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Unit 1 : Introduction

1) Define cartography. Write in short about the history of cartography?

 The science of preparing all types of maps and chart and includes every operation from original
survey to final final printing of copies is cartography.it was derived from two Greek Words CARTE
(An empty plane paper to write or to draw) and GRAPHINE (To draw with mathematical accuracy).

History of Cartography

 Oldest map found in clay table (nearly 5000 years) showing mountain, water bodies and other
geographic feature in Mesopotamia.

 With the invention of chronometer for keeping accurate time theodolite, latitude and longitude
were accurately determined in 17th century.

 The development of photography and application of etching techniques where major

technological development in cartography.

 Lithographic and wax engraver developed in the 19th century.

 In 1571, theodolite developed and map accuracy increased due to accurate surveying.

2) Write important of cartography in mapping sector.

 Integration of mapping sciences, remote sensing, photogrammetry surveying.

 Reduction of tedium of production.

 Popularity of computer graphicsvizn.

 Flexibility in design experimental maps.

 Updates/Easier revision (minor)

 Less training required to make maps.

3) Scope and uses of cartography

 The use of maps as research tools.

 The study of maps as historical documents and works of art.

 Promoting standard system of data capturing, storing, processing and visualization in different
mapping sciences like geodesy surveying photogrammetry.

4) Why cartography is useful in surveying.

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 Cartography is useful in surveying because the collect, analyze, and interpret both spatial data such
as latitude, longitude, elevation and distance and non-spatial data such as population, density, land
use patterns, annual precipitation levels and demographic characteristic. Their maps may give both
physical and social characteristics of the land.

Unit 2 : Map

1) Explain the different type of Map.

 The different types of maps are:

i. Reference map

 Maps where cities and towns are named, major transport routes are included along with natural
features like river and lakes etc. are general reference map. These maps are the maps that are ideal
for helping you to get to your destination they trend to be easy to read and include stress and
tourist maps.

ii. Topographical map

 Topographic maps stand out from the other offering by showing detailed evaluation with contour
lines helping to map the land scale.

iii. Thematic map

 Rather than attemping to map the landscape or help to showing you where to go, thematic maps
are designed intead to hight light information on specific topic, it could be population density or
wether.

iv. Navigation map

 Navigation charts combine aspects of topographic, general reference and thematic map and are
produced as navigation for ships, boats and aircroft.

Charts are typically produced by government mapping agencies.

 Marine navigation charts

 Country’s NAVY and civil deference bodies

 Air navigation chart

 Country’s Air force for civilian air traffic control and requlation.

v. Cadastral map

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 The map showing parcel and parcel number for property mapping are the cadastral maps. Cadastral
map which provides information about the real property within the specific area. E.g. map of any
village including boundaries of all parcels.

2) Classification of map.

 The classification of maps are:

i. Based on purpose of map

 Topographical map

 The map showing topographical features including natural and manmade feature detail are
topographical map, usually by means of control line.

 Cadastral map

 The map showing parcel and parcel number for property mapping are cadastral map. Cadastral map
is map which provide information about real property within the specific area.

 Aeronautical map

 The map showing detail required for flying and airplane are an aeronautical charts. It includes the
distance and bearing from one destination to other and some features which are the norms of
International Charter Aviation Organization (ICAO). Before using the charts by the pilots, it must get
approval from ICAO.

 Thematic map

 It map is prepared to include the information related with a them is a thematic map. So there could
be many varieties of thematic maps. Some of them are discussed.

- Geological map

- Atlas

- Tourist map

- Land map

ii. Based on the scale of map

 Large scale map

 Map scale larger than 1:10000 are large scale maps. These maps are used for implementation or
project work.

 Medium scale map

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 Scale between 1:10000 and 1:50000 are medium scale map. These maps are used for study and
analyze for the project.

 Small scale map

 Maps smaller than 1:50000 are smaller scale map. These maps are used for study and analyze for
the development or project concept. Must of the thematic map are prepared in small scale.

iii. Based on the originality of map / construction map

 Original map

 It is map is prepared either by surveying the details and features on the ground or compiled from an
aerial photograph or satellite data and the terrain information are collect on ground, the map is an
original map. These maps are will be prepared at larger or medium scale. e.g topographic, cadastral
map.

 Derived map

 The map is prepared by compiling existing map in which features will be simplified and generalized
is a derived map will be smaller scale map. E.g district map.

iv. Based on the data

 Planematric map

 Planemetric maps are those maps prepared based on 2D data. These types of map don’t have height
information. E.g cadastral map of Nepal.

 Altimetic map

 Altimetric map are those maps having height information. E.g , topographical maps , Engineering
maps.

v. Based on use of technology

 Analogue map

 Analogue maps are prepared physical maps ( hard copy maps) prepared using analogue instruments.

 Digital map

 Digital maps are those maps prepared on digital device. Those are prepared directly by capturing
digital data (satellite image) or conversion of analogue maps by scaning and digitization process.

vi. Based on use of representation

 Real map

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 A real map is a cartographic product which can be handled physically or can be touched is real map.
E.g, paper map, plastic map

 Virtual map

 It is the process by which a collection at data is compiled a virtual image and those maps cannot be
touched is virtual map. It is also called digital mapping or digital cartography.

3) What do you understand by map scale? Explain enlargement and reduction of map.

 Map scale:- map scale refers to the relationship (or ratio) between distance on map and the
corresponding distance on ground.
𝑚𝑎𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Map scale = 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Enlargement and Reduction of map

 Maps are prepared either from the existing map or from the survey data. Maps produced can be of
any scale as per the current necessity. And according the need and demand scale of map can be
changed and can be done in following different ways;

i. Same scale

ii. Enlarge scale

iii. Reduction scale

𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
Enlargement or Reduction percentage of new scale= 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑥100%

4) List out the method of enlargement and reduction of map scale. Which among them is the most
accurate one? Give your view.

 The method of enlargement and reduction of map scales are:

a) Proportional compass

 It is an instrument based on the principle of similar triangle and is used for either reduction or
enlargement of the map. It is a mechanical method.

b) Pantograph

 It is an instrument for reproduction of derived map either on same, enlarged or reduced scale. This
also works on the principle of similar triangle and is also a mechanical method of map reproduction.

c) Ediograph

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 It is the advanced form of pantograph with higher accuracy and reliability. Being comparatively
expensive than pantograph it is merely used in practice. It too follows the same principle as
pantogrph.

d) Photographic method

 Photographic method is used to produce same enlarged and reduced scale map. It uses lens
formula. It uses process camera for the scale transformation. As the process camera uses optical
method, this process is said to be based on the principle of optice.

5) What is semiology? Explain the map elements to be included in any well-presented map.

 Semiology is the study of signs and symbols used in cartography map is semiology cartographic
semiology deals with a theory of cartographic symbols and their uses semiology is a broad concept
and can be sub-divided into :

- Map symbolization

- Sign process

- Context and marginal notes

The map elements are:

 Map scale

 A map scale is a ratio that relates a unit of measure on a map to same number at the same unit of
measure on the earth surface.

 Title

 Generally map refers to its tittle. Some o the example are as follows:

- On a cadastral or road map, it is most likely the name of the region or area.

 Authors

 The name of the organization or person who made the map should be indicted in the map.

 Date

 Always include when the map was created or the date of the original date.

 Legends

 Explain the symbol on the map. All the symbols must be clear and easily readable.

 Orientation

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 Generally maps are drawn with the North towards the top of the map and South towards the
bottom.

 Grid/Graticules

 It includes latitude/ longitude or grid as per the map layout.

6) How the map symbols are grouped and give one example for each group?

 Symbols may be grouped as:

 Man made and cultural features such as road, building, power line etc.

 Hydrographic features such as canal, well, river, pond etc.

 Relief features such as rock, mountain, pass, peak, land slide etc.

 Vegetation features such as cultivation, forest, swamp, tree, grass etc.

7) Write about various types of symbols used in a printed map.

 The types of symbol used in printed map are:

i. On the basis of dimension

- Point symbol

- Line symbol

- Area symbol

ii. On the basis of theme

- Qualitative symbol

- Quantitative symbol

iii. On the basis of shape

- Pictorial/descriptive/iconic symbol

- Geometric/abstract symbol

- Letter/number/text symbol

8) Large scale map is better for visualization then small scale map, why.

 A large scale map is one in which a given part of the Earth is represented by a large area on the map.
Large scale maps generally show more detail than small scale maps because at a large scale there is

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more space on the map in which to show features. Large scale maps are typically used to show site
plans, local areas, neighborhoods, towns etc. So large scale map is better for small scale map.

9) Define the different element of topographic map.

 The main elements of topographical map

 The scale that has been used

 The direction of geographic north

 GPS

 The direction of magnetic north

 All symbols used

 Relationship that exists with other planes

 Author of the map or organization that created it

 Year of elaboration

10) What are the basic rules for name placement in a map.

 Name should be place covering minimum detail area. It must be clear and easily readable.

 No two names overlap each other.

 Place name are places parallel to the horizontal grid line and preferably on the upper right corner of
the feature.

 For straight linear feature the name are places above or below the detail and must be parallel to the
horizontal grid line and for curve linear features the name is placed parallel to the curved line.

 For the feature having area, either spread the alphabets of the name to cover the area or place the
name in more than one places.

11) Write short notes

a) Properties of symbol

 The properties of symbol are :

 Small and simple

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 Resemble to its reality

 Easy to recognize (self-explanatory)

 Easy to draw

b) Interactive web maps

 Companies with their own websites often seek simple but professional maps to assist their clients in
finding their locations and we can provide not just a physical map but also an interactive web map.

 Interactive maps or web mapping allows you to embed a map direct into your webpage. It helps to
keep your visitors engaged and can demonstrate information relevant to your company in several
ways:

 Information that can be switched on/off depending on user’s points of interest

 The points of interest can show links, pictures or videos about that area

 Customizable reference points

 Completely branded to your company colors

c) Typography

 Typography is the art of arranging letters and text in a way that makes the copy legible, clear and
visually appealing to the reader. The arrangement of type involves selecting typeface, point sizes,
line lengths, line spacing, and letter spacing, as well as adjusting the space between pair of letters.
The term typography is also applied to the style, arrangement, and appearance of the letters,
numbers and symbols created by the process.

12) Convert 1:126270 to engineers scale.

Solution:-

1 ∶ 126270

𝑜𝑟, 1𝑐𝑚 = 126270 𝑐𝑚

126270 126270
𝑜𝑟, 1 𝑐𝑚 = 100×1000
𝑘𝑚 = 100000
𝑘𝑚 = 1.2627 𝑘𝑚

∴ 1 𝑐𝑚 = 1.2627 𝑘𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

13) A rectangular plot of land 20cm length in map at scale 1:2500. Calculate the ground area in hector
and perimeter having 20cm width in map at scale 1:1250.

Solution:-

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First case second case

Length of map = 20 cm Width of map = 20 cm

Scale = 1 : 2500 Scale = 1 : 1250

Now, 1 𝑐𝑚 = 2500 𝑐𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑤, 1 𝑐𝑚 = 1250 𝑐𝑚

𝑜𝑟, 1 𝑐𝑚 = 25 𝑚 𝑜𝑟, 1 𝑐𝑚 = 12.50 𝑚

𝑜𝑟, 20 𝑐𝑚 = 25 × 20 𝑚 = 500 𝑚 𝑜𝑟, 20 𝑐𝑚 = 12.50 × 20 𝑚 = 250 𝑚

∴ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑(𝑙) = 500 𝑚 ∴ 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 (𝑏) = 250 𝑚

125000
∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 𝑙 × 𝑏 = 500 × 250 𝑚 2 = 125000 𝑚 2 = ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 12.5 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
10000

∴ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2(𝑙 + 𝑏) = 2(500 + 250) = 2 × 750 = 1500 𝑚 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

14) Calculate the ground area coverage of the map in hectors for cadastral map of scale 1:1250, where
the map area is 625𝒄𝒎𝟐.

Solution:
1
𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 1 ∶ 1250 = 1250

𝑀𝑎𝑝 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 625 𝑚 2

𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = ?

𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡,
𝑚𝑎𝑝 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
(𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒)2 = 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑚𝑎𝑝 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 625 𝑐𝑚 2

𝑜𝑟, 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒)2
= 1 2 = 625 × (1250)2 = 976562500 𝑐𝑚 2
( )
1250

976562500 976562500
= 𝑚2 = ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 9.765 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
100×100 100×100×10000

15) What will be the magnification in percentage of reduction to convert a map of scale form 1:2000
to 1:5000?

Solution:

𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 1 ∶ 2000

𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 1 ∶ 5000

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1
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 5000 2000
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙
× 100% = 1 × 100% = 5000
× 100% = 40% .
2000

16) If the size of a plot in a map scale 1:5000 is 12cm×25cm. then what is the size of the plot in the
ground?

Solution:

12 𝑐𝑚 × 25𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 1 ∶ 5000

𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 = (12 × 5000)𝑐𝑚 × (25 × 5000)𝑐𝑚 = 60000𝑐𝑚 × 125000𝑐𝑚

60000 125000 750000
= 100
𝑚× 100
𝑚 = 600𝑚 × 1250𝑚 = 750000𝑚 2 = 10000
ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 75 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

17) In an object is set at 1.0m n camera to enlarge by 25%. What will be the image distance?

Solution:

𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝜇) = 1 𝑚

𝐸𝑛𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒/𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑀) = 25%

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑣) =?

𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡,
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

25 1
= 25% × 1 𝑚 = × 1 𝑚 = × 1 × 100 𝑐𝑚 = 25 𝑐𝑚 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
100 4

Unit 3 : Branch of Cartography

1) What map compilation?

 The process of assembling, evaluating and interpreting cartographic measurements and materials in
order to produce a new map.

 Compilation involves use of many maps of different scales of different projection and different
accuracies to arrive at the desired information.

2) Explain the various steps of map compilation.

 The steps of map compilation are:

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i. Collection and evaluation of source material or data

 At first all required data has to be corrected which may be in eigher graphical or statistical form.
Nature of them could be:

 Existing maps on different scale line map or photo map.

 Photogrammetry plotted sheets along with the verified aerial photos or rectified photo with or
without contours on them.

 Ortho-rectified satellite data with supplement data from field.

ii. Map compilation

 Compilation involves use of many maps of different scales of different projection and different
accuracies to arrive at the desired information.

 Assembling various graphical information to a map from different sources in a scientific way.

 Objective to make map total informative.

 In general, the rule for compilation is always to work from large scale to smaller scale.

iii. Map design

 Map being a tool of graphical communication, purpose or scope of map and users requirement need
to be focused.

 Clarity and legibility along with the color contrast to enhance visibility are very important.

 Things to be considered by cartographic during map design are:

 Lettering design

 Symbol design

 Color design

 Map layout design (management)

iv. Map construction

 Construction of map in its final form can use different methods for producing lines, lettering and
images.

 The selection of procedure depends on the finally requirement, the standard of necessity and
available resources and materials.

 Drawing and scribing are most commonly used method for making maps.

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v. Editing

 Editing or checking and correcting a map after compilation of cartographic work is compolsary
before the map is printed.

 It is better to prepare a check list for all items drawn or scribed before the process of checking.

 During the checking necessary correction has to be made and general items need to be checked are:

 Correctness of symbols as per specification, drawing or scribing heading marginal items, scales
etc.

 Quality of work

 Lettering, whether the name have been correctly spelled or not.

3) Method of compilation.

i. Base map

 Topographical map are considered as base map and are produced in scale 1:25000 and 1:50000 by
survey department.

 The first manuscript of base map is produced by photogrammetry method with the help of aerial,
photographs.

 The control points for mapping were established by aerial triangulation method based on the
existing higher order ground control points. These first manuscripts are called originals.

ii. Derived map

 The map is derived from base map and always in smaller scale than base map.

 Usually the derived map are prepared in medium or small scale and smaller than base map.

 Derived map is the combination of homogenous and heterogenous map.

 Following steps are involve to produce derived map:

 Collection of source material of area of interest from different sources.

 Evaluation and selection of data.

 Generalization: reduction, scale variation.

 Cartography production.

iii. Thematic map (special purpose map)

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 The process of preparation of thematic map is a follows:

 Collection of exiting and derived maps.

 Selection of the maps and preparation of base.

 Collection of data of the them to be prepared.

 Incorporate the data into the base using appropriate technique.

 Cartography production to produce thematic map.

4) Draw workflow diagram for production of topographic map.

 The workflow diagram for production of topographic map are

Aerial survey mission Aerial photo processing and production Control survey

Field verification and name collection Aerial triangulation for control expensive

Planimetric and altimetric manuscript production by photogrammetry method

Cartographic process for map production and reproduction

Plate making and printing in the press

 Aerial photography mission

 Flight planning, aerial survey, annotation, preparation of photo index.

 Aerial photo production

 Aerial photo negative processing production of positive and diapositive copies

 Control survey

 Collection of existing higher order control points, densification of control network and
establishment of photo control points.

 Photogrammetry

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 Performs aerial triangulation for establishment of the points and preparation of manuscripts to
produce plannimetric and altimetric map.

 Field work

 Carry out field verification of the planimetric and altimetric map, name collection.

 Cartography production

 Map design, layout design and production of plane making.

 Printing

 Plate making and mass printing.

Unit 4 : Graphic Variables

1) Define visual variables. Describe about the types of graphic variables.

OR,

List out Bertin’s visual variables used in Cartography. Also, state the case of their choice with
appropriate examples.

 Visual variables : A visual variable, in cartographic design, graphic design, and data visualization, is
an aspect of a graphical object that can visually differentiate it from other objects, and can be
controlled during the design process.

Types of graphic variables

i. Size

 Variations in the length, area or volume of a symbol (e.g, graduated circles) denote different
quantities of data.

ii. Shape

 The appearance or form of a symbol; different shapes (e.g, circles, squares, triangles) denote
different categories of data.

iii. Value

 Light or dark variations of a single hue (e.g., light red-medium red-dark red) denote different
quantities of data. Sometimes called Lightness and Brightness.

iv. Color hue

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 The dominant wavelength of visible light in the electromagnetic spectrum (red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo, violet); different hues can denote categorical or numerical difference in the
data.

v. Orientation

 The direction or angle of rotation of an entire map symbol or the individual marks that make up the
map symbol. Can denote categorical or numerical difference.

vi. Saturation

 The intensity of the single hue. Fully saturated hues appear vivid, and fully desaturated hues appear
muted. Denotes ordinal-level data or uncertainty in data. Sometimes called Intensity or Chroma.

2) Importance of visual variables.

 Visual variables is important as a step toward knowing how those different types of map work and
knowing how your choice of symbols implies or doesn’t imply patterns, groups, order and quantity.

 It is important of represent a particular type of attribute data.

 It is important of choice of color, shape, size, symbols etc.

3) Explain the various stages to visualize an object from a map.

 There are two stage to visualize an object from a map are:

 1st stage :- here the analyst search for the pattern in visual input and distinguish two type of pattern
matches; one recognized if expected and next noticed it unexpected pattern is detected.

 2nd stage:- after the first stage, either recognizing analyst enters second stage which is also called
confirmatory stage. At this stage, judgment made before is carefully examined to identity errors or
to explain a pattern.

4) What are the three aspects of pattern to be considered in visual variables?

 One recognized if expected

 Noticed if unexpected pattern is detected

 Judgment made before is carefully examined to identify error or explain a pattern

Unit 5 : Map Projection

1) What are the properties of Modified Universal Transverse Mercator Projection System?

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 Central meridian and the equator are considered as reference axes of coordinate system as they are
projection as straight lines.

 Consists of 120 zones each of 3° longitude.

 Scale factor at the central meridian = 0.9999

 False easting central meridian = 500000m

 False northing at the equator is 0m.

 Distortion at the central meridian is -10 cm per km.

2) What are the importance of MUTM for using Nepal.

 Nepal lies in UTM zone between 44 and 45. Due to greater expansion in east-west direction of Nepal
survey Department of Nepal uses MUTM for increasing accuracy in cadastral survey. Because of this
reason, MUTM is used as projection. In this projection there are 120 zones each of 3° longitude.

3) Explain the Modified Universal Transverse Mercator (MUTM) projection.

OR,

Write in brief about the projection system that as been used by Nepal.

 3° zone with central meridian 81°𝐸, 84°𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 87°𝐸 longitude.

 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 0.9999 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛.

 Cylindrical, transverse and secant position.

 +18 cm for the distance of 1km at the edge of zone.

4) What are the properties of Universal Transverse Map projection system?

OR,

What are the properties of Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection?

 The properties of UTM are:

 The equator and the central meridian of each zone are projected as a straight line. Thus these two
straight lines are considered as the two axes of the grid system in each zone.

 To avoid negative coordinates, central meridian of each zone are given false easting of 500000m and
for grid in southern hemisphere, the central meridian is given a false northing value of 10000000m.

 Meridians other than central meridians are projected slightly curved as it is a conformal projection,
in order to make meridian and parallels at right angle, the parallels are also slightly curved.

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 Points on the earth surface where the cylinder cuts the globe i.e. 1°49′ east and west of central
meridian of the zone, there is no distortion at all and scale factor is defined 1.000.

 The scale factor at the central meridian is 0.99960, thus it is reduced on a map. This means there is
distortion of -0.40m per 1 km in the central meridian.

5) What are the longitude values of the bounding lines for the zone with 𝟖𝟒°𝑬 as a central meridian
in Modified Universal Transverse Mercator (MUTM) projection?

 Nepal is divided into 3 zones covering an area of 3° longitudes. Then each zone is projected
separately in transverse position of cylinder so that their corresponding central meridian becomes
81°, 84° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 87°𝐸 of Greenwich. Coincidence of the cylinder is kept in scant position. It is a
conformal and convention projection. After projection, he cylinder is cut parallel to its axis through
north t south and rolled open so that it forms a plane.

6) UTM is the globally used projection system for topographical mapping.

 The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) is a system of map projection that is used worldwide for
large-scale topographic mapping. It is derived from the Transverse Mercator Projection (also known
as Gauss-Kruger or Gauss conformal projection). UTM uses a transverse cylinder secant to the
horizontal reference surface.

7) Define scale factor in map projection and write the formula of scale factor.

 Scale factor is a unit less value applied to the center point or line of a map projection. The
distortions increase as the distance from the central point of the projection increases.

𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑝𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

8) How do you classify the map projection based on the basis of mode of generation?

 The classify the map projection based on the basis of mode of generation are:

i. Geometric projection

 This projection of also called perspective projection or central projection. This projection is based on
the idea of projecting a surface on a developable surface by means of projecting light from the
projection center or a view point.

ii. Semi-geometric projection

 This projection is also called non-perspective projection. This projection is obtained by modification
of perspective projection mathematically in order to preserve a particular cartographic property.

iii. Non-geometric projection

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 This projection is also called mathematical or conventional projection. This projection is based
entirely on mathematical relations and the concept of perspective is totally avoided.

9) What is map projection?

 A map projection is a way to show a drawing of the earth on a flat surface. All flat maps have
distortion, so we use different map projections to meet different needs.

 A map is representation of all or part of the earth drawn on a flat surface at a specific scale.

10) Explain briefly the factors to be considered for map projection.

 The factor to be considered for map projection are:

 On the basis of location

 Low latitude area :- Cylindrical

 Middle latitude area :- Conical

 Polar area :- Azimuthal

 On the basis of general shape of geographic area

 Circular area :- Azimuthal

 Rectangular area :- Cylindrical

 Triangle area :- Conical

 On the basis of purpose of map

 Topographical mapping :- conformal

 Thematic mapping :- equivalent

 Air and sea navigation :- equidistance

11) Explain the cartographic properties that preserve in map projection.

OR,

Classify map projection on the basis of the properties being preserved.

Answer:-

 The classification of map projection on the basis of the properties being preserved are:

i. Conformal projection

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 Conformal projection preserve local shape and angle.

 The Mercator is an example of a conformal cylindrical projection.

 May be useful when we are interested in shape and angle. E.g., topographic mapping.

ii. Equivalent projection

 Equal area projection preserve the area of displayed features.

 The lambert cylindrical equal area projection as an example of an equivalent cylindrical projection.

 Useful for thematic mapping such as population density map, border survey.

iii. Equidistance projection

 Equidistance map preserve the distance between certain points.

 The plat carree projection as an example of an equidistance projection.

 This projection is preffered for air and sea navigation charts. E.g., missile distance.

12) What are the criteria to be considered for choice of projection? List them with examples.

 The ideal map projection for any country would be a cylindrical, conical or Azimuthal projection,
depending on the country’s shape, with a secant projection on plane location along the country
main axis.

 Cylindrical :- large rectangular area

 Conical :- medium size triangular area

 Azimuthal :- small circular area

Unit 7 : Generalization

1) What do you understand by exaggeration and displacement?

 Exaggeration

 Exaggeration is the technique of enlarging the representation of feature on the map from its true
scale for the purpose of legibility or to give exact emphasis. It is well known about the limitation of
the minimum size of a detail which is reading visible by human eye on the map. For example, 0.3mm
and 0.15mm is the smaller dimension we can use for point symbol and the linear feature. This
means that any feature with dimension less than this are to be exaggeration.

 Displacement

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 Features exaggerated occupy more space on the map surface which might cause overlap between
the features. In order to avoid the overlap it is necessary to displace one or other of the adjacent
features.

In most case, the rule takes a form of priority list features will be listed according to its priority
so that the feature in the top list displaces the features in the lower list.

2) Explain different methods for map generalization.

 Two method of map generalization are:

i. Manual method

 Usually originals are prepared at large scale than final map and recommended that the scale of
originals be twice that of map.

The reasons are:

 Small errors in original will be reduced by the reduction process.

 It is easier to prepare originals in large scale.

 Also easier for the draftman to understands.

ii. Automation method

 As generalization process is subjective, it cannot be defined be precise term so it is hard to design a

completely accurate automated process but with development inefficient computer processing for
encouraging and satisfactory input for generalization is digital data of maps. In present, there is no
problem with instrumentation, software and hardware but due to complex nature of data, it is really
challenging task to device a suitable program for automation generalization.

3) Write down some of the directives for generalization of a map.

 some factors need to be considered as broad directives in the process of generalization.

i. Purpose and scale of the map

 It should be considered that features that is not relevant to map purpose should not be included but
one that is relevant should not be omitted. This is always guided by the purpose of the map.
Similarly, degree of simplification should also dependent on purpose. For example, small rivulets
except major rivers might be omitted on road map but not in a topographic map.

ii. Essential characteristic of the area

 Produced map should give the close resemblance of the area regardless of scale which can be
recognized by certain characteristic of the area.

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iii. Consistency in the treatment

 Degree of generalization must be same throughout the map. At the same time through it is difficult
but should treat consistently over a map series. Generalization of the area with higher detail and
less generalization of the area with less detail, it cause misleading impression of the terrain.

4) What is the purpose of generalizing a map?

 Incrised density of map contents due to scale reduction.

 Map generalization can take many forms and is designed to reduce the complexities of the real
world by strategically reducing ancillary and unnecessary details.

5) Write the short note

a) Generalization

 Generalization is the process of reducing amount at detail in a map or database in a meaningful way
in order to aid mag legibility. Map generalization is usually related to map purpose, scale, output,
etc.

Process of generalization

 Simplifying the complexity

 Selecting the important

 Omitting the unimportant

 Clarifying the unclear

b) Aspects of map Generalization

 There are three ways of aspects of map generalization

i. Selection

 Features to be included in the map are dependent on the purpose of map. Selection should also be
related to the scale. For example, in topographical map, both natural and cultural details should
include whereas in geographical map, cultural details have less important.

ii. Simplification

 Features that are too small or to complex needs to be simplified without causing overcrowded or
loss of legibility. Scale in this case is the main factors to be considered.

iii. Omission

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 To preserve the legibility of the map, some features might be omitted even through they may be
specified to include as per the scale of the map for this nature of terrain also plays important role
during omission of the features.

Unit 8 : Relief Representation

1) Explain various methods for representation of relief in map.

 The method of relief representation are:

i. Spot height

 Spot height are heights of places surveyed and they denote the actual height above mean sea level.
They are shown in map as dots with their respective valley written beside it. The main advantage of
spot height is that they give absolute and precise information of height.

ii. Hachures

 Hachures are small line drawn to represent slops. The lines are drawn thiker to represent steeper
slopes and thinner for gentle slope. The slope are indicated by parallel lines drawn in the direction in
which water would flow on the surface. They do not represent exact elevation but are mainly used
to give a good impression of slope of the ground.

iii. Controlling

 Contouring is an act of using contour lines when representing the relief of an area on the ground.
Contour lines are the lines drawn on the map connecting equal points on the surface of the earth’s.
contouring is the most common method of showing relief on topographic map.

iv. Hill shading

 In this method of representation effect of light is used to view the shape of the terrain. It is assumed
that the light is passed either vertically or obliquely, usually form north wester corner. Hill shading
also don’t show the exact height.

v. Layer-tints

 In this method colors are used for relief representation. Different colors are used between any two
particular contours to show height difference for the uniformly level region there is only one color
for the whole map. There is no specific rule for choosing colors but generally green (light to dark) is
used for plain region, brown (light to dark) color is used for hilly region and white color is used for
mountainous region.

vi. 3D model

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 Relief representation from 3D objects have been considered a promising way to create law-reliefs,
and also allow for the reuse of existing 3D relief can be edited and modified.

2) What do you understand by Relief Representation in map making process?

 Various features like mountain, hills, plateaus and plains are found on the earth surface.

 Elevation and depression on the earth surface are known as relief features of earth.

 Map showing the relief features of earth are known as relief maps.

3) What is rock drawing?

 Rock drawing are an important map element in high mountain areas, olifts, rock faces are usually
outstanding terrain feature that helps map reader orient on the ground. Topographic map therefore
generally indicate rocky areas, using a variety of styles and design principles. Swiss style map
generate a strong three-dimensional relief impression by combing shade relief with rock drawing
and patterns.

4) Write the short note

a) Contour

 Advantage of contouring

 Contouring is the most suitable method of representing relief on large scale topographic maps.

 Contours provide the basic for other methods of representing relief such as layer tinting hachuring
and shading.

 Contours can indicate the exact elevation of a point on the map.

 Limitation of contouring

 They are not suitable for representing relief on small-scale maps.

 Not all physical features and landforms can be portrayed by the contour lines.

Unit 9 : Color

1) Explain in brief about additive and subtractive colour model.

 The following explain the additive and subtractive color model are

Additive Color Model

 Additive color (Red, Green and Blue)

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 Additive color model combine emitted light to display color varations and are commonly used with
computer monitors, televisions, scanners, digital cameras and video projector. The RGB(Red, Green
and Blue) color model is the most common additive model. The RGB model combines light beam of
primary hues of red, green and blue to additive, secondary hue of magenta, cyan, yellow.

 Red + Green = Yellow

 Red + Blue = Magenta

 Blue + Green = Cyan

 Red + Green + Blue = white

Subtractive Color Model ( Cyan, Yellow and Magenta)

 Subtractive color models involve the mixing of points, inks to create full color. These subtractive
model display color on the assumption that white, ambient (mass) light is being scattered absorbed
and reflected from the page by the pointing inks.

 Cyan + Magenta = Blue

 Cyan + Yellow = Green

 Magenta + Yellow = Red

 Cyan + Magenta + Yellow = Black

2) What are the primary and secondary colours in cartography and which colours are used for map
printing?

 The primary and secondary color cartography is

Primary Color (Red, Yellow and Blue)

 Primary colors are the three colors that cannot be mixed or formed by any combination of other
colors.

Secondary Color (Green, Orange and Purple)

 These are the color formed by mixing the primary colors

 Red + Yellow = Orange

 Red + Blue = Purple

 Blue + Yellow = Green

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The color are used for map printing are the mixture of Cyan, magenta, yellow, and black dots of ink, in
varying proportions. These four ink colors collectively are called CMYK, or process colors.

3) A color is characterized by three properties; hue, saturation and value. What do those properties
indicate? How can they be varied in map to obtain desired appearance?

 The properties of color are/ components of color

i. Hue

 Attribute by which be recognized color (e.g :- red, blue, yellow). Hue is the name of color. Such
as red, blue or yellow.

ii. Saturation

 Saturation is also called ‘chroma’ is a measure of purity of color or how sharp the color appears.
Saturation describes the intensity of color full saturation results in pure color, while how
saturation color approach gray.

iii. Value

 Value is the lightness or darkness of a hue. The value of hue can be changed by adding black or
white. Value is the amount of white or black in the color.

Colors have been used in cartography “to label, to measure, to represent, to reality, and to decorate
(color as beauty).

4) Choice of color

 Effective color usage requires a minimum of knowledge about the color wheel invented by Sir Isaac
Newton. The color wheel is visible representation of color arranged according to their relationship.
The red, yellow, blue color wheel nowever the magenta-yellow-cyan, wheel is the preffered choice
of point makers. In cartography, there are some commonly considered color conventions that
should generally followed. The first is that water is commonly blue, water should most always be
blue in map. Forest, parks or representation of any green space are commonly green on a map. Red
should represent temperature, and blue should represent cold temperature.

5) Color

 Color is defined as the aspect of things that is caused by differing qualities of light being reflected or
emitted by them. To see color, we have, we have to have light. When light shines on an object some
color bounce off the object and other are absorbed by it our eyes only see the colors that are
bounced off or reflected.

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Unit 10 : Digital Cartography

 Differentiate between conventional and digital cartography.

  Conventional Cartography  Digital Cartography

 1  Maps form are the paper map.  Maps produced are the visual images
or digital maps.

 2  Paper maps are found on physical  Digital maps can be downloaded for
stores and need to be bought. free or bought through internet server.

 3  Stores of the paper maps requires  Digital maps are stored in digital
physical storage. storage, i.e, external hard drive or web
server.

 4  Paper maps are difficult to updates as  Digital map can be easily updated.
they are in printed formark.

 5  Paper maps cannot shows all the  Digital map can shows each and every
features at the same time. feature at same time.

 6  Study of map requires special skill as  Avdience with simple knowledge of the
every feature cannot be depicted as real world feature can understand the
the real world. map.

 Traditional Cartography

 Data sources

 Aerial photography

 Digital remote sensing

 Survey

 Data recorded as point, lines, areas on paper.

 Analysis: limited to data as presented on map

 Output: mapping

 Explain Digital Landscape Model.

 Digital Landscape Model (DLM) describes the landscape and the relief of the earth’s surface in the
form of topographic object. DLM denotes the types of data that most of US considered as base GIS

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data compiled from source information that is registered to ground. The DLM is considered as the
database.

 DLM describes the landscape and the relief of the earth surface in the from of topographic object.

 DLM describes geographic database.

 The data stored in geographic database.

 What do you understand by Digital Cartography?

 The process of storing and displaying map data in digital form i.e, the use of computer for storing,
retrieving and issemination map data is termed as digital cartography on other hands, digitals
cartography can defined as the technology concerned with the construction and use of computer
based system for the practice of cartography and its application. GIS are an integral tool for digital
cartography.

 Explain Digital Cartography Model.

 Digital Cartography Model (DCM) is defined as the presentation function of map. Depending on the
purpose of database, particular geographic object have been selected from reality and are
represented in database by a data structure. Multiple DCMs can be generated from same landscape
model, depending on the output medium or map design.

 DCM is the result of applying cartographic generalization, i.e reduction, inlargement and
modification of graphic symbol.

 DCM describes cartographic database.

 Cartographic database representation in the form of symbol at same scale, same detail

 DCM comphasizes in visualization.

Unit 11 : Map Reproduction

1) Define screening and explain its types in brief.

 Screening :- Screen are basically just dot arrangement either in pattern or random. Generally,
screens are given with percentage. A 30% screen has 30% dots, 70% blanks.

Two types of screening

i. Half tone

 Half tone printing is a type of screen printing method that uses of tiny dots, pictures can be printed
using half tone screen printing and only use one single color to do so.

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 Used in most print reproduction method with the exception of jet ink printing.

ii. Stochastic screening

 Ink or toner is applied in pattern of very small, pseudo randomly speed dots of uniform size.

 The word ‘stochastic’ means “randomly determined” having a random probability distribution or
pattern that may be analyzed but may not be predicted precisely.

2) Define map reproduction.

 The process of making number of copies of original map is called map reproduction.

 Map reproduction is generally understood to include various method for obtaining duplicate prints
from a picture or drawing containing geographic and similar detail of a particular area of the earth’s
surface.

3) Write the steps of digital printing.

 The steps of digital printing are:

 Firstly you will send us your design or commission our artists to create a bespoke design for you. You
will be emailed a visual proof of your design to sign off with the art department. This way we know
you are happy with everything before we proceed to the printing stage.

 Once the design is given the go ahead, our art department will then convert the format of your
artwork into the correct one, so the digital printer can recognize it and print the products correctly.

 Before printing any products on the printer, the print heads must be given a clean with a specific
fluid, used to keep the print heads from drying out and getting damaged.

 There are quite a few checks that need to be carried out prior to printing. Every time a product is
printed, the printer produced waste ink, which is transferred into a drum.

 Now all the necessary checks have been made and the artwork is ready. We can now print your
artwork on the product you’ve requested and see your designs come to life!

 We use two different sizes of pallets to hold the product, the correct size is attached to the machine
ready for us to lay the product out on to.

 The product is then laid down flat on the board, it is very important that the product is laid
completely flat and that there are no creases.

 The digital printer then begins its work, the head moves from side to side over the top of the
product spraying the design onto the product.

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 The printed item is then carefully removed from the pallet and is run through a large dryed at a
specific temperature. This bakes the print onto the item, which results in a colorfast product.

 Your order is then checked for print quality and prepared for dispatch.

4) What are the major components of process photography?

 The major components of process photography are:

i. Line:- can be vertical, horizontal, curved or jagged.

ii. Shape :- two-dimensional representation of object.

iii. Form:- three dimensional representation of object, usually through the use of lighting and
shadows.

iv. Texture:- the use of lighting to bring out details of an object, making it easy to see whether
a surface is smooth or soft.

v. Color:- using warm of cool colors to set mood.

vi. Pattern:- the use of representation to create an interesting photo.

vii. Space :- either negative or positive space can be used to make a statement. Often seen
when using the rule of thirds.

5) What are the characteristics of different types of metal plates that are used in map printing?

 There are 4 type of metal plates that are used in map printing are :

i. Bimetal plate

 Copper which is highly oleophilic (that can absorb oil) is electroplated on a hydrophilic (having
tendency to go wet with water) metal such as aluminum or stainless steel.

ii. Diazo plate

 These utilize a diazo coating, are pre-sensitized, and can be made either from photographic
negatives or positives.

iii. Silver halides plate

 They are commonly used to print single-color documents from digital artwork. Silver halide
emulsions can be used to coat anodized aluminum and these are often used for color printing
produced from digital artwork.

iv. Ablation plate

 The plate comprises either a metal or a polyester base,

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 Coating can be selectively burned by the laser,

 It plates can be imaged directly on the press,

6) Describe the positive plate making process for map reproduction.

 Plate coated with light sensitive solution

 Exposure to a strong light source through a positive. The coating masked by positive image remains
soft.

 Developing image washed out the bare metal

 Deep etching the image. Etching solution bites into bare metal image.

 Lacquering the plate

 Hardened coating stencil removed

7) Write the short note

a) Color proof

 Most complex graphic or maps are produced from more than one component or overlay. This is true
for artwork intended for either single or multi-colored reproduction. These components are to be
fitted or registered accurately to each other to produce composite printing negatives which are used
to produce printing plates. Proofing must be carried out prior to printing because errors detected at
this stage are expensive to correct.

Undetected errors may have serious consequences. Proofing systems permit editing so that
changes can be made before expensive platemaking and printing process.

b) Contact printing

 A contact print is a photographic image produced from film; sometimes from a film negative, and
sometimes from a film positive or paper negative. In a darkroom an exposed and developed piece of
film or photographic paper is placed emulsion side down, in contact with a piece of photographic
paper, light is briefly shone through the negative or paper and then the paper is developed to reveal
the final print. The defining characteristic of a contact print is that the resulting print is the same size
as the original, rather than having been projected through an enlarger.

c) Tone in map reproduction

 Tone is the range of lightest to darkest part of image. This is very important element of photograph
and one must understand its value as well as its limitations.

Types of tone in map reproduction

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i. Line tone

 Line tone is used to describe any image composed entirely of solid or opaque line work, point
symbol and area.

ii. Continuous tone

 The representation of image having all tones, through gray to white with continuous variation from
one to another. E.g., aerial photographs.

iii. Half tone

 It consists of groups of small dots group to make line or symbol. E.g, printed map.

BEST OF LUCK

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