava, etc.
4. Micropropagation: - It is the propagation of plants from plant tissue (explant) by tissue
culture techniques.

1.2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. It can be uniparental (e.g., bisexual plant and monoecious plant) or mostly biparental (e.g.,
in most of the plants and animals).
2. Due to genetic variation, offspring are not identical to parents or among themselves.
3. Sexual reproduction involves reduction division (meiosis) and syngamy (gametic fusion).
4. It is slow, complex and elaborate process.
Phases in Life Cycle of a Sexually Reproducing Organism
There are three phases in an organism life cycle: -
1. Juvenile phase or Pre-reproductive phase
2. Reproductive phase
3. Senescent phase
1. Juvenile phase or Pre-reproductive phase: - In this phase organisms show growth after
which it reaches sexual maturity. This phase is of variable duration in different organisms.
2. Reproductive phase: - In this phase reproductive organs develop and mature. In
angiosperms, this phase is marked by the formation of flowers. This phase is also variable
in different organisms.
MONOCARPIC PLANTS POLYCARPIC PLANTS
1. The plants flower only once in their life. The plants flower repeatedly at intervals in
their life.
2. Plants are generally annual or biennial. Very Plants are perennial.
few monocarpic plants are perennial.
3. Inter-flowering period is absent. Inter-flowering period is present.
4. e.g., all annual (like wheat, rice) biennials e.g., mango, apple, orange, china rose.
(like radish, carrot) and few perennials (like
Bambusa or bamboo)
 Note: -
1. The monocarpic plant, Strobilanthus kunthiana (vern. Neelakuranji) has a life span of
12 years. In the 12th year, it flowers form fruit and dies. This plant came to flower in
September-October 2018, which converted large tracks of hilly areas in Kerala,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu into blue stretches and attracted a large number of
tourists.
In polycarpic plants, the period between two flowering phases is called inter-flowering
period which is used for building up resources and so, a recovery phase. It is not
juvenile phase but a part of mature phase.
3. Senescent phase: - It is the post-reproductive phase and involves structural and functional
deterioration which finally leads to death.
Monoecious Plants Dioecious Plants
1. Both male and female flowers are found Male and female flowers are found
on the same plant. separately on male and female plant
respectively.
2. It prevents autogamy but not It prevents both autogamy and
geitonogamy. geitonogamy.
3. e.g., Ricinus (Castor), Zea mays e.g., Carica papaya (Papaya), Phoenix
(Maize), Cucurbita and Cocos (Date palm) and Vallisneria.
(Coconut).

In both plants and animals, hormones are responsible for the transitions between the three
phases. Interaction between hormones and certain environmental factors regulate the
reproductive processes and the associated behavioural expressions of organisms.
Note: -
1. The females of placental mammals exhibit cyclical changes in the activities of ovaries
and accessory ducts as well as hormones during the reproductive phase.
2. In non-primate mammals like cows, sheep, rats, deers, dogs, tiger, etc., such cyclical
changes during reproduction are called oestrus cycle where as in primates (monkeys,
apes, and humans) it is called menstrual cycle.
3. Many mammals, especially those living in natural, wild conditions exhibit such cycles
only during favourable seasons in their reproductive phase and are therefore called
seasonal breeders. Many other mammals are reproductively active throughout their
reproductive phase and hence are called continuous breeders.

Events In Sexual Reproduction

After attainment of maturity, all sexually reproducing organisms exhibit events and
processes that have remarkable fundamental similarity, even though the structures
associated with sexual reproduction are indeed very different. These sequential events may be
grouped into three distinct stages namely, the pre-fertilisation, fertilisation and the post-
fertilisation events.

1.2.1 Pre-fertilisation Events

It involves: -
1. Gametogenesis and
2. Gamete transfer.
1.2.1.1 Gametogenesis
Process of formation of male and female gametes.
 TYPES OF GAMETES
ISOGAMETES/HOMOGAMETES HETEROGAMETES
1. Fusing gametes are morphologically similar. Fusing gametes are morphologically
distinct (different).
2. These are found in some algae (Motile- Ulothrix, It is found in majority of sexually reproducing
Cladophora, Chlamydomonas debaryana & non- organisms like algae (Chara, Volvox, Fucus),
motile Spyrogyra) and some fungi (Rhizopus, all bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperm
Synchytrium). and Angiosperm.

Cell Division during Gamete Formation

1. Gametes in all heterogametic species are of two types- male (antherozoids and sperm) and
female gamete.
2. Gametes are haploid though the parent plant body from which they arise may be either
haploid or diploid. A haploid parent produces gametes by mitotic division.
3. Several organisms belonging to monera, fungi, algae and bryophytes have haploid plant
body, but in organisms belonging to pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms and
most animals including human, the parental body is diploid.
4. In diploid organisms, specialised cells called meiocytes/gamete mother cell (2n) undergo
meiosis to form haploid gamete.
5. In haploid organisms, gametes are formed by mitosis. Meiosis do occur in the life cycle of
haploid organisms (algae and fungi). In these organisms, zygotic meiosis occur which
leads to the formation of haploid spore which germinates and divide mitotically to form
haploid body.
CHROMOSOME NUMBER IN MEIOCYTES (diploid, 2n)
ORGANISM CHROMOSOME NUMBER IN
MEIOCYTES (2n)
1. Drosophila (fruit fly) 8
2. Homo sapiens (Human) 46
3. Musca domestica (Housefly) 12
4. Allium cepa (Onion) 16
5. Zea mays (Maize) 20
6. Oryza sativa (Rice) 24
7. Malus (Apple) 34
8. Ophioglossum (Adder’s tongue fern) 1260

Sexuality in Organisms
1. Sexual reproduction in organisms generally involves the fusion of gametes from two
different individual. It can also involve the same individual.
2. Plants may have both male and female reproductive structures in the same plant (bisexual
plants and monoecious plants) or on different plants (dioecious plant).
 Note: -
1. In bisexual plants, each flower bear both male and female parts, e.g., Hibiscus, Rosa,
Pisum sativum (Pea).
2. In monoecious plants, male and female flowers are present separately on the same
plant, e.g., Zea may (Maize), Cucurbita, Cocos.
3. In dioecious plants, male and female flowers are present separately on different plants,
e.g., Carica papaya (Papaya), Phoenix (Date palm).

3. In several fungi, if the morphologically similar gametes are produced from the same
parent, such organisms are called homothallic. When the morphologically similar gametes
are produced from the different parent, such organisms are called heterothallic.
4. In flowering plants, the unisexual male flower is staminate, and female flower is
pistillate.

1.2.1.2 Gamete Transfer

1. In a majority of organisms, male gamete is motile and the female gamete is stationary.
Exceptions are a few fungi and algae in which both types of gametes are motile. There is a
need for a medium through which the male gametes move. In several simple plants like
algae, bryophytes and pteridophytes, water is the medium through which this gamete
transfer takes place. A large number of the male gametes, however, fail to reach the
female gametes. To compensate this loss of male gametes during transport, the number of
male gametes produced is several thousand times the number of female gametes produced.
2. In seed plants, pollen grains are the carriers of male gametes and ovule have the egg.
Pollen grains produced in anthers therefore, have to be transferred to the stigma before it
can lead to fertilisation. This transfer of pollens occurs by pollination.

1.2.2 Fertilisation
1. The most vital event of sexual reproduction is perhaps the fusion of gametes. This process
called syngamy results in the formation of a diploid zygote. The term fertilisation is also
often used for this process.
Note: - In some organisms like rotifers, honeybees and even some lizards and birds
(turkey), the female gamete undergoes development to form new organisms without
fertilisation. This phenomenon is called parthenogenesis. In plants also parthenogenesis
occurs.
2. Syngamy/fertilisation can occur in the external medium or inside the body. So syngamy
can be differentiated into two types: -
(i) External fertilisation: - Syngamy occurs in the external medium (water), i.e., outside
the body, e.g., majority of algae and fishes as well as amphibians. Organisms
exhibiting external fertilisation show great synchrony between the sexes and release a
large number of gametes into the surrounding medium (water) in order to enhance
the chances of syngamy. This happens in the bony fishes and frogs where a large
number of offspring are produced. A major disadvantage is that the offspring are
extremely vulnerable to predators threatening their survival up to adulthood.
(ii) Internal fertilisation: - Syngamy occurs inside the body of the organism. In many
terrestrial organisms, belonging to fungi, higher animals such as reptiles, birds,
mammals and in a majority of plants (bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
angiosperms).
In organisms exhibiting internal fertilisation, the male gamete is motile and has to reach
the egg in order to fuse with it. In these even though the number of sperms produced is
very large, there is a significant reduction in the number of eggs produced. In seed plants,
however, the non-motile male gametes are carried to female gamete by pollen tubes.

1.2.3 Post-fertilisation Events

Events in sexual reproduction after the formation of zygote are called post-fertilisation
events.

1.2.3.1 The Zygote

1. Universal in all sexually reproducing organisms.
2. Further development of the zygote depends on the type of life cycle the organism has and
the environment it is exposed to.
3. In organisms belonging to fungi and algae, zygote develops a thick wall that is resistant to
dessication and damage. These special zygotes are called zygospores.
4. In organisms with haplontic life cycle, zygote divides by meiosis to form haploid spores
that grow into haploid individuals.
5. Zygote is the vital link that ensures continuity of species between organisms of one
generation and the next. Every sexually reproducing organism, including human beings
begin life as a single cell–the zygote.

1.2.3.2 Embryogenesis
1. Embryogenesis is the process of development of embryo from the zygote.
2. During embryogenesis, zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation.
While cell divisions increase the number of cells in the developing embryo; cell
 differentiation helps groups of cells to undergo certain modifications to form specialised
tissues and organs to form an organism.
3. Animals are categorised into oviparous and viviparous based on whether the development
of the zygote takes place outside the body of the female parent or inside, i.e., whether they
lay fertilised/unfertilised eggs or give birth to young ones.
4. In oviparous animals like reptiles and birds, the fertilised eggs covered by hard calcareous
shell are laid in a safe place in the environment; after a period of incubation young ones
hatch out.
5. Viviparous animals (majority of mammals including human beings), the zygote develops
into embryo within the uterus of female parent and offspring is born as juveniles. The
embryo in viviparous organisms receives nourishment from the mother’s blood through
placenta. Chances of survival of young ones is greater in viviparous organisms.
Note: - In ovoviviparous organisms (e.g., many species of shark), the eggs are incubated
within a modified portion of the oviduct called uterus and the young ones are borne alive
after hatching. During development, they depend on the stored yolk for their nourishment.
6. In flowering plants, the zygote is formed inside the ovule. After fertilisation the sepals,
petals and stamens of the flower wither and fall off.
7. The zygote develops into the embryo and the ovules develop into the seed. The ovary
develops into the fruit which develops a thick wall called pericarp that is protective in
function. After dispersal, seeds germinate under favourable conditions to produce new
plants.

ZOOSPORE ZYGOTE
1. It is motile structure (spore). It may be motile or non-motile.
2. Helps in asexual reproduction. It is the product of sexual reproduction.
3. It may be haploid or diploid. It is always diploid.
4. Usually naked. Thin walled. Zygopspores are thick
walled zygote.

ZYGOSPORE ZOOSPORE
1. It is a type of zygote which is a result of It is a motile asexual spore.
isogamy, is thick walled, can germinate and
may be motile or non-motile.
2. It is diploid. It may be diploid or haploid.

OOSPORE OOSPHERE
1. It is a special type of zygote which is a It is another name for egg and ovum.
result of oogamy and can germinate.
2. It is diploid. It is haploid.

APOMIXIS AMPHIMIXIS
1. It is the asexual reproduction in plants in It is the sexual reproduction involving
particular agamospermy. fusion of two gametes to form zygote.