TYPES OF DEFECTS

Aircraft discrepancies are faults and degradation of the systems and materials
that lead to the aircraft becoming un-airworthy - or in a less airworthy state
than it should be.

For systems, the defect usually produces symptoms. For example, the
hydraulically operated flaps do not move when selected. The symptom is that
they do not move, the reason may be any one of a number of possible faults eg,
electrical power failure; computer malfunction; no hydraulic fluid; selector
valve malfunction etc.

For materials defects there may not be any symptoms. For example surface
corrosion does not usually have any symptoms other than a visual
appearance. It is possible, however, to have symptoms with a material defect.
Corrosion between two sliding members may cause the members to slide less
freely (or even jam-up completely). If the faying surfaces are used as a fluid
seal then the symptom of the corrosion could be fluid leakage.

Material defects can be classed as surface or subsurface and may be an ;

intervention defect or a non-intervention defect.

Intervention Defect

This is a defect that has been caused or started as the result of human activity
on the aircraft or component. Scratched paintwork or scratched anti-corrosive"
treatments caused by lack of care when handling the component or mis-use of
tools causing corrosion to start is a classic example. The defect was not there
until 'man' intervened.

Non-intervention Defect

This is a defect that occurs due to the engineer not intervening in time to stop
the trouble. For example, if the aircraft is not kept clean externally then the
dirt and grim will tend to attack the paint finish which could lead eventually to
corrosion - both surface and crevice.

Surface Material Defects

Corrosion. Surface corrosion may take many forms. Is usually visible, but if
covered by paint may show as paint blisters. For more details see the section
in the LBP series on Corrosion. Slight corrosion may be classed as negligible
damage but must be treated as per the SRM. More heavily corroded areas
must be repaired or replaced.
Scratches. Dents. Nicks. Abrasions. Pitting. Erosion. These may also be
classed as negligible depending on their surface area and depth - but never-
the-less must be treated as per the SRM. The first four may be intervention
defects.

Pillowing. This is a sort of quilting effect on extruded metal - usually

aluminium alloy. It is associated with exfoliation/filiform corrosion. Is usually
serious and requires repair/replacement in accordance with the SRM. For
more details see the section on Corrosion in the LBP series.

Scuff Marks. May be a sign of more serious damage when found on composite
materials as they may "spring back" after impact with an object. Further
investigation will be necessary to verify that damage has or has not taken
place, and the appropriate action taken. Scuffing/wear on rubber pipelines,
seals etc may necessitate replacement - but check the AMM.

Staining /discoloration. On composite materials may indicate the presence of

moisture within the composite and sometimes delamination.

Crazing. Associated with transparent plastic windscreens and windows. It

shows up as a large number of very fine, very short, cracks within the polymer
structure. Rectification by replacement will depend on the extend and the
AMM. May be caused by stress or solvents.

Cracks. Surface cracks in metal and composites have to be investigated to

check the exact length (which may be difficult), and depth. With sheet the
depth is assumed to be completely through the material. With thicker material
NDT checks would have to be conducted to ascertain the depth. For repair see
the section on Repairs in the LBP series.

Fine Cracks. On rubber flexible pipelines will need to be investigated and the
pipeline may or may not need to be changed, depending on how deep the
damage has gone. Cracked insulation on electrical cables would normally
require a cable change, but check the AMM and/or carry out an insulation
test.

Contamination. Fluid contamination such as fuels, solvents and oils on

windscreens, cables, rubber an plastic components can cause rapid
deterioration which will required component replacement.

Casting Defects. Porosity. Surface defects of this nature are rare but
sometimes occur in castings. An NDT check would be required to ascertain the
extend of the depth of the porosity and action taken as per the SRM. Any
remedial action taken is usually replacement of the affected part. 1
Sub-surface Defects

Cracks. Not detectable, unless close to the surface, without the aid of specialist
test equipment. Will normally require component replacement.

Corrosion. Can be very serious. Occurs as Intercrystalline Corrosion in alloys.

Detection is the same as for cracks - unless it gets close to the surface then it
may show up as a crack.

Casting Defects. As for cracks.

Delamination/debonding. Can occur in composite structures and may be

detected using specialist test equipment, though it the defect is close to the
surface can show up as bulging and possible discoloration. Tapping the area
with a small object such as a coin will produce a sound change when tapping
across the area.

Moisture Ingress. Occurs to composite structures. May show up as a

discoloration and sometimes as a bulge. A suspect area can be checked
visually or by using specialist test equipment.

System Defects ; : •

A system will normally show a symptom which may be caused by one defect or,
in some cases, more than one defect. The defect will usually be traced using
one or more of the following methods, and which one/s is/are;used will depend
on may factors: ;

* Visual examination.
* Using Built In Test equipment (BIT) fitted to components.
* By reference to on-board fault computers.
* By the use of test equipment - specialised or otherwise.
* Using manufacturer's manuals.
* Using ground maintenance computers - using data transmitted
from the aircraft in flight or from down-loaded data using a CD or
floppy disc.

Note. The above list may not be exclusive and is not in any sequential order.
 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NOT)

Non-destructive testing, or NDT, is the practice of testing an article without

having to detract from its working capability. In other words, carrying out a
test (or tests) without causing any damage. The simplest way of doing this is
to look at it, or in other words to 'carry out a visual inspection'. In this way
everyone working on the aircraft performs a simple, but very important NDT
function. They use their eyes and look carefully at what they see.

In general, however, the term 'NDT' is usually used in the context of special
flaw detection techniques.

Some aircraft parts are more difficult to inspect than others. Those in
awkward positions often need optical equipment to provide a better view.
Unfortunately, only surface defects can be found by visual examination.

Those occurring beneath the surface require more searching methods of

detection such as magnetic tests, ultrasonic tests, and radiography using
X-rays and gamma rays. These tests are carried out by qualified NDT
operators who are trained to use the equipment and to interpret the results
obtained.

VISUAL INSPECTION

In many ways the simple process of 'having a look' is by far the most
successful method of non-destructive testing. Every time you carry out a
visual check on a row of rivets, a set of turbine blades, a wiring loom, a
composite structure, you are testing without having to destroy the article, and
a great number of defects are found in this way.

However, there are many areas where direct visual inspection is impossible
without extra light and some device with which to look into holes and see
round corners. Even in good light, cracks may be difficult to see and
magnification is often needed before detection can be certain. In such
circumstances a torch, or similar light source, and optical equipment is
essential.

Remote Inspection Equipment.

To see round corners and in spaces otherwise not accessible to direct vision, a
variety of optical remote viewing instruments are available.

A mirror and light probe may be used which forms part of a probe light kit
which contains probes of various diameters to which mirrors, lamps, and
magnifying glasses can be attached.
It is usually battery powered with the lamp and mirror being attached to one
end of a flexible metal arm. The battery being housed in the body of the unit
which is hand held and attached to the other end.

By adjusting the mirror, switching the unit on and feeding the flexible arm into
the appropriate area a view of the rear of the part concerned may be seen.

A development of the light probe is the intrascope, optical probe or boroscope.

This is an angular viewing telescope with its own light source and is used for
the inspection of small bore holes and similar internal surfaces. It is usually a
rigid tube, containing a lens system, which has a focusing eye-piece at one end
and a lamp and detachable viewing head at the other. The angle of vision
depends upon the type of viewing head attached.

More advanced probes are electronic with a lens and light source at the free
end, with the other end being attached to a cable which in turn is attached to
a colour CRT monitor (television set). With the unit switched on (single phase
ac supply) the monitor will show a colour picture of what-ever the probe is
"looking at". Using this method very clear pictures can be obtained from the
inside of quite small objects. These instruments are used for the internal
inspection of welded joints in tubes; for the inspection of internal parts of jet
engines and cylinder bores of piston engines (the probe being passed through
the spark plug hole) etc. ;

DYEPENETRANTS ; • } " j I . ;

Minute surface cracks on metals, and small surface flaws in composites, which
are difficult to detect by ordinary visual means may be highlighted by
increasing the contrast between the defect and the surrounding area.

This may be done by using dye penetrants.

In the earlier methods hot oil was used as the penetrative fluid. The part, if
small enough, was placed in a bath of 'thin' hot oil. As it heated up oil would
be drawn into the crack. The part was then removed and cleaned thoroughly to
remove all traces of the oil. Chalk was then dusted over the suspected area
and the part allowed to cool. As it cooled so the part would contract and
squeeze the oil out from the crack. It would then show as a discoloured line or
row of dots in the white chalk.

Called the hot oil method, the cold oil method was for parts too big to go into a
bath. These methods have now largely given way to more effective techniques
using coloured and fluorescent dye penetrants.
QUESTION: The word "thin" was used in the above paragraph to describe the
consistency of the oil. To be correct the word or phrase should be:
"The oil should have a low viscosity". Can you describe what is
meant by "viscosity", and why should the oil have a low viscosity?
(5 mins)

ANSWER: Viscosity is defined as, 'resistance to flow'. With a low resistance to

flow the oil will be drawn into the crack more easily than if it had a
high resistance to flow (high viscosity). The word 'thin' is often
used to describe fluids with low viscosity's and the word 'thick' to
describe fluids with high viscosity's.

Coloured Dye Penetrants

Used for the detection of surface flaws in metals. They are located by applying
a penetrating dye solution to the surface being tested. The part is carefully and
thoroughly cleaned to remove all traces of paint and oil - bearing in mind that
any rubbing of the surface could "fill up" any cracks and make the test less
effective.

The low viscosity dye, usually crimson, is sprayed onto the surface and is
absorbed by any surface cracks or defects that may be present.

Keep the area wet for up to 1 hour (depending on the temperature and
difficulty in finding the defect) to allow the penetrant to soak in, the surplus
dye is then cleaned off using a penetrant remover. A special white developer is
then applied. Again care has to be exercised as excessive cleaning/rubbing
may remove the penetrant from the defect.

The white developer is applied usually by spraying. When left for a minute or
two the solvent evaporates leaving behind a fine white dry powder. This acts
like blotting paper to bring out any dye which may have seeped into a crack.
The dye will mark the white developer and reveal any crack or flaw as a
crimson line or dots against the white background.

Always follow the penetrant manufacturers instructions on the use of the

equipment. In general this method should be used within the temperature
range 38°C to 60°C and ideally not below 15° C. If it is used below this
temperature then the dye soaking times will have to be extended. Never use
this method below 0°C.

The type of indications that may be obtained are as follows:

(a) NONE. The white area remains completely white. This may not mean that
there is not a defect there. There may be a fine crack or porosity which
has not shown up. Repeating the same process with more careful cleaning
may produce a result, or a more sophisticated method may have to be
used.
(b) RANDOM RED DOTS. The metal may be porous.

(c) RED DOTS IN A LINE. A crack - the bigger the dots the deeper the
crack.

(d) RED LINE. A crack - the broader the line the deeper the crack.

(e) 'Fir tree' staining on surface defects in composites.

Fluorescent Penetrants

In this technique the penetrant used contains a dye which fluoresces

brilliantly in ultra-violet light. The liquid penetrates any cracks and carries _
with it the fluorescent dye. After a short 'contact time' the surplus penetrant is
removed and the surrounding area thoroughly cleaned.

Examination under ultra-violet (uv) light quickly shows the seepage of the^
fluorescent penetrant from any surface flaws. (The lamp needs to be switcned
on for a time to allow it to warm-up). A crack will show up as a bright
fluorescent line.
Some uv lamps produce too much white light (basically light that can be seen).
This makes them unreliable for the detection of small defects. UK CAA
Airworthiness Notice 95 states the procedure and equipment for testing uv
lamps.
Personal Safety. The penetrants used are slightly toxic and mildly irritant to
the skin, so avoid skin contact and inhaling the fumes. Wear eye protection
and use a barrier cream on your hands before carrying out the tests. Avoid
looking at the ultra-violet lamp when switched on. Always face it away from
you and do not point it at others.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

Applicable to the detection of surface flaws and those just beneath the surfac
on materials that can be magnetised - ie, irons and steels, but not some
stainless steels. This method depends upon the difference in magnetic
properties of sound and defective areas within the material.
Figure 3 shows that where a crack breaks the path of the lines of flux in a
magnetic field, the flux lines tend to move around the crack and the flux
density increases locally at the ends - effectively turning it into a small magnet
within the metal. (The flux lines can be created by using a permanent magnet
or by the use of a dc electrical supply).

If fine magnetic particles, such as iron filings, either as a powder or in

suspension in a liquid, are poured over the area, they will be attracted to the
high density areas showing the presence of a crack. The addition of a dye or a
fluorescent dye to the powder makes detection more effective.

The equipment to magnetise the material maybe fixed so that "items for testing
need to be removed and fitted to it. These machines have two contact leads
adjustable to suit the length of the item under test.

There are also portable machines which are electro magnets or permanent
magnets.
Crack Orientation

As can be seen, a crack only becomes magnetised when it lies across the lines
of flux. For this reason, an item may need to be magnetised in more than one
direction to detect all cracks. For longitudinal cracks a dc current is passed
along the component in the direction of the suspected crack (or a threader bar
may be used). For transverse cracks the magnetic flow method is used. In
practice, cracks up to 45° should show up in either method.

A carefully calculated dc current is passed through the item creating a

magnetic field as shown. Only longitudinal cracks will be detected.

In the magnetic flow test a dc circuit is energised creating lines of flux through
the item. Only transverse cracks are detected. In practice, at least two tests
are used to cover the possibility of a suspect crack laying in any orientation.

Basic Testing Procedure

(for surface or near surface cracks in magnetic materials in any orientation).

1. Remove component, clean to bare metal and demagnetise.

2. Set up in the machine, apply magnetic ink and switch on dc current

flow.

3. Inspect results (using uv light if fluorescent dye is used).

4. Switch off, remove, clean and demagnetise.

5. Replace in machine at 90° orientation, and repeat items 2. 3. & 4.

above.
6. If fault free demagnetise, restore to original finish, replace, and complete
documentation (aircraft or component log book and possibly a CRS).

7. If a flaw found check SRM/AMM/manual for rectification action.

Note. Demagnetising is called De-Gaussing (Karl Friedrich Gauss German

mathematician 1777-1855) and is carried out using specialised De-Gaussing
coils which use high frequency ac current to rearrange all the "internal
magnets" of the item into a random configuration.

INFRA-RED THERMOGRAPHY

Developed by Airbus Industrie for the detection of water ingress in composite

sandwich structures.

Based on the principle that an object emits electro magnetic radiation the
intensity of which is related to its temperature.
When a composite structure is heated and allowed to cool, water contaminated
areas cool slower than dry areas (they have more heat energy). The extra heat
coming from these areas can be detected using an infra-red camera. (The
specific heat of water is 5 times higher than composite materials).

The infra-red camera converts the thermal radiation into an electronic signal
which is displayed on a colour monitor.

Method

1. Clean and completely dry the suspect area to be inspected - both

sides.

2. Heat the area using a special electric blanket. The blanket is

temperature and time controlled so that it heats up slowly taking
at least 15 minutes to reach 60°C. The temperature is held at this
value for 5 minutes.

3. Remove the blanket and the panel will start to cool - the faster
cooling being where there is no moisture.

4. One engineer will scan the area with the camera in a systematic
way so that there are no parts missed out. The scanning is done
slowly from side to side or up and down. Another engineer will
monitor the colour screen. Nothing will show unless there are
damp patches or moisture has ingressed into the material - or
parts of the material differ significantly from the main structure.
These areas will show up as bright colours on the screen.
 5. When a wet area is shown on the screen the viewing operator tells
the camera operator to hold the camera at that position (to allow
closer study of the picture) and the area is marked for further
investigation/repair/replacement.

Note. A typical system is the Agema Infra-red Systems Thermovision 210 which
will detect a difference of 0.1° at 30°C in an area as small as 10mm x 10mm
contaminated with 10% water and located on the other side of the panel.

THE WOODPECKER'

This is also designed for use on composites.

When checking for suspect delamination/debonding a 'tap test' can be used.

This means tapping the suspect area and the surrounding area with a coin or
similar object to see if there is any change in the sound when moving from a
good area to an area suffering from debonding or delamination. This process
can be carried using an electronic hammer sometimes called a Woodpecker.

The Woodpecker' is an electronic Tiammer' that is rested against the material

to be tested. When switched on a small hammer is caused to move up and
down quickly tapping the material surface, but not too hard. When the
Woodpecker is moved across the surface (resting on two small feet) the sound
given off by the hammer can be heard and any sound change noted.

The unit can be connected to other electronic equipment such as a colour

monitor. • : ...-'' •'

Remember that composites can also be checked for moisture by various

brands of moisture meters and if a conductive layer (bonding) is built into the
composite then this can be checked using a multi-meter (set to resistance the
readings should be low - as stated in the AMM).

ULTRA-SONIC TESTING

Used mainly for detecting below-surface flaws but also be used for surface
flaws at a point some distance from the place of accessibility. Can be used on
all monolithic (solid) materials - metals and non metals.

High frequency sound waves, when transmitted through solid material, are
reflected by any discontinuity such as the opposite surface or an internal flaw.
This reflection is converted into a signal on a cathode ray tube (CRT) which can
be interpreted by a trained operator.
These sound waves are above the audible frequency of the human ear, and can
be transmitted in three different forms:

a. Longitudinal - in the same direction as the motion of the sound.

b. Transverse - perpendicular to the motion of the sound.
c. Surface - transverse waves along the surface of the material.

The pitch of the sound is controlled by its frequency and its speed by the
characteristics of the material through which it travels.
Each transmitter (T/X) probe comprises a quartz crystal and sound damping
material. When the crystal is fed with an ac supply, it vibrates at the
frequency of the received input. These vibrations are passed into the material
in a direction related to the shape of the probe. The sound waves move through
the material without causing any damage and can be picked up by a receiver
(R/X) probe.

The crystal in the R/X probe is vibrated by the received sound waves and
generates an ac supply which is fed into the vertical axis of the CRT. The
result is a line on the CRT with a number of verticals. Each vertical
representing a discontinuity, flaw or the other side of the material.

The T/X and R/X transducers may be fitted into one probe called a
transmitter/receiver (T/R) probe, or they may be separate probes to be used in
conjunction with each other.

On sound material, there will be a vertical to represent the top surface and
another the bottom surface; the distance between them related to the
thickness of the material (distance travelled by the sound waves).;

A flaw within the metal will reflect the sound waves earlier and erect a smaller
vertical on the CRT between the first two at a position related to its distance
:
from the surface.

If the crack lies transversely across the direction of the sound waves then a
good return signal is received. If it lies in the .same direction then the returned
signal could be too small to be picked up by the R/X or T/R probe.

If crack orientation is not known then several tests will have to be conducted
using the probes placed at different directions/angles on the material.

To reduce the amount of signal (noise) being reflected from the surface that the
probe is in contact with a film of oil is applied between the surface and the
probe. This film will exclude all the air between surface and probe, and allows
smooth movement of probe over the surface. This film is removed on
completion of the test.

EDDY CURRENT PROCESS

Used for detecting surface flaws, and those just beneath the surface, in
electrically conductive metals the Eddy Current process is more sensitive than
dye penetrants and does away with the need for the removal of paint from the
surface. It is a comparative type test.

Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in the material
when that material is subjected to an alternating magnetic field.
The equipment used is designed to provide the alternating magnetic field and
to measure the changes induced by flaws in the material when the probe
passes over the flawed area. It is safe and portable and needs a power supply. ,

When the probe is moved over the surface of the suspect area the operator
monitors the indicator instrument. As the probe moves across a flaw the
indicator pointer will move showing that there is a discontinuity in the eddy
current path caused by a crack, or similar defect. The area is marked for
possible further investigation and the defect recorded.

Principle of Operation

A coil, fed with an ac supply, is held in contact with the surface of the metal
under test. Eddy currents are induced at the surface eddying out from the
point of contact. These, in turn, generate their own magnetic field with in the
metal which interacts with the first.

The resultant change in the magnetic field around the coil when a flaw is
detected changes the resistance (impedance) of the coil material, which is
detected by the instrumentation.
Limitations

1. Geometric effects - changes in thickness due to presence of stringers,

etc.
2. Poor sensitivity at junctions of dissimilar metals.
3. Corrosion detection poor on thicker metals.

Other Applications

1. Detection of heat treatment state of metals subjected to excessive heat -

ie, fire damage - engine areas.
2. More advanced equipment can detect sub-surface flaws.

RADIOGRAPHY

A user unfriendly system that produce X-ray pictures to be analysed by a

specialist. Using either 'X' or Gamma rays which can pass through all metals
and composites, and which are extremely dangerous to all animals including
humans, this system is similar to photography. : ;

X Rays

Generated in an electron tube - needs 250,000V.

Gives good picture quality.
Tube relatively large, which can limit access.
Needs a power supply
Gamma Rays

Self-generated by radioactive isotopes which are very small.

Easy access, inside shafts, etc.
Poorer picture quality than with X rays.
Portable needing no power supply.
Isotopes difficult to handle in safety.

In general the X-ray process is as follows:

(a) Set up equipment with X-ray tube on one side of the part to be
checked, and the (sealed) negative plate on the other side.
(b) Place test piece in front of negative (this provides a density
comparitor on the negative so that comparisons can be made
between it and the rest of the image)
(c) Check exposure times (the thicker and denser the part the longer
the time) and distance of tube from part (distance measuring rod
supplied).
(d) Clear hangar/workplace. Position warning signs. Clear aircraft.
(e) From remote control panel (placed as far away as possible and
behind tube lens) switch the tube on and monitor area.
(f) After exposure time switch off tube, remove equipment/signs/test
piece. Allow maintenance personnel back on aircraft.
(g) Develop negative (in a dark room) and analyse results.
(h) Record the work carried out and any possible findings. Report
these back to the person responsible for the aircraft - this could be
the licensed engineer, the chief inspector, and in large
organisations it might be tech records or quality control.
The process requires a high level of expertise, both to use the equipment and
to interpret the results (the indications on the negatives are not always
obvious, and composites in particular can prove to be difficult).

The equipment is dangerous to use.

Operators require a regular medical check-up and wear a personal radiation

dosimeter. ALWAYS STAY OUT OF WARNED OR ROPED OFF AREAS.

QUESTION: If a defect was found using any of the above methods what
action would you, as a licensed engineer, take? (15 mins).

ANSWER: If the crack is in a component then it will normally require

replacement, but check the manual first - some cracks might just
be allowed if they run in a certain direction, and/or are in a
certain area and/or are below a certain length and/or there are
not more than a certain number (manufacturer's literature will
specify all these). If the crack is in a structural member it may be
classed as negligible (check the repair manual - the same
parameters may apply as above) and stop drill the ends of the
crack. If the crack is outside the negligible limits or no crack is
allowed at all then the area must be repaired in accordance with
the SRM, or the part replaced. If porosity is found then check the
SRM, but in general the component is replaced, or the area is
repaired. ; , ;

QUESTION: What does "stop drill" the end of the crack mean and why is
it carried out? (5 mins)

ANSWER: The exact end of the crack is located (often very difficult) and a
small drill is used (say 3.3mm but check SRM) to drill a hole right
through the metal. This has the effect of reducing the stress
concentration at the crack end to a lower level on the wall of the
hole, so (hopefully) stopping the crack from spreading. Always
inspect the crack on a regular basis thereafter to see that it has
not developed further.

QUESTION: If an NDT team/specialist was to carry out an inspection on your

aircraft what would be their relationship to you as a Licensed
engineer? (5 mins)
ANSWER: They would be requested by you or the senior engineer of the
company to carry out the NDT test. Their findings would be
recorded and signed for and they would report back to you (or the
senior engineer). They would hand over their recorded findings and
you would clear the defect in the log book (if no defect was found
or after rectification carried out) making reference to the NDT
report.

QUESTION: What parts of the aircraft would you carry out an NDT test on and
when? (5 mins).

ANSWER: Those parts/components that the CAA/aircraft

manufacturer/your company tell you to, or a part that you
are highly suspicious of. Airworthiness Directives/Service
Bulletins will be sent from the CAA/manufacturers to all operators
of your aircraft/equipment to carry out a particular check. The
instructions will normally indicate a time limit, and if it says
"before next flight" it effectively grounds the aircraft. In some cases
a report has to be sent back to the CAA/manufacturer of the
findings.

NOTE:

The student is advised to read the following Airworthiness Notices:

* 94 NDT Testing - Qualifications.

* 95 uv and Magnetic Particle Testing.

Remember - As a licensed aircraft engineer you have special dispensation to

carry out dye penetrant flaw detection using the portable kit, but you should
be conversant with the operation, limitations, and results of all the other
methods of non-destructive testing.

If you work in a small company then you might be the only licensed engineer
the specialist can report to. If you work in a large company the CAA consider
that you, one day, will become a supervisor - if you are not one already. In
either case the specialist NDT person will be coming to you with their findings,
therefore you must have a good working knowledge of all NDT methods to
understand their findings and the limitations of their equipments.
 CORROSION CONTROL

Corrosion is a serious problem that the maintenance engineer has to face daily.
It is persistent and dangerous and often difficult to detect. The manufacturer
carries out anti-corrosive treatments and produces alloys with a view to
preventing the formation of the simple corrosion cell.

Careful design of structures can also help - keeping stress and fatigue levels
low - prevention of water and moisture entrapment - smooth changes of
section.

Corrosion is a serious problem in older aircraft and aircraft/equipment in

storage. It also more prevalent on aircraft/equipment operating in marine
related roles - air/sea rescue, off-shore drilling rig maintenance, off island
services etc.

All the above categories of aircraft will have special inspection programmes
produced by the operator to help combat the problem. These anti-det
(deterioration) checks/anti-corrosion checks are carried out at regular intervals
and any rectification required carried out.

The maintenance engineer can help by:

* Cleanliness. Removal of surface dirt and grime from the airframe

and its components.
* : Care of protective films. Avoidance of damage to anti-corrosive
: films, paint surfaces, etc. i ;
* Care with fluids. Some can be corrosive. Take care with all fluids.
* Tidiness. Rags left in aircraft can hold moisture. Tools left in
aircraft can start galvanic corrosion. They are also a serious safety
hazard.
* Vigilance. Early detection and repair of corroded parts/areas will
save money and could save lives.

Removal of Corrosion

Reference should be made to the Structure Repair Manual (SRM) before

attempting to remove corrosion. Corrosion on some components/structure
may require the replacement of the component. In other cases treatment may
be carried out within specified limits.
In general:

1. Mechanical Cleaning - may entail the use of a fine emery cloth with
water as a lubricant - or air blasting using a suitable abrasive - or
aluminium wool on non clad aluminium alloys (steel wool is not
permitted as particles may become embedded in the surface thereby
increasing the corrosion risk).

2. Chemical Cleaning - Remember that many of these agents are

dangerous to handle. Wear protective clothing. Work in a well
ventilated area. If splashed wash affected part immediately and seek
medical advice.

Use a degreasing agent such as white spirit or solvent naphtha.

* Ferrous Metals.

(a) Use a rust remover - usually phosphoric acid based.

(b) Clean thoroughly and dry off.

* Aluminium Alloys.

(a) For light corrosion use a solvent.

(b) On clad aluminium alloys use thickened phosphoric acid,
clean with water and dry off.
(c) On non clad alloys use aluminium wool.
»

* Magnesium Alloys.

(a) Use 10% chromic acid and 0.1% sulphuric acid in distilled
water.
(b) After 5 minutes rinse well with clean water and dry off.

Assessment of Damage

After the removal of the corrosion measure the area (rule or special pantograph
linkage) and depth (Dial Test Indicator - DTI) of the affected area and check the
limits as laid down in the SRM. If damage is outside the repairable limits then
the components will have to be replaced, or if it is part of the aircraft structure
then repair may be required.
Reprotection

There are many different types of anti-corrosive treatment and for each, many
different types of repair. The following is an example of some of them.

1. Ferrous Metals - Brush on phosphate treatment followed by paint

treatment.

2. Aluminium Alloys - Brush on Deoxidine treatment followed by paint

treatment. OR Brush on Alocrom treatment.

3. Magnesium Alloys - Selenious Acid treatment brushed on.

THE USE OF ALOCROM 1200

The general procedure is as follows:

1. Assess the extent of the corrosion, ie area and depth. If outside the
limits laid down in the SRM the damage will have to be repaired by:

(a) Patching ;
(b) Insertion
:
(c) Replacement : • . -

(Refer to the book in this series on "Structures"). \

2. If the corrosion can be repaired "in situ", mask off the area and remove
the paint chemically.

3. If the corrosion is near fasteners, bolts etc, remove them and check
under heads and countersinks. If they are corroded, replace. If the
structure is riveted-up and has likely spread into the riveted area, then
panels must be derivited and faying surfaces inspected.

4. Remove light surface corrosion using:

(a) A solvent.
(b) Aluminium wool.
(c) A proprietary rust remover for Al alloys.
(d) Scotchbrite pad or fine glass paper.
(e) Vocublast using glass beads or aluminium powder (for large areas).

5. Check all corrosion removed using a magnifying glass. Re-check depth

and area and if necessary re-assess the damage (1 above).
6. Decrease area observing all safety precautions.

7. Apply Alocrom 1200 taking into consideration the safety precautions.

8. Use paper towels for use as a blotting agent which holds the Alocrom in
position. Leave for 3-4 minutes, area will turn golden brown.

9. Wash area thoroughly with water and degrease.

10. Apply paint primer and paint finish.

11. Refit fasteners etc (new ones if the originals are corroded).

12. Remove waste Alocrom products and place in fire proof waste container
for Alocrom products only (spontaneous combustion). These to be
disposed of in accordance with local regulations.

Example

The following is an extract from the SRM of a Boeing 747 manual and is
printed here to give you some idea of the actual processes used on at least one
civil aircraft. Of course you do not need to remember it, but it does provide
excellent background reading.

REMEMBER THIS IS GIVEN AS AN EXAMPLE AND YOU MUST ALWAYS

REFER TO THE SRM FOR THE SPECIFIC AIRCRAFT.

General

Any repair process which breaks the surface of the original structure requires a
protective treatment. The treatment acts as a paint base and a corrosion inhibitor
when it is applied prior to the installation of the repair parts. All unclad
aluminium alloys of the original structure require a subsequent chemical
conversion coating in cases where the repair processes exposes areas to possible
corrosion. Unclad aluminium alloy and chamfered or cut edges of clad aluminium
alloy repair parts require a chemical conversion coating and steel parts require
cadmium plating.

Structural components whose surfaces have not been damaged beyond the
allowable damage limits or whose surfaces have been damaged by corrosion
must be refinished in accordance with the requirements of 51-21 of the AMM.

Refer to 51-10-01 for mechanical cleanup operations required for the elimination
of burrs or sharp edges.
WARNING:

HANDLE THE CHEMICAL CONVERSION COATING POWDER OR SOLUTION WITH

THE USUAL PRECAUTIONS FOR CORROSIVE CHEMICALS. USE RESPIRATORS,
GOGGLES, RUBBER OR NEOPRENE GLOVES, BOOTS AND APRONS MADE OF
ACID RESISTANT MATERIAL WHEN HANDLING THE POWDER AND APPLYING
THE SOLUTION. DO NOT ALLOW THE POWDER OR SOLUTION TO CONTACT
THE SKIN. WASH IT OFF IMMEDIATELY. IF THE SOLUTION CONTACTS THE
EYES, WASH THEM WITH WATER FOLLOWED BY AN EYE WASH OR BORIC
ACID. OBTAIN MEDICAL AID IMMEDIATELY. DO NOT ALLOW SWABS, PAPER,
ETC, USED FOR APPLYING OR REMOVING THE CHEMICAL CONVERSION
COATING SOLUTION, TO DRY OUT. THESE CONSTITUTE A FIRE HAZARD
WHEN DRIED. IMMEDIATELY AFTER USE SOAK THOROUGHLY IN WATER
BEFORE DISCARDING.

Aluminium Alloy - Chemical Conversion Coating Brush Process

Alodine is the registered trade name of a proprietary procedure marketed by the

American Chemical Paint Company. Indite is the registered trade name of a
proprietary procedure marketed by the Witco Chemical Company. Turcoat
Alumigold is the registered trade name of a proprietary procedure marketed by
Turco Products, Inc. They are approved for the production of a chemical film on
aluminium alloy. The film is softer than the anodic treatment but is satisfactory
as a protective layer and a paint base. Treat the repair parts and initial structure
that has been cut or filed with one of these chemical conversion coatings. Use
:
Alodine 600 when you use BMS 10-20 primer.

Materials Required i .' '"' \

(1) Alodine 1200 Powder or Indite 14-2 Powder or Turcoat Alumigold Powder
or Alodine 600 Powder.

(2) Tycro wheels, Type 3A, very fine aluminium oxide wheels, Scotch rite
pad, Type A, very fine aluminium oxide pads or 400 grit aluminium oxide
paper.

(3) Cheesecloth or new rags with less than 0.75% oil.

(4) Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK).

Prepare the chemical conversion coating solution.

WARNING:

WHEN USING NITRIC ACID AVOID BREATHING THE VAPOURS. USE

MECHANICAL VENTILATION OR RESPIRATORY PROTECTION. AVOID CONTACT
WITH SKIN, EYES AND CLOTHING. WEAR APPROVED ACID PROOF GLOVES,
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING, GOGGLES AND A FACE SHIELD.

KEEP THE ACID FROM SOURCES OF HEAT, FIRE AND SPARKS. DO NOT
EXPOSE THE ACID TO VARIOUS MATERIALS.

BREATHING NITRIC ACID OR ALLOWING THE ACID TO CONTACT YOUR SKIN

OR EYES IS EXTREMELY HAZARDOUS.

IN CASE OF CONTACT WITH THE EYES, DO NOT RUB. FLUSH WITH WATER
FOR 15 MINUTES AND GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. IN CASE OF SKIN CONTACT,
WASH THE AFFECTED AREA WITH LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER AND GET
MEDICAL ATTENTION.

IF THE FUMES ARE INHALED OR ONLY SUSPECTED TO HAVE BEEN INHALED

GET MEDICAL TREATMENT IMMEDIATELY.

NOTE:

A dirty solution is unsatisfactory. Prepare the solution in small quantities.

Discard the solution if it is dirty. Ifnon distilled water is used, add nitric acid to
control the pH. For the Alodine products, the pH must be from 1.50 to 2.00. For
the Indite 14-2, the pH must be from 1.10 to 1.60. For the Turcoat Alumigold, the
pH must be from 1.60 to 1.90. Use pHydrion papers to check the pH level

(1) Roll the contents of each container of the chemical conversion coating
powder thoroughly on clean paper prior to the withdrawal of the fraction
to be used.

(2) Add 3 ounces of the chemical conversion coating powder to each gallon of
water used.

(3) Mix in a stainless steel or acid-resistant container. (Do not use lead or
glass).

(4) Stir well until the powder is dissolved.

NOTE:

Compliance with the mixing procedure is required for a satisfactory

solution. A small amount of material that may settle out of solution can
be disregarded.
(5) Allow the solution to stand at least 1 hour before use.

Prepare the surface for the chemical conversion coating.

(1) Mask all surfaces likely to be affected by running, dripping, or splashing

of the solution. Surfaces that have previously been treated with a
chemical conversion coating, painted, or anodised need not be masked.

(2) Seal or plug all holes, gaps and inlets to assemblies containing
honeycomb or foam plastic with suitable sealing or caulking material or
rubber plugs to prevent the entry of the solution.

(3) Clean the area to be treated with a chemical conversion coating. Use a
liquid solvent degreaser and clean brushes or rags. Dry the surface with
warm air or wipe dry.

(4) Remove the existing organic and inorganic finish from the repair area.
Remove the hydraulic fluid resistant finish at the same time the inorganic
coating is stripped. Mechanically strip the inorganic coatings such as
anodise or chemical conversion coating. Use Tycro, Type 3A, very fine
aluminium oxide unitised wheels attached to a power drill, Scotchbrite
Pad, Type A, or 400 grit aluminium oxide paper. Clean all signs of
organic and inorganic coatings until a uniform, bright, shiny aluminium
surface is obtained. '. •

(5) Wipe the surface with a dry, clean cheesecloth to remove loose particles
and residue from the abraded area.

(6) Wipe the surface with a cheesecloth dampened (not saturated) with MEK.
Repeat using clean cheesecloth until no visible residue transfers to the
cheesecloth.

(7) Allow the surface to dry for a minimum of 15 minutes.

(8) Remove any corrosion present as in~(l) to (7) above.

(9) Refer to 51-10-06 for cleaning structure and repair parts prior to the
installation of sealant in the integral fuel tanks.

Apply the chemical conversion coating solution

(1) Apply the chemical conversion coating solution evenly and liberally with
a fibre or nylon brush or clean cheesecloth.
(2) Allow the solution to remain on the surface for 3 to 4 minutes to form a
coating. Keep the area from drying during this period by gently blotting
with cheesecloth moistened with the solution.

(3) Wash area with water and degrease.

(4) Thoroughly dry and restore paint scheme.

MERCURY SPILLAGE

Mercury is used in manometers and some instruments in aircraft. It may also

be carried as cargo on transport aircraft.

If spilt on metals it can cause rapid corrosion and embrittlement. The mercury
will "run" on the surface like a ball bearing and quickly run into crevices, and
joints.

The rate of corrosion can be so quick as to be apparent in just a few minutes

and is more serious than battery acid corrosion. It is, therefore, important that
its early detection, removal, and treatment is carried out. You should, of
course, follow the procedures laid down in the repair manual for the aircraft
but the following information is generally applicable.

Safety Precautions

1. Wear protective clothing, particularly gloves.

2. Do not swallow mercury or inhale the fumes, report to the medical centre
immediately if this happens.
3. Work in a well ventilated area.
4. Discard all contaminated clothing and materials. Dispose of in
accordance with the local regulations.
5. Wash hands, tools, and other equipment contaminated with mercury.
6. Do not smoke, eat or drink, while working with mercury.

Detection Methods

1. Visually. When spilt, mercury will form into ball bearing like globules.
These will "roll" along surfaces, into crevices, and into joints.

2. X-rays. If unsure of the exact location of mercury it can be seen clearly

on X-rays.
3. "Sniffer Gun". A sniffer gun will pick up mercury vapours and give an
aural and visual warning.

Recognition of Corrosion Products

Once corrosion has started it is impossible to rectify in situ. The only suitable
rectification of corroded areas is by repair (patch or insertion) or by
replacement.

Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys shows as a greyish powder or whiskery

growth. This growth often occurring within minutes of initial contamination.

Silver, Cadmium and Zinc show as a slightly brighter area where the corrosion
has occurred. This area might be difficult to see.

Tackling Mercury Spillage

1. Take action immediately. Corrosion rates can be very quick so the

sooner action is taken the better.

2. Do not move aircraft as the movement can cause the globules to "run"
into other parts of the structure.
3. Isolate the area. Place rag or paper towels around the spillage area to
keep globules within the original area. Prevent people walking
through area (if on aircraft floor) to prevent spread of mercury on
footwear.

4. Remove source of contamination (broken instrument etc.) - carefully.

5. Remove globules by:

(a) Suction. Use a standard vacuum cleaner with a locally made up

"oil and water" type trap in the suction line before the vacuum
cleaner. (A glass jar with a screw top lid and two pipes entering
through holes in the lid will do).

(b) A special pick up brush. This is drawn lightly over the mercury
which is caused to "pick up" on the bristles. Shake the brush
carefully into a glass container.

(c) Foam pad. Pressing the pad into the mercury and releasing it will
cause it to suck up the mercury. Squeeze into a glass container to
remove the mercury from the pad.

(d) Adhesive tape. This will pick up the smaller globules.

(e) Chemical application. Mix up a thin solution of calcium

polysulphide. Mixing this with the mercury will convert the
mercury into an inert mercuric sulphide. Allow the mixture to dry -
for 2 hours then vacuum up with a normal vacuum cleaner.

6. X-ray the area to check that all mercury has been removed.

7. Remove panels, de-rivet structure as necessary. Any contaminated drills

should be disposed off as contaminated products.

8. Apply a thin film of oil to area provided corrosion has not started. This
will help prevent the onset of corrosion but cannot be guaranteed to stop
it.

9. Where mercury attack has started a patch/insertion repair will be

required. This will be carried out using the SRM for the aircraft, and it is
important that all the affected area is removed - with an extra allowance
for safety. If the corroded area exceeds the repair limits the panel must
be replaced. Corroded components should be changed and appropriately
labelled prior to returning to the manufacturers.

10. Record and sign for the work in the log book.
11. Call up for a further inspection to be carried out in the Tech log - say,
3 to 4 days later.

NOTE: When disposing of mercury and mercury products it is important

to follow local regulations. The mercury should be kept in clearly
marked glass or ceramic containers - sealed and annotated as
contaminated.

Contaminated clothing should be stored (dry) in plastic bags - also

labelled.

The mercury and contaminated material should end up at a

special site suitably equipped to be able to handle these products.
Contact your local authority/local waste contractor (a fee is likely).
 TROUBLE SHOOTING TECHNIQUES

Trouble Shooting or Fault Finding plays a major role in the professional life of
every aircraft engineer. The important thing in deciding how to trace a fault is
to find the fault and rectify it in the shortest possible time.

In general the fault will be indicated by a symptom. The problem being is that a
symptom may be the result of any one of a number of faults - but which one?
There could, of course, be more than one fault - they all have to be found and
rectified.

Example

Symptom: The landing gear does not move when selected up.

Possible faults: (list not exclusive or in any particular order).

1. Hydraulic pumps not running (if hydraulically operated).

2. No hydraulic fluid .
3. No electrical power (if selection is electric).
4. Ground locks left in.
5. Weight switches still set at "weight on'.
6. Selector valve malfunction.
7. Computer mal-function (if computer controlled).
8. Hydraulic components mal-functioning.

All possible faults have to be investigate and each one rectified, finally bringing
the aircraft/ system to a Tit for flight' condition.

Of course, after any rectification on a system, a full functional test should be

carried out as per the manual/AMM.

As an overview:

(a) Carry out a Visual' first. Most defects are found this way.
(b) Rectify the fault, after the visual or after using any special
procedures.
(c) Carry out a functional.
(b) Check reasons why fault occurred - take appropriate action.
(d) Record and sign for the work done.

In general, always start from the simple and obvious (like check the ground
locks are removed in the example above) and work through to the more
complex (like carry out a voltage output check to the selector valve). The fault
could be mechanical, electrical, or electronic.

It is so important to be logical.
Remember, when investigating a symptom look for a fault, find it, rectify it,
and move on to the next (more difficult) possibility. With every inspection there
are a possible 2 outcomes - the fault was confirmed (yes) - the fault was not
confirmed (no). In either case sort it out and move on to the next stage until all
possibilities are covered (in other words there should be no "loose ends").

Almost all systems/components are interrelated, so if something doesn't work

then it might be the system/component, or the electrical supply, or the
hydraulic supply, or a faulty instrument reading, or (on many aircraft) a
computer failure. So, initially, stand back, look at the aircraft as a whole and
ask yourself can the symptom affect any other part/system in the aircraft. If it
can the CAA would expect you to sort it out. (Remember it is your aircraft and
it will fly when you say so - with up to several hundred souls on board).

In general fault finding methods are divided into the following techniques.

* Probability technique.
* Visual technique.
* Functional structure technique/Theoretical structure technique.

Probability Technique. •

This method requires previous experience on the equipment and involves the
systematic rectification/changing of those parts in the system that are most
likely to be at fault. The previous experience of the engineer can be supported
by local records, summaries of defects, and Mean Time Between Failure
;
(MTBF) details. ~'' / '--,

This technique is more applicable to the experienced engineer. If he/she knows

this symptom is usually caused by a particular fault, and this has happened
many times before then there is a high probability that the present symptom is
caused by the same fault. If proved right then a speedy rectification can be
achieved without the sometimes lengthy process of a more logical approach.

Visual Technique.

Probably the most powerful tool that the engineer has. It might be assisted by
a magnifying glass; torch; remote viewing equipment; visual crack detection
methods; just a look around the aircraft, etc.

In the landing gear problem above a visual would show that, for example, there
is no hydraulic fluid, or the ground locks are still fitted, or the landing gear
micro switches are damaged. In this case, as with almost all other defects, the
Visual' is quick and inexpensive. If it does not work then not much has been
lost - a couple of man-hours or so - and in many cases not even that.
In any answer to a CAA question the words "Carry out a visual inspection"
means very little. You should specify what you are looking for and your answer
should include, as appropriate, the following:

"Carry out a visual inspection checking for: security if attachment; correct

locking; adjustable fitments in safety; moisture contamination; open circuits;
corrosion; cracks; correct lay of cables; correct oil level; leaks; damage; wear;
setting of C/Bs; serviceability of fuses; play; correct clearance; power available;
correct configuration of aircraft/equipment/computers; signs of
burning/overheating; fraying; bowing; fretting; panting; loose bolts/rivets;
clear drain holes; correct logos/labelling " As many of these as
appropriate should be specified - and more if necessary.

Any fault found should be rectified - and with a CAA answer each inspection
should produce a fault. Found and rectified you should pass on to the next
possibility.

Functional Structure Technique/Theoretical Structure Technique.

This involves checking the system out in a logical sequence, and requires a
knowledge of the system under investigation as well as any associated
systems. The Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) will be required and any
inbuilt self test systems would be used (BIT, BITE). Many electrical/electronic
systems (and computers) go through a self test programme automatically when
switched on.

In general when checking out one system the system can be checked from:

* FRONT-TO-REAR or
* REAR-TO-FRONT or
HALF SPLIT METHOD

These methods are particularly useful when checking continuity/ voltage output
in an electrical/cable system.

With the front-to-rear method an out-put is checked for voltage or current at

the beginning of the system and then at convenient points along the system
until a non-output is found. The defect is then between where the non-output
is and the previous 'good' output.

The rear-to-front method is similar to the above but starts at the 'end' of the
system.

In general the half-split method is to be preferred.

With the half split method the system is checked at the half way point to see if
there is an output - if there is then the second half has the fault - if there is no
output then the first half is at fault. Which ever half has the fault then it is
split in half and one half checked as before. This process is carried on until the
fault is found.

The Aircraft Manuals

Fault location almost always requires the use of the aircraft manual (AMM)
and the Fault Isolation Manual (FIM) and possibly other manuals as well. They
may be referred to at the beginning of the process - to check on component
location for example, or it may be used part way through the process - after
the visual on the landing gear problem above has proved unsuccessful, for
example.

The FIM is laid out in ATA 100 chapter numbers so the system/s can be
quickly located. In each chapter many symptoms are listed, and with each
symptom a list of possible causes/faults are given. The appropriate
rectification is stated together with drawings, test details etc. >

On-board Computers

These allow the aircraft engineer to extract status information on most of the
aircraft's .systems. They also allow for the testing of the systems once fault
rectification has been completed.

The flight-deck system may consists of:

* CRTs for the display of system faults.

* Control units to control the data on the screens.
* Printer to provide hard copy data.
* Data loading units - using floppy disc.
* Maintenance access units to allow testing of systems from the
flight deck.

A central maintenance computer is connected to all the BIT systems of all the
aircraft systems and will allow this data to be made available to the flight crew
and the engineers. It will also allow transmission of this data to the ground by
the aircraft Communications and Reporting System (VHF radio). In this way
information on in-flight defects can be available to the engineer before the
aircraft lands. This helps with defect evaluation and spares provisioning.

Data can be down loaded using a floppy disc, or a portable down-loader, and
data can be up loaded in the same way. Up loading to update system software
etc. Figure 14 shows the system as fitted to the A330.
Faults that are indicated on the CRT may be coded to give a level to the
severity of the fault. For example, level A requires immediate crew action, level
B may need immediate action, level M is for maintenance personnel etc.

Figure 15 shows part of a an EICAS (Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting

System) message table on the B757 which shows the fault, level, description
and fault code. The fault code is a numerical list of all the fault codes for that
chapter with the required steps to take to correct the problem.

Faults may be known by:

* Direct system observation - by aircrew or groundcrew.

* Messages on the on-board computer.
* BITE (Built In Test Equipment) messages.
Components and systems that have BITE may respond with ;any of the
following when the BITE button is pressed:

* A specific lamp or lamps illuminate.

* An alphanumeric code displays on a small screen on the
component.
* A group of words or symbols are displayed.

Many BITE tests are carried out on the components themselves. Some are
carried out in the flight deck using the on-board fault computer and Control
and Display Units.

CAA Questions

For CAA answer purposes it is best to use the visual technique followed by the
functional/structural technique, but do not forget the on-board maintenance
computer. Do read the CAA question carefully.

Never use a model answer. Use your own discretion as to how to tackle the
fault, for example:
QUESTION: An electrical component fails to operate when selected - detail the
checks to carry out to bring the aircraft to a serviceable state (appropriate to
the Bl and B2 engineers).

A model answer that would be marked down by the CAA:

Refer to the aircraft manual.

Carry out appropriate safety precautions.
Carry out a visual inspection of the system.
Carry out a bonding check.
Carry out a continuity check.
Carry out an insulation check.
Carry out a functional check.

This does not say how the fault is rectified. It is not what would happen in real
life. It has not solved one fault. The CAA would not give a pass mark for an
answer like this.

IMAGINE EACH FAULT FINDING QUESTION AS A PRACTICAL EXERCISE

WITH THE CAA EXAMINER STANDING BEHIND YOU - A good answer would
be something like:

With reference to the AMM ensure aircraft is correctly configured for system to
work eg, weight switches set, appropriate computers ON, power is ON to
aircraft, etc. Check on-board fault computer, if fitted, for fault and rectification
procedure. Carry out any stated procedure and retest. Carry out any BIT
checks. Change any component that fails the BIT test.

Re-select the switch to make sure that it was not "finger trouble".

Using the AMM if necessary, carry out a visual inspection and check that the
fuses/CBs are OK/set for that circuit. If they are blown or popped check the
reasons why and rectify. Reset C/Bs, replace fuses. Visually check wiring,
equipment, plugs etc for damage, open circuits, fluid contamination, security,
and signs of over heating. Replace any wires/equipment (with a taged safe
circuit) as necessary and re-check the system.

If corrosion found at earth return connections, dismantle, clean, apply

appropriate jointing compound, reassemble, and carry out a bonding test.
Tag and make the circuit safe. Disconnect the supply cable to
switch/equipment and carry out a continuity check/voltage output check. If
cable open circuit then change and re-test. If cable OK then replace
switch/component and re-test. If insulation is suspect then carry out an
insulation test, and replace cables if insulation below minimum value as stated
in the manual (say 5MQ min). Re-test. Re configure the aircraft if necessary.
Record the work done and clear the CRS.
NOTE:

The logical sequence - from the simple to the more complicated.

The many faults with the one symptom.
Each fault is found and rectified, the system retested and the checks continued
until all possibilities are covered.
When an inspection is carried out the faults to be looked for are specified.
Half split method not mentioned as there was no need - but could have gone in
with the insulation/continuity checks.
The job is not finished until the paperwork is completed.
 INSPECTION OF AIRCRAFT AFTER ABNORMAL EVENTS

Abnormal events would include:

* Heavy landing.
* Overweight landing.
* Lightning strikes.
* Flight through turbulent air.
* Runway skid causing damage.
* Aircraft ran onto soft ground.
* Aircraft landed with one or more blown tyres.

Most manuals would have a section on each one of these. We are going to deal
with the first three.

In all cases where the event has happened consult the AMM and if possible talk
to the aircrew.

Heavy Landing/Overweight Landing

In most cases the aircraft is brought into the hangar and placed on jacks but if
the problem is severe the aircraft may stop at the end of the runway as it may
be considered too badly damaged to taxi. It will have to be towed in after a
close inspection of the landing gear and the fitting of ground locks and the
removal of passengers etc (in severe cases they may have used the emergency
evacuation chutes - another job for you to sort out).

QUESTION: Can you describe the difference between a heavy landing and an
overweight landing? (5 mins)

ANSWER: Commercial aircraft are allowed to take-off heavier than they are
allowed to land. If, just after take-off, the aircraft has to land and
it lands heavier than its maximum permitted landing weight then
that is classed as an overweight landing. If an aircraft lands within
its maximum permitted weight but lands heavily then that is
classed as a heavy landing (Boeing call it a hard landing).

The pilot normally determines whether the aircraft has had a heavy landing or
not and most manuals will have an inspection schedule for a Heavy Landing
and an Overweight Landing - though the contents are similar.

Some inspections may be done in stages. For example, stage 1 inspections are
carried out to ascertain the extent of any damage, and stage 2 inspections are
a more detailed inspection of areas found damaged during the stage 1
inspection.
Heavy landing/overweight landing inspections will include looking for
conditions such as:

* Cracks.
* Structures pulled apart.
* Flaking paint.
* Distortion (twisting of parts).
* Bowing.
* Bent parts.
* Wrinkles or buckling of the structure.
* Damaged/distorted fastener holes.
* Loose fasteners or missing fasteners.
* Delaminations.
* Mis-alignment of parts.
* Interference of moving parts (lack of clearance).
* Discoloration (heat damage).
* Nicks, gouges, scratched areas and other damage.
* Leaks from fuel and hydraulic systems.
The sort of checks that are required after a heavy landing/overweight landing
are specified in the AMM and would include:

1. Landing Gear - Remove wheels to the wheel bay. Check gear for
security of attachment; oleos for bottoming and leaks - if bottomed,
change; surrounding structure for damage, cracks, loose and sheared
rivets and distortion. Check fuse pins, replace if necessary. Carry out
retraction test.

NOTE. Fuse pins are fitted to some landing gear and engine attachments (on
low slung engines) to allow the landing gear/engine to break away if the loads
become too severe.

2. Fuselage - Check in particular, areas where heavy items are attached,

for distortion, cracks, pulled or loose rivets, skin wrinkling, fractures.
Check wing, tailplane, fin, landing gear, and engine attachment areas.
Check transparent panels for cracking and crazing. Change/repair any
item found damaged.

3. Mainplanes - Similar to the structural part of item 2 above but include

checking for fuel leaks from integral tanks.

4. Tailplane and Fin - as for mainplanes (some tailplanes have fuel tanks).

5. Engine and Engine Bearers - Pay particular attention to the engine

bearers and structure. Check fuse pins and replace if necessary. Check
for bow, fractures, cracks, damage, distortion, and security of
attachment. Carry out a shock loading check on the engine to include
checking for free rotation and the oil for debris. Finish with an engine
run after an alignment check.

6. Flight and Engine Controls - Inspect control runs for damage and
security of attachment. Carry out a control rigging and functional check.

7. Systems - Check all systems, particularly for leaks. Check battery and
battery bay for security, and electrolyte spillage. Carry out functionals.
Check fire inertia switches, replace/reset and replace any fire bottles if
operated.

8. Check security of emergency passenger oxygen marks. Replace any that

have deployed. Check security of overhead luggage lockers.

9. General - Carry out an airframe rigging check and engine alignment

check. Carry out a pressurisation check.

10. Record all the work done and sign.

Additional Checks:

Helicopters - Check rotor blades, head and shaft, tail rotor and transmission,
for damage and security of attachment.

Flying Boats/Floatation Hulls - Check forward planing bottom, bow area, and
hull and floats for leaks.

FLIGHT THROUGH TURBULENT AIR

This would be similar to the checks outlined above but there would be little
emphasise on wheels, tyres and shock absorbers.
 LIGHTNING STRIKES

Lightning is a discharge of electricity between clouds, or clouds and ground, or

clouds and aircraft. Aircraft are bonded to ensure that the airframe and its
components are at the same electrical potential. Thus, when the aircraft is
struck by lightning all of the structure would reach the same potential
immediately with no internal discharges between components to produce
sparks.

Recognition

Information may come from the aircrew or the aircraft may show signs of a
strike or discharge or systems mal-function. Damage may show up as small
holes over a small or large area at the point of entry and at the point of
discharge. The damage may be accompanied by signs of burning or
discoloration. Blisters, discoloured paint, cracking and delamination may occur
on composite structures.

Signs of arcing and burning can also occur around the attachments of
supporting structure.

The metal skin of the aircraft is usually sufficient to give protection from the
entrance of electromagnetic energy into the electrical wires of the aircraft. The
skin will not prevent all the energy from getting through but it does keep it
down to an acceptable level. For HIRF (High Intensity Radiated Fields)
susceptible areas such as the flight deck and systems of fly-by-wire aircraft, -
cables, wiring and flight-deck areas are given additional protection in the form
of wire metal bonding and metal clad HIRF areas.

Inspection

1. Refer to the AMM.

2. Check the extremities of the aircraft for signs of damage, ie wing tips,
nose cone, tailplane, fin, tips of helicopter main rotor blades, radio
aerials. Repair/replace in accordance with the AMM/SRM.
3. Check flying control surfaces for signs of damage and their bearings for
tracking. Replace if damaged.
4. Check leading and trailing edges. If damaged replace/repair.
5. Check static wick dischargers for signs of burning. They are there for the
dispersal of static charges only (a few micro-amps) that occur due to the
movement of air and dust particles over the airframe. When a charge
from a lightning strike discharges through the wick the high current will
burn it off. Replace if damaged
6. Check bonding strips for burning (Bonding tester). Replace if damaged.
7. Check engine oil and chip detectors for signs of contamination.
Depending on the amount found, change oil, change filter, change
engine.
8. Check engine bearings for signs of tracking. If found change engine.
Functional Checks

Carry out a functional check on all systems in accordance with the AMM. Pay
particular attention to electrical/electronic/HIRF areas and systems such as:

1. Radio and radar equipment.

2. Instrument systems.
3. Computer systems.
4. Carry out a compass swing. If the aircraft has become magnetised
it must be de-magnetised using de-Gaussing coils.
5. Electrical circuits.
6. Electronic systems/computers.
7. Flying control systems/fly-by-wire control systems.

ADDITIONAL SPECIAL EVENTS

Additional special inspections may be included in the AMM to cover such

events as:

* Overspeed landings.
* Engine nacelle grounded on landing (low wing mounted engines).
* High speed aborted take-off.
* Brake seizure.
* Bird strike.
* Titanium contaminated with hot hydraulic fluid (skydrol).
* Mercury spillage.
* Volcanic ash (jet engines).
* Tail drag (nose wheel aircraft).
 DIS-ASSEMBLY AND RE-ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

To dismantle and/or reassemble a specific component/system/aircraft will

require a dedicated procedure which would normally be specified in the
component manual or the AMM.

The following is a general approach which gives an overview to the procedures

to be followed.

Whether working on a system or a component the job may be split into 3

areas:

* Preparation
* Safety
* The task in hand

Preparation

1. The person doing the job should have the appropriate skills/
training/qualifications. And, for some tasks, the correct number of
qualified people should be available. :
2. The appropriate manuals/instruction sheets/work sheets should
be available.
3. The correct hangarage/workshop/bench facilities should be
l
available. ''. "
4. .. The correct equipment should be available. It may include slings;
hoists; special tools; special test sets/test rigs; a standard tool kit.

Safety

All systems/components should be made safe before work commences. This

will include:

* Electrical equipment. Any electrical circuits that are to be worked

on should have their fuses taken out or the circuit breakers
tripped. This should be indicated by a secure tag at the fuse or
C/B position to say that the circuit is made safe and the fuse or
C/B should not be refitted.
* Batteries/battery circuits. The battery should be disconnected.
* Capacitive type equipment. Components that contain capacitors
such as high energy ignition units fitted to jet engines should be
allowed to stand without power supply for the recommended
period as stated on the unit/in the manual before any work is
attempted. Remember, these can store enough charge to be lethal
if access is gained before the time stated.
 * Pressurised systems/components. Pressure must be released from
any system where work is to be carried out. This includes
pneumatic and hydraulic systems. The manual will indicate how
the pressure is to be released. The same applies to components
such as oleos (shock absorbers), hydraulic accumulators, gas
bottles (air, nitrogen etc), wheel and tyre assemblies.
* Items containing liquids, which may be harmful chemicals etc.
This category includes hydraulic fluids, battery electrolytes, engine
oils, toilet system fluids, engine fuels, coolants etc. These fluids
can be harmful if in contact with the skin, eyes or ingested by
mouth. They should be drained carefully into correctly labelled
containers and protective clothing warn. Disposal or re-use will
depend on local regulations. If in doubt do not re-use.
* Heavy items. The movement of heavy items needs pre-planning -
the correct number of personnel, correct lifting equipment, access
for equipment, etc.

COMPONENT REMOVAL FROM THE AIRCRAFT

For some components the aircraft may have to be jacked (some stress panels,
landing gear, wheels and the retraction mechanism, for example). For system
components the system must be made safe (see above).

If the component is to be replaced, in general:

1. Check the 'new' component for serviceability, correct part number,

serial number etc and check it against its documentation (JAA
form 1 etc). Check the Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC).
2. Remove the 'old' component, make safe, label, and return to
stores.
3. Fit the 'new' component and test the system iaw the AMM.
.4. Check if there is any avoidable reason that caused the event - to
see if it can be prevented happening again.
5. Record all the work done and sign. Details should be in the
appropriate log book, eg:

* Airframe log book - airframe parts, components, engine

change, propeller change, etc.
* Engine log book - any work done on the engine, propeller
change, engine change.
* Propeller log book - VP propeller change, any work carried
out on the propeller, engine change.

Any item to be removed and replaced on the aircraft for a period of time should
be correctly labelled and placed on its support trolley (like an engine) or placed
in a storage rack. The label should have on it the aircraft registration and date
of removal.
Any small parts removed (nuts, bolts, washers etc) should be placed in a bag
and attached to the main component.

Any small parts removed which are not part of a larger assembly, should be
placed in a labelled bag and put on the storage rack. In some hangars there is
a separate spares storage rack for each aircraft.

All blanks should be fitted to system connections both on the aircraft and on
the component. Blanks should have warning tags attached.

COMPONENT DISMANTLING AND RE-ASSEMBLING

In general re-assembly is the reverse of dismantling. To dismantle a

component proceed as follows:

1. Carry out the preparation checks as outlined above.

2. Observe the appropriate safety precautions - see above.
3. Dismantle as follows:

3.1 For riveted up items the rivets are removed by the use of a
drill the same size as the hole. The rivet head is drilled off
and the shank is punched out. Blind rivets might need a
modified procedure. :
3.2 For welded items the only way is to use welding equipment
to re-melt the weld to separate the parts.
3.3 For adhesive bonded items the only technique is to destroy
the bond, which will damage the two joined parts.
3.4 For clamped together parts - flanged pipe "..couplings etc -
unscrew the clamp securing nuts to loosen the clamp - then
remove.
3.5 For items secured with taper pins, remove the taper pin
securing device and tap the pin out by tapping the small end
lightly with a hammer. Securing devices: nuts - unscrew;
bent over legs - straighten with pliers; peened - remove
peening carefully with a file or spot miller.
3.6 Screws, bolts into captive nuts. Remove using the correct
size and type of screwdriver or correct spanner/socket. Most
have a right-hand thread which means undoing by turning
anti-clockwise. Remember to remove any locking devises
first - such as locking wire, split pins, cotter pins, locking
plates, tab washers etc.
3.7 Nuts. Similar to above.
3.8 Studs. Use a stud insertion and removal tool.
3.9 Quick release fasteners. These vary in design and are
released in different ways — check the AMM/ component
manual.
 3.10 Circlips. Use special circlip pliers. Internal circlips are
removed by reducing their diameter, external circlips are
removed by expanding outwards.
3.11 Push fit items - such as PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards).
These are removed by gently applying hand pressure to pull
the board from its case. (Remember to switch off power,
wear a body bonding band and ensure all other items are
disconnected). Push fit items such as bearings will need a
bearing press.

4. Any removed fasteners that can be reused, place in a secure bag

and label. If the main component is a rotating balanced
component then removed items must be numbered and re-fitted
back to the same location they came out of.
5. Parts that cannot be reused or are unserviceable should be
replaced.
6. Once all securing items are removed the first dismantled part from
the component can be eased away.

Place all parts in order, bag and label if necessary. Protect from dust and the
possibility of corrosion/deterioration.

Carry out any inspection/modification/tests as necessary. Replace any items

that fail any inspections/tests and any that might deteriorate in the
foreseeable future such as seals, locking devices etc.

Assembly

As stated above it is usually in the reverse order of dismantling, but in general

the following applies (the item numbers are related to those above):

3.1 New rivets are used after the joint is cleaned and jointing
compound is used (check the SRM - Structure Repair Manual).
They may have to be oversize rivets due to hole enlargement -
check that this is possible.
3.2 There is usually not enough material left to re-weld the joint, so
additional material will be required in the form of an insertion or
the fitting of a new panel or panels by welding or some other
approved means.
3.3 New material will have to be found in the form of an insert or new
panels. These may be fitted by adhesive bonding, bolting, riveting
etc - depending on the manual.
3.4 Clamps can be re-fitted provided they are serviceable and
clamping nuts torque loaded whilst gently tapping the assembly
lightly with a hammer to help the clamp 'settle'. The clamping nuts
will need locking (split pins, lock wire etc).
 3.5 Taper pins are usually replaced. The hole might need re-reaming
with a taper reamer and the next larger taper pin fitted - check the
manual. Lock into position by: opening the legs if a spilt taper pin;
fitting a nut (which is usually peened afterwards); peening the
small end of the taper pin.
3.6 Screws, nuts, bolts, captive nuts, etc are replaced if necessary.
Threads are lubricated, left dry, or coated with a locking
compound, then tightened as per the manual. Then torque loaded
if required and locked using locking wire, split pins (cotter pins)
etc. Screwdrivers, spanners, sockets etc are used. Star washers
are replaced. Spring washers are replaced if they have lost their
springiness and/or lost their sharp edge top or bottom.
3.7 As 3.6
3.8 Similar to 3.6 above but fitment is maybe by the use of two nuts
locked to each other on the protruding end (turning down on the
top nut), or the use of a stud box, or using a stud insertion and
removal tool.
3.9 Quick release fasteners are connected in reverse to their
disconnection procedure. Replace if damaged.
3.10 Wire circlips should be replaced, others can be reused provided
they are undamaged and retain their springiness.
3.11 Push fit items are fitted in reverse order to removal.

Testing : \ . : •

After assembly the component is always tested. This can include ^any one, or -
more, of the following depending on the component and, of course, the
manual. ~ "'

* Bonding, continuity, insulation tests - electrical/electronic

equipment.
* BIT tests - various components.
* Capacity test - batteries.
* Leakage tests - hydraulic components, pneumatic components,
batteries.
* Functional tests to include correct displays, correct inputs and
outputs, movement (range, sense, speed - rpm cm/min - etc),
sound, vision (speakers/CRT screens).
* Balance - for balanced rotating components etc.

For more information regarding nuts, locking devices, torque loading, etc you
should read the book/s in this series on Tools and Locking Devices.