Appendix A: Fiber Optic Sensors 421

Appendix A
Fiber Optic Sensors

Recent advances in fiber optic technology and optoelectronic devices led to emergence of fiber optic
sensors. With the availability of highly sensitive detectors and material loss almost approaching to
negligible, it is possible to sense even slight variations in intensity level, phase shift and wavelength
from external distresses on the optical fiber itself. This is the fundamental concept of fiber optic
sensors. The primary function of a fiber optic sensor is to measure or monitor a physical quantity
such as temperature, pressure, corrosion, humidity, and similar environmental factors. The basis of
measurement is the net effect on its intensity modulation, operating wavelength, phase angle of the
incident optical ray, or polarization of the light propagating through the optical fiber.

Advantages of Fiber Optic Sensors

• Multifunctional sensing capabilities including current, electric field, position, vibration, strain,
viscosity, chemicals, and acoustic signals.
• Multiplexing capability to form sensing networks.
• Immune to electromagnetic and radio frequency interference.
• High sensitivity.
• Robust under worst operating conditions.
• Remote sensing capability.
• Inability to conduct electric current.
• Generally cylindrical geometry.
• Small size.
• Easy integration into composite materials and different types of natural or man-made structures.
• Lightweight.

General Structure of Fiber Optic Sensor

In its simplest form, a fiber optic sensor system comprises of an appropriate sensing element (a
transducer having capability of converting the measurand quantity into an equivalent optical signal),
an optical source such as an LED or an Injection Laser Diode), an optical fiber for transmission of
optical signal from source to destination, an optical detector such as photodiode, and measuring
instruments such as an optical spectrum analyzer (OSA) or an analog/digital oscilloscope.

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 422 Appendix A: Fiber Optic Sensors

The main principle of working of an optical fiber sensor is that the output of the physical transducer
is used to modulate light intensity, phase angle, operating wavelength, or polarization of the optical
signal. This results into a corresponding change in the operational characteristics of the optical signal
received at the optical detector after traveling through optical fiber.

Classification of Fiber Optic Sensors

There are different ways of classifying fiber optic sensors. For example, these can be categorized
based on their principle of operation including the process of modulation and demodulation. We know
that either light intensity, frequency, phase, or polarization of the optical signal can be modulated.
The variations in the physical quantity (being sensed) is used as the modulating signal. Therefore,
accordingly a fiber optic sensor can be termed as intensity, frequency, phase, or polarization fiber
optic sensor.
Another way of classifying fiber optic sensors is based on the location of the sensing element. For
example, if the sensing device is kept external to the optical device and the resultant optical signal
is carried through the optical fiber, then it is known as extrinsic fiber optic sensor. Whereas if the
variation in the physical quantity being sensed changes some property of the optical fiber itself which
in turn can change a particular characteristics of the light propagating through the optical fiber, then
it is termed as an intrinsic fiber optic sensor.
A fiber optic sensor can also be classified based on the intended application. For example, bio-
medical fiber optic sensors are used for measurement of blood circulation, glucose content in the
blood, etc. Physical fiber optic sensors are used to measure physical quantities such as temperature,
pressure, humidity, etc. Chemical fiber optic sensors are generally used for gas analysis, pH value
determination, study of spectroscopy, etc.

Types of Fiber Optic Sensors

• The Intensity-based fiber optic sensors usually employ multimode large core fibers because they
need more light. They are primarily based on the optical signal which undergoes through some
attenuation of the signal intensity. The optical signal attenuation may be caused by bending of
the optical fiber which results due to generation of force by the quantity under measurement.
The optical signal attenuation can also be achieved by absorption or scattering of light by the
target device. Even evanescent field and microbending loss caused by the measured quantity
can also result into change in the intensity of the optical signal being carried by an optical fiber.
There are numerous benefits of using intensity-based fiber optic sensors. They can perform as
real distributed fiber optic sensors. They are simple to implement, feasible to multiplex several
signals, and less expensive. However, they require a reference system in order to avoid false
readings which might occur due to variations in the intensity of the light source as well as
relative measurements.
  The microbend fiber optic sensor basically comprises of an optical fiber passing through
two grooved plates. The periodic mechanical microbends results in attenuation of the optical
signal due to coupling of the energy of the guided modes with the radiation modes. Because

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 Appendix A: Fiber Optic Sensors 423

of exerting pressure on the upper plate, there is a slight movement which in turn can bend the
fiber radius more than the critical angle. Thus, the light cannot remain confined within the core
area that means it may leak into the cladding area. As a result, an intensity modulation takes
place within the optical fiber.
  In evanescent wave fiber optic sensor, the cladding is stripped from a section of the optical
fiber. Then it utilizes the optical signal energy which leaks from the fiber core into the cladding
to produce intensity modulation. When used as chemical sensors, an optical source is used which
generates exactly a wavelength that can be easily absorbed by the chemical whose concentration
is required to be determined. Any variation in the optical signal intensity measures the chemical
concentration.
• The changes in the wavelength of optical signal is exploited for detection purpose in wavelength-
modulated fiber optic sensors. Examples of such types of sensors include fiber Bragg grating
(FBG), black body, and fluorescence sensors. The fiber core is usually exposed to an intense
interference pattern of ultra-violet energy to form FBG. The periodic changes in refractive index
of the single-mode fiber (SMF) core forms the basis of FBG optic sensor. LED that serves as a
broadband optical source emits optical signal at the Bragg wavelength and is propagated through
the grating of the optical fiber which reflects some part of the signal at the Bragg wavelength.
Thus, FBG optic sensor acts as an effective optical filter.
  In Fluorescent-based fiber optic sensors, the light propagates through the optical fiber and
strikes at the end tip of a probe coated with fluorescent material. This results into a fluorescent
signal which is again captured by the same optical fiber. This signal is then directed towards
the optical detector. Such type of sensors find wide applications in measurement of viscosity
of liquids, temperature, humidity, etc., sensing of chemical materials, and medical areas.
   In the blackbody fiber optic sensor, a blackbody cavity which is placed at the end of an
optical fiber starts to glow when the temperature is increased within the cavity. This is used
to serve as an optical source. The profile of the blackbody fiber optic sensor is determined by
narrow band filters used in combination with optical detectors. These sensors are widely used
to measure temperature under intense RF fields with accuracy up to a few degrees centigrade.
• Phase-modulated fiber optic sensors, as the name suggests, makes use of variations in the phase
of optical signal for sensing purpose. The electric field which is required to be sensed modulates
the phase of the light propagating through the optical fiber. Interferometer such as Mach-Zehnder,
Michelson, Fabry-Perot, or Fiber Bragg grating type is used to compare the modulated phase of
the light in the signal fiber with the unmodulated phase of the light propagating in a reference
fiber.
• Polarization-modulated fiber optic sensors operates on the principle that different types of
polarization states of the light field are either linear, circular, or elliptical. The polarization
state is same as the direction of the electric field part of the light pattern. A polarizer having
a length of bi-refrigent polarization-preserving fiber is used to launch the polarized light at
45° to its preferred axis. This section of fiber functions as polarization-modulation fiber optic
sensors. When external changes in stress or strain takes place, the phase difference between
two polarization states is changed. Then, the output polarization state is changed according to
the perturbation. Hence, by analyzing the output polarization state at the exit end of the fiber,
the external perturbation can be detected.

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 424 Appendix A: Fiber Optic Sensors

Applications of Fiber Optic Sensors

• Measurement of temperature, humidity, pressure, displacement, velocity, stress, and strain in
structures of any size or shape.
• Real-time monitoring the functional health of physical structures.
• Monitoring displacement and restoration, analyzing cracks, evaluating post-seismic damage,
etc. in heritage buildings and monuments.
• Monitoring of concrete settings, concrete-steel interaction, length of cracks, pre-stress, long-
term deformation, etc. in buildings and bridges.
• Measurement of spatial displacement, evaluation of post-seismic damage and neutral axis
evolution.
• Monitoring of foundation, joint expansion, water leakage, distributed temperature, and
measurement of spatial displacement during construction of hydraulic dams.
• Detection of joints damage, evaluation of prefabricated vaults, convergence monitoring, and
multipoint optical extensometers for tunnels

Future Trends in Fiber Optic Sensors

Photonic crystal fibers have been devised which can serve as new sensor configurations and sensing
mechanisms. Recent advancements in micro-fabrication technologies promise to achieve better
functionality, performance, and capability to operate in all-weather conditions with increased
reliability of fiber optic sensors. High-density fiber optic sensor networks can be configured by using
advanced signal processing techniques.

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