UNIT 17 PUMPS AND PUMPING

REQUIREMENTS, VALVES AND

APPURTENANCES
Structure
17.1 Introduction
Objectives
17.2 Types of Service Required
17.3 Pumps and their Types
17.3.1 Positive Displacement Pump
17.3.2 Rotodynamic Pump
17.3.3 Major Types of Rotodynamic Pumps
17.4 Centrifugal Pumps
17.4.1 Classificationof Centrifugal Pumps
17.4.2 Parts of a Centrifugal Pump
17.4.3 Principles of Working of a Centrifugal Pump
17.4.4 MultistageCentrifugal Pumps
17.4.5 Design Aspects of Centrifugal Pumps
17.4.6 Operation of Pumps
17.4.7 Pump Characteristics
17.4.8 Advantages of Centrifugal Pumps
17.5 Reciprocating Pumps
17.5.1 Working of a Reciprocating Pump
17.5.2 Discharge through a Reciprocating Pump
17.5.3 Work Done by a ReciprocatingPump
17.5.4 Double Acting Reciprocating Pumps
17.5.5 Suitability of Recipmating Pumps
17.5.6 Rotary Pumps
17.6 Miscellaneous Types of Pumps
17.6.1 Jet Pumps
17.6.2 Airlift Pumps
17.6.3 Hydraulic Ram
17.6.4 Submersible Pumps
17.7 Boosting
17.7.1 Addition of Fixed Extra Flow or Pressure.
17.7.2 Maintenance of a Given Pressure
17.8 Selection of Pumps for Water Works
17.9 Valves and Appurtenances -
17.9.1 Sluice Valves
17.9.2 Air Valves
17.9.3 Check Valves
17.9.4 Safety Valves
17.9.5 Drain Valves
17.9.6 Foot Valves
17.9.7 Fire Hydrants
17.10 Summary
17.11 Key Words
17.12 Answers to SAQs

17.1 INTRODUCTION
The cost of puniping water is the greatest operating expense of a water-works system.
Hence, while planning a water supply scheme, it has to be kept in mind that pumping
requirement should be as minimum as possible and this will depend on the site condition
and selection of location of different units of the Works.
Water Distribution If water cannot be obtained at an elevation sufficient to admit a satisfacton, zravity
pressure at the point where it is to be used, pumping machinery becomes ne - Zssary. Then
the engineer should select machinery and design a pumping plant, which will be most
economical for the condition under which the plant is to be installed and operated. The
first consideration in the design of a pumping plant is dependability for furnishing the
needed water at all times. The most economical equipment has low operating cost due to
high efficiency and low maintenance cost because it is well built. The design of a
pumping plant for a water works involves the selection o f :
(i) The type of pump best adapted to the purpose to be served, which may include
the choice of motive power to be used as being an essential part of the pump
selected.
(ii) The choice of motive power and the means of its application.
The choice of type of pump to be used depends on the following factors :
(i) Reliability of service
(ii) Initial cost
(iii) Maintenance cost, including depreciation
(iv) Cost of energy and labour
(v) Capacity of pumps
(vi) Efficiency of Pumps
(vii) Suction and delivery heads
(viii) Quantity of water to be pumped
(ix) Type of service - intermittent or continuous
(x) Type of water to be pumped
(xi) Variation in the rate of pumping and pumping heads.
With pumps and supply and storage system, different types of valves and appurtenances
are also associated. A brief discussion will be made about the same at the end of the unit.

Objectives
The unit deals with pumps and their requirements in detail and valves and appurtenances
associated with them. After going through this unit, you will know about :
different conditions under which pumps and pumping are required,
different heads under which the pump has to work,
different types of pumps used in water works, their components, principle of
work, characteristics and efficiency,
boosting, and
different types of valves and associated appurtenances.

17.2 TYPES OF SERVICE REQUIRED

The conditions in which a pump is to be put and the places where it is to be installed are
grouped into following classes of service :
(i) Deep well
(ii) Low lift
(iii) High lift
(iv) Boosting
(v) Fire-fighting
(vi) General service for small supplies
(vii) Stand by
In case of ground water sources, the water is lifted from wells or tube-wells and collected
into a collecting basin from where the water enters the treatment plant. After the
 treatment, water is again lifted so as to force into the distribution system. Sometimes, Pumps And Pumping
Requirements, Valves And
deep well pumps may be arranged to discharge water directly into the distribution system. Appurtenances
Low-lifr service involves pumping of water from the source, lake or stream into a
low-level reservoir or purification plant.
High lifr service involves the pumping of water from purification plant or low service
reservoir or from source itself into the distributing system. This part of pumping system
is most expensive both in initial cost and cost of operation and demands the most careful
'
consideration of economy and dependability.
Booster pumps are used to increase the pressure in certain parts of the system due to high
elevation or inadequate pressure arising from excessive loss in long distributing pipes.
Booster pumps are also used to provide water in the upper stories of tall buildings.
In modern fire protection measures, the municipal water supply is brought to the hydrant
, nearest the fire. The specialfire pumps which boost the pressure to that required for
efficient fire-fighting are located in the tall buildings, factories or on vehicles.
In many cities located adjacent to a surface supply, special high pressure mains have been
A
built serving highly congested areas. The pumps for this class of service are to be
absolutely dependable with a dependable prime mover.

plant

7/ service
RasPrvoiJ ~istribution~

':I ( b) ONLY ONE LIFT REQUIRED

~ i g hlift pump hous

IC1 TWO LIFTS REQUIRED

(d ) TWO LIFTS REQUIRED : SOURCE : WELLS OR

TUBE WELLS

Figure 17.1 : a, b, c and d

Water Distribution Small water supplies of low heads are provided for parks, farms and small estates. Some
special types of pump are available to meet such type of demand. Stand-by pumps use
when other ordinary pumps fail, are extremely important in certain industrial plants and
hospitals as well as in municipal pumping stations for fire protection. Prime
specifications for this service are dependability of power supply, prime movers, pump,
pipes and controls. Economy in such case is secondary consideration. Four.different cases
of pump requirements have been shown Figure 17.l(a to d).

17.3 PUMPS AND THEIR TYPES

- - - -

The hydraulic machines, which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy, are
known as pumps. The hydraulic energy is in the form of pressure energy. If the
mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy by means of centrifugal force acting
on the fluid, the hydraulic machine is called centrifugal pump. The basic difference
between a turbine and the pump from hydro-dynamic point of view is that in turbine the
flow takes places from the high pressure side to the low pressure side, whereas in pump
flow takes place from the low pressure towards the higher pressure. Therefore, in a
turbine there is accelerated flow whereas in pump the flow is de-accelerated.
Almost all pumps increase the pressure energy of the water, that is being lifted. This
energy is subsequently converted into potential energy, i.e., water gets lifted from a lower
level to a higer level. A pump can, therefore, be described as a mechanical device,
interposed in a pipe line, which converts the mechanical energy that it receives from
some external sources into increased hydraulic energy of water flowing in the pipeline.
The most common external sources of energy are an electric motor, an oil engine or a
steam engine (listed in order of their decreasing usage). Non-conventional sources of
energy such as wind energy through wind mills and solar energy through solar cells are
comparatively new entrants in this area.
Pumps may be classified into following two main types :
(i) Positive Displacement Pumps (Rotary and Reciprocating type)
(ii) Rotodynamic Pumps (Centrifugal and deep-well turbine pumps)
17.3.1 . Positive Displacement Pump
In a positive displacement pump liquid is sucked in and then actually pushed or displaced
due to the thrust exerted on it by a moving member, resulting in the lifting of the liquid to
a higher elevation. The displacement of liquid can be brought about either by (a) rotary
movement, and (b) reciprocating movement of the displacing mechanism.

(el [fl
Figure 1q.2 :me
a l Rotary Pumps
 In the first case rotary of a rotary pump carries radially adjustable vanes, the outer tips of P u m p And Pumping
which are constrained by a circular casing whose centre is not congruent with that of the Requirements, Valves And
Appurtenances
rotor. Various conlbinations of gears, lobes, etc. within a casing, are so arranged that
lobes or teeth attached to each rotor pass in sequence through the same pumping space
(Figure 17.2 (a) through (f)). ,
Either of the above conditions can give direct displacement with smooth and
non-plusating flow. However, some internal contact of rotating parts is inevitable which
causes a minor turbulences. Rotary pumps are usually used for liquids, such as, oils with
good lubricating properties which causes a minor turbulence.
Reciprocating P u m p (i.e., the second type), in its simple form, has a cylinder into which a
piston moves to alternately suck and push water (Figure 17.3 (a)). Flow rate of water in
such pumps almost wholly depends on the speed of the pump. Forward and backward
motion of the piston is brought about by a prime mover like an electric motor, an oil
engine or a steam engine. Obviously the usual rotary motion of the electric motor is to be
first converted into a reciprocating motion by a suitable mechanical device. Usually the
speed of the electric motor is suitably brought down to the working speed of the
* reciprocating motion of the piston. The cylinder is connected to the suction and delivery
pipes. At the start of both suction and delivery pipes a non-return valve is fitted which
permits the flow only from suction pipe into the cylinder, and from the cylinder into the
delivery pipe. One can easily imagine that the flow rate would be pulsating
(Figure 17.3(b)), and thus would not be uniform unless special appurtenants are provided
to even out the pulsations. Pressure rises that can be achieved, are theoretically very large
and limited only by the mechanical strength of the cylinder and the pipe system,
considering the fact that water is almost incompressible. To sum up, a reciprocating pump
can be used to achieve large rise in delivery pressure heads, but the flow rates are
restricted by the speeds of the piston and the discharge is relatively small and uneven.
These disadvantages make the centrifugal pump (a rotodynamic pumpla more preferred
type in water works. Important differences of operating characteristics of a reciprocating
pump with those of rotodynamic (centrifugal) pump is given in Table 17.1.

A. SUCTION VALVE
B. DELIVERY VALVE
C. CYLINDER
C1. CONNECTING ROD
C2. CRANK
D. DELIVERY PIPE
P. PISTON OR PLUNGER
S. SUCTION PIPE

Figure 173 :Single act in^ Reciprocating Pump

Water Distribution Table 17.1 :Important Differences in Operating Characteristics of Centrifugal and
ReciprocatingPumps
Centrifugal Reciprocating
(i) Discharge, Q

- - -
(ii) Head, H 1
High heads can be obtained through High heads can be obtained efficiently even at
multistages running at hi h speeds; economical low speeds and comparatively low rates of flow.
f
only in case of relatively arge outputs.
(iii)Speed, n, of the Pump (or its prime mover)
The usual range of speed is 1000 rpm to The usual range of speed is 100 to 300 rmp and
3000 m. Direct coupling to electric motors is this speed is seldom exceeded. A speed
possi8e. Step-up gearing is needed only when reduction gear or pulley is required if the prime
the prime mover has low speed. Turbine-driven mover is an electnc motor. Therefore, direct
pump can run even at 6000 rpm. coupling of pump is possible with a slow speed
prime mover only.
(iv) Eficiency, q
Greatly affected by (Q lH) ratio. Efficiency is Practically independent of (Q lH) ratio.
low for small (Q IH), but ap roaches that of a Efficiency is independent of liquid property
reciprocating pump when (JlH) is large. like viscosity.
Efficiency falls when water with suspended
matter is pumped.
( v ) Method of Control
Various cases regarding operational parameters arise :( a ) Speed, n, is constant
Q depends on H I Q is independent of H
Reduction of Q is easily made by a throttling Q can be reduced by returning a part of it
valve, although usually with a consequent loss through a branch in suction involving a loss of
of efficiency. efficiency. Q can be varied by varying the
stroke, without loss of efficiency, but a special
design is required.
(b)Head, H, is constant 1
Q can be changed by v in the speed and by Q can be changed by varying s eed without
throttling. The latter mxocfinvolves loss of loss of efficiency. A by-pass vJve can be used
efficiency. to change Q, but this entails loss of efficiency.
(c) Discharge Q, is constant

(vi) Suction Eficiency

Priming is normally required. When started without back-pressure, they are
self priming to some extent.
(vii)Starting Torque
A comparatively low starting torque is Starting torque is approximately equal to
required; direct cou ling to an electric motor or running torque as large masses are to be
oil engine is possibL. accelerated.
(viii) Starting of Pump with Long Pipe Lines
- -

Special measures are unnecessary since the A large cushion chamber is required to store
static water head is accelerated to full velocity the discharge until the contents of the pipe line
at a discharge Q in accordance with the gauge have been accelerated to full velocity.
pressure at Q = 0.
(ir)Stop Valves
No stop valves should be fitted in the suction If a stop valve is to be fitted in the discharge
line, but non-return and stop valves should be line, it is essential that a safety valve rated for
installed immediately after the delivery branch. full discharge is fitted between the pump and
the stop valve.
(x) Floor Space Required, Weight, Dimensions
Owing to hi h speed, rotary motion, and Reciprocating masses and moving valves set a
continuous {ow, it is possible to obtain high limit on the number of strokes per minute
output with light, compact units. resulting in large swept volumes for same
output; and, thus greater weights and
Aimensions are encountered.
17.3.2 Rotodynamic Pump pump ~ n pumping
d
Requirements, Valves And
A roto-dynamic pump has a wheel or a rotating element which rotates the water in casing Appurtenances
thus increasing the energy level due to a combination of centrifugal energy, pressure
energy and kinetic energy.
A centrifugal pump is the most common among the rotodynamic pumps. Unlike a
positive displacement pump, in which the liquid is simply pushed out of the pump, a
centrifugal pump changes the hydraulic energy such that the liquid is lifted to a higher
level. The basic principle on which a centrifugal pump works is that when a certain mass
of liquid is made to rotate by an external force, it is thrown outwards from the axis of
rotation and a centrifugal head is impressed on it. This enables the liquid to rise to a
higher level. If more liquid is made available at the centre of rotation, a continuous
supply of the liquid to the higher level may be ensured. The mechanism by which a liquid
is made to rotate consists of a revolving wheel with vanes which is called an impeller.
During the passage of the liquid through the impeller, angular momentum changes, and
this circumstance also results in the increase of the pressure head of the liquid.
The main advantages of a centrifugal pump over a reciprocating pump is the former's
larger discharging capacity. A centrifugal pump can also be used to pump turbid (muddy)
waters which may damage the valves of a reciprocating pump. A centrifugal pump is
usually connected directly on to an electric motor or an oil engine, while a reciprocating
pump needs a speed reduction mechanism, like a pulley and a belt drive. These are the
few but significant advantages of a centrifugal pump over other pumps.

17.3.3 Major Types of Rotodynamic Pumps

Based on the general direction of flow of water within the passage of the impeller, the
rotodynamic pumps are classified into following three classes (Figure 17.4) :
(i) Radial flow (Centrifugal type),
(ii) Mixed flow (Centrifugal type), and
(iii) Axial flow (Propeller type).

la)RAOIAL FLOW l c ) AXIAL FLOW

PUMP PUMP

Ib) MIXED FLOW PUMP

Values qiSpecific Speebr ( U.S.Curtomary Units)

-
figure 17.4 :Various Impeller Shapes and Comparison of Pump Profiles Range of Specitlc Speed
Water Distribution (i) Radial Flow Pump
In a radial flow centrifugal pump, water entering at the centre of the impeller, flows
radially outwards through the impeller vanes. Generally, all the centrifugal pumps are
provided with radial flow impellers.
(ii) Mixed Flow Pump
In a mixed flow pump the impeller is so shaped that the flow passage takes a form that
is intermediate between radial and axial directions, and ultimately the flow emerges in
an outward direction. A mixed flow impeller is a modification of the radial impeller in
that the former is capable of discharging larger quantity of liquid at lesser heights with
respect to inlet (or suction point) compared to radial impellers.
(iii) Axial Flow Pump
In an axial flow pump, water, immediately after entering the vane assembly, flows
parallel to the axis of the propeller (vane assembly) which is also the axis of the
rotating shaft.
Axial flow pumps are usually designed for very large discharges and comparatively
lower heads. As there is hardly any centrifugal action, while the pump operates they
are best described as propeller pumps or axial flow pumps. Figure 17.4 (a) and
17.4 (b) show the part of an impeller with radial and mixed flows, respectively.
Figure 17.4 (c) shows flow past a propeller of an axial pump. More details about the
effect of shape of impellers on the dynamics of water, energy conversion, etc., as water
passes through a revolving impeller of a pump, is explained in subsequent portions of
the unit.

17.4 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

17.4.1 Classification of Centrifugal Pumps
Classification of centrifugal pumps is done on several basis.
On the basis of characteristic features,
(a) Type of Casing
(i) Volute Pump
(ii) Turbine or diffusion pump
(b) Working Head
(i) Low lift centrifugal pumps (working against heads upto 15 m)
(ii) Medium lift centrifugal pumps (used to build up heads as high as 40 m)
(iii) High lift centrifugal pumps (employed to deliver liquids at head above 40 m)
(c) Number of impellers per shaft.
(i) Single stage centrifugal pump (has one impeller, usually a low lift pump)
(ii) Multi-stage centrifugal pump (having two or more impellers and pressure is
built-up in steps, tksed usually for high working heads and the number of stages
depends on the head required).
(d) Number of entrances to the impeller.
(i) Single entry or single action pump (water is admitted on the side of the impeller.
(ii) Double entry or double suction pump (water is admitted from both sides of the
impeller; axial thrust is neutralised : employed for pumping large quantities of
fluid).
17.4.2 Parts of a Centrifugal Pump
The main and essential parts of a centrifugal pump are impeller, casing, vortex chamber,
guide vanes, suction pipe and delivery pipe.
Impeller
It is a wheel which is provided with a series of backward curved blades, also called
vanes. This wheel is mounted on a shaft which is coupled to an external source of
energy. This external source of energy is usually an electric motor o ~ a oil
n engine,
1
as mentioned earlier. This external source imparts the required energy to the Pumps And Pumping
impeller for rotation. Figure 17.5 (a) shows an impeller assembled with Requirements,Valves And
Appurtenances

Figure 17.5 : Component Parts of a Centrifugal Pump

backward-curved vanes mounted on a shaft which is indicated to rotate in
anti-clockwise direction. The impeller is encased in an air-tight chamber. The
annular space between to shaft and the impeller is generally called the eye of the
pump. Suction pipe at its upper end is connected to the eye of the pump (with 90'
bend). The lower end of its suction pipe is connected to a foot valve-strainer
assembly which always lies adequately submerged below the water level in the
sump. The strainer helps to prevent the debris (foreign matter like leaves, rubbish
etc.) from entering the pump. The foot valve opens only in the upward direction
and prevents movement of water back to the sump once the pump stops working.
This enables to keep the suction pipe and the pump casing always full of water to
avoid priming to be done often.
A delivery pipe is connected to the delivery flange of the pump (placed beyond the
chamber) with a delivery valve that controls the flow rate of the pump.
Figure 17.5 (b) shows a cross-sectional view of shrouded impeller, wherein the
vanes are provided with a metal shroud on both sides. The shrouded impeller is
known to provide better guidance to the liquid and is thus considered more
efficient, especially when the liquid is pumped from debris (refer also
Figure 17.4 (d)).
Figure 17.5 (c) shows a cross-section of a semi open type impeller with a shroud
only on one side.
Figure 17.5 (d) shows an open impeller suitable to pump liquids containing
suspended matter like sewage or water containing grittsand. They are less liable to
clog due to the extraneous matter.
Water Distribution Volute Chamber and Vortex Chamber
The casing of a pump enclosing its impeller can have a spiral shape, as shown in
Figure 17.6 (a), such that the flow cross-sectional atea around the periphery of the
impeller gradually increases right from the tongue. T, towards the delivery end.
This increase in cross-sectional area results in causing a uniform velocity
throughout the casing as the magnitude of flow increases from the tongue towards
the delivery side, because more and more water is added from the periphery of the
impeller. This chamber of the casing is known as volute chamber.
Sometimes a circular chamber (shown as a dotted circle in Figure 17.6 (b) is
provided between the volute chamber and the impeller, and is called vortex
chamber. As the water leaves the impeller radially, while passing through the
vortex chamber, part of its velocity head gets converted into pressure head. The
water then after passing through the volute chamber goes to the delivery end.
Figure 17.6 (c) shows an assembly of a series of fixed curved guide vanes mounted
on a diffuser ring concentric with the impeller. The surrounding guide vanes
provide a gradually enlarging passage for the flow of liquid. This reduces the
velocity of flow and thus increases the pressure. The shape of the guide vane is so
designed that the water passes from the impeller into the guide vane passage
smoothly. After passing through the guide vanes the water flows through the
surrounding casing into the delivery pipe. As the guide vanes are set and shaped
for a fixed discharge, for other discharges this pump is not efficient compared to a
volute pump.

IMPELLER ,

. . SECTION-YY
(a),VOLUTE PUMP

(b) VOLUTE PUMP WITH VORTEX

CHAMBER.

.GUIDE VANES

Y
( c ) DIFFUSER ( OR TURBINE1 PUMP

Figure 17.6 :Volute Chamber and Other Features of a Centrbgal Pump

 Stages Pumps And Pumping
Requirements, Valves And
According to the number of impellys mounted on the same shaft, a pump is Appurtenances
known as a single stage (with one impeller) or a multistage (with two or more
impellers mounted on the same shaft in series and enclosed in the same casing
pump). Figure 17.7 shows a typical complete assembly of a single pump with
horizontal shaft coupled to a drive motor, mounted on a base plate. There is
provision of a single suction.

i Figure 17.7 :A Typical Assembly of a Single Stage Pump with Motor (Horizontal Shaft)
Figure 17.8 shows the cross-section of a typical assembly of a five-stage pump
mounted on a horizontal-shaft radial pump with bearings and other accessories
such as diffusers. Pumps employed in imgation practice are usually with
, horizontal shafts. However, for deep well pumps, a vertical shaft is more suitable
from pracitcal point of view. Usually centrifugal pumps of small capacity have a
1t single suction pipe. However, pumps with large capacity may have double suction
pipes.

I
I

.
1 IHPLLLLD
.
I Dlff USED
L 3 . SHAFT
I

Figure 17.8 :C'o$--section of a npical Multi-stage

Radial Pump with Vertical Diffuser, Le. Guide Wheel

17.4.3 Principles of Working of a Centrifugal Pump

The working principle of a centrifugal pump is that when a certain mass of fluid is rotated
by an external source, it is thrown away from the central axis of rotation and a centrifugal
head is impressed, which enables it to rise to a higher level.
The working of a centrifugal pump is as follows :
The delivery valve is closed and the pump is primed - which means suction pipe, casing
and portion of the delivery pipe upto the delivery valve are completely filled with water
so that no air is left. Keeping the delivery valve still closed, the electric motor is started to
rotate the impeller. The rotation of the impeller causes strong suction or vacuum just at
the eye of the casing. The speed of the impeller is gradually increased till the impeller
rotates at its normal speed and develops normal speed required for pumping water. After
'5
Water Distribution the impeller attains the normal speed, the delivery valve is opened when the liquid is
continuously sucked (from the sump) up the suction pipe, it passes through the eye of
casing and enters the impeller at its centre or it enters the impeller vanes at their inlet tips.
This liquid is impelled out by the rotating vanes and it comes out at the outlet tips of the
vanes into the casing. Due to impeller action, the pressure head as well as velocity head
of the liquid are increased (some of this velocity head is converted into pressure head in
the casing and in the diffuser bladeslvanes, if they are provided). From casing, the liquid
passes into pipe and is lifted to the required height and discharged from the outlet or
upper end of the delivery pipe. So long as motion is given to the impeller and there is
supply of liquid to be lifted, the process of lifting the liquid to the required height
continues. When the pump is to be stopped, the delivery valve should be first closed.
Otherwise, there may be some back-flow from the reservoir.
Various parameters that characterise the working of a centrifugal pump concern the
hydraulics of pumps. These are discussed under the following captions :
Static Head, Manometric Head and Total Head
Figare17.9 depicts several elements, such as, the static head, manometric head and
the total head of a centrifugal pump. Usually, when a centrifugal pump is used to
lift water from a sump to an elevated tank, the difference in static water levels i.e.,
between the sump and the elevated tank is termed as the static head, H,.
Sometimes, it is also called static lift. This, obviously, consists of the lift, h,, from
the water level in the sump to the centre line of the pump impeller, and, hd, the lift
from the centre line of the pump to the water level in the elevated tank. Thus, we
can write
Hs = hs + hd . . . (17.1)
Or, Total static head, H, = suction lift, (h,) + delivery lift (hd)
Manometric head, H,,,, is the total energy head that must be developed by the pump
to meet the external requirements. In other words we can state thpt,
.
H,,, = (energy given to the liquid by the impeller) - (losses in the pump) . . (17.2) ,

Dynamics of Flow through the Pump

Let us consider the following five points (0, 1 through 4) along the path of water
through the pump-point 0 lying on the free surface of the sump, the point 4 lying
on the free water surface of elevated tank (Figure 17.9) as specified below :
Point 0 - on the free surface or water in the sump, (taken as datum)
Point 1 - on the suction side of the inlet to the pump
Point 2 - on the exit of the impeller
Point 3 - at the entry to the delivery pipe
Point 4 on the free surface of water in the elevated tank.
>
Applying Bernoulli's equation to point (0), on the surface of water in the sump,
and point (1) inside the suction pipe at the entry to the pump, and taking the sump
water level as datum, we have :

p,
O=-+-+hS+hf,
v: . . . (17.3)
Y 2g
where, Ps is the suction pressure at the entry to the pump at point 1, Vs is the
velocity in the suction pipe, 5: is the head loss due to friction'and minor losses in
the suction pipe, and y is specific weight of water. Therefore, we can write :

It may be realized that if the pump is located below the level of the liquid surface
as shown in Figure 17.10 then the suction lift, h,, will be negative. The head
as given by Eq. (17.4) is known the suction head.
 Pumps And Pumping
Requirements, Valves And
Appurtenances

1 Figure 17.9 ;Head on a Centrifugal Pump

By applying Bernoulli's equation between the entry point (1) and exit point (2) of
the impeller we obtain :
ps
- - + v: + (energy head imparted by the impeller on water) = -
p2 v:
+ -+ hL i . . . (17.5)
Y 2g Y 2g
in which, P2 is the pressure of water at the exit of the impeller (i.e., at point (2) and
V 1is the absolute velocity of water at point (2), and hL i is the head loss in the
impeller.
Further, applying Bernoulli's equation between point (2) and (3), we get :

in which, Pd is the pressure in the delivery pipe at (3), hLc is the loss of head in the
pump casing, and Vd is the flow velocity in the delivery pipe. Suction pressure Ps
and delivery pressure Pd can be measured by the pressure gauge fitted at point (I)
on the suction pipe and by the pressure gauge fitted at point (3), respectively.
Adding Eq. (17.5) and (17.6) we get the following relationship :

:[ :] :[ 9
(Head imparted by the impeller on water) = -+ -+ h - -+ -
Water Distribution

-plp&
NPSHA = ( h a - h V a p r
ha n 34'( = l0.'0rn)
Z, ) - available NPSH.
atmospheric pressure absolute.
hvap = Vapour pressure ot water ( a b s o l u t e )
a t pumping temperature.
Zt a Water d e p t h over Impeller eye.
I

Zi a Submergence ot s u c t i o i pipe.

Figure 17.10 :Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

It may be noted that the term gives the total loss of head in the pump.
Further h = 0, if the gauges e same level. Usually suction pipe has a

slightly larger diameter than the delivery pipe; however, the velocity heads - and
vi
2g
v:
- do not differ much from each other i.e., we can say - -
v; v:
-= 0.
2g 2g 2g
Thus, the Eq. (17.7) reduces to :
(Head imparted by the impeller to water) - (the total loss of head in the pump)

Left hand side' of this equation is also known as manometric head. However, an
expression can be derived for the manometric head also by considering the
kinematics of flow over the impeller, as will be discussed later on. \

I
Figure 17.11 :Velacity Wangles at Inlet and Outlet of a Vane
Veloc:ity Triangles at Inlet and Exit
We have seen earlier in Figure 17.5 and 17.6 (a), that water enters the impeller at
the centre and leaves at the periphery. Figure 17.11 shows a typical vane (i.e.,
blade) of an impeller (shown hatched) whose tips at inlet and exit lie on concentric
circles of radii R and R1, respectively, with respect to the centre of the impeller. Lel
 the impeller rotate in anti-clockwise direction at an angular velocity o. Pump And Pumping
Requirements, Valves And
Following symbols are used to describe the velocity triangles at inlet and exit as water Appurtenances
moves over the vane that is rotating :
(i) U, U1 are tangential velocities of vane tips at entry and exit such that
U = o R, U1 = o Rl, respectively.
In which, o is the angular velocity of the impeller at entry in radians / sec.
(ii) Vis the absolute velocity of water at entry and is assumed to be radial due to the
designed arrangement for such an entry of water. Thus, the relative velocity of
water at entry Vr is obtained by combining vectorially as shown in the inlet
triangle (Figure 17.1 1).
It may be seen that while V is radial and is perpendicular to the tangent to the
wheel at inlet, V, is at an angle of 9 to the wheel tangent.
(iii) At the exit point of the vane, the tangential velocity of vane tip is U1 = w R1,
which is tangential to the wheel at the exit point. It may be noted that obviously,
U1 > U. Water leaves the vane at a relative velocity of Vrl. If one combines
vectorially Vrl with U1 at exit, the absolute velocity of water leaving the vane,
V1, is obtained as shown in Figure 17.11. VI is seen to be at an angle P with the
wheel tangent, and Vrl at angle I$ with the wheel tangent. Components of V1
along the tangent, and the radial direction, respectively, are known as the
velocity of whirl V, and velocity of flow Vfl, respectivley. It is easily seen that
at the entry tip of the blade, V = Vf and Vw = 0 as the entry of water, in
absdlute terms, is assumed to be radial.
(iv) Work done by the impeller per second is the product of torque it applies and the
angular velocity that is developed.
(v) Torque is given by change in moment of momentum or angular momentum of
fluid between inlet and exit.
(vi) If rn is the mass of water passing over the vanes in unit time we can write :

in which, Q is the volumetric flow rate. It can be shown that the work done by
the impeller per second is given by the following term :
work done = Torque x angular velocity

For radial entry we have, Vw, = 0

Thus, work done per second (under radial-entry conditions) -

Therefore, work done per second per unit weight of water

This expresssion for work done per second per unit weight of water can be
introduced in Eq. (17.8) resulting in the following expression (in place of the
head imparted by the impeller to water) :
Water Distribution

Pressure Rise in Impeller

With reference to Figure 17.9, it may be reiterated that point (1) is at the entry to
the impeller (or at the pump-end of the suction pipe) and point (2) at the exit of the
impeller, whereas point (3) refers to the exit of the pump (or the commencement of
the delivery pipe). Thus, the actual pressure rise in the impeller is given by
(pz - pl). Now, we can rewrite Eq. (17.5) as shown below (adding hL c o n both
sides) :

One can recognise the left hand side of the Eq. (17.13) as the manometric head Hm (as
defined earlier), and hence we write :

With Vd = V, (i.e., when the suction and delivery pipe diameters are same), Eq. (17.14)
can be explained as below :

Manometric head, Hm = The acutal pressure rise in the impeller

the pressure rise in the volute chamber

[loss of head in the casing hL c

( Y
Eff~cienciesof a Centrifugal Pump
In case of a centrifugal pump, the power is transmitted from the shaft of the electric
motor to the shaft of the pump and next to the impeller. From the impeller, the power is
transmitted to water. Therefore, power is decreasing from the shaft of the pump to the
impeller and then to the water. Following efficiencies are considered for a centrifugal
pump :
(i) Manometric efficiency, qmm
(ii) Mechanical efficiency, rl,,and
(iii) Overall efficiency, q0
(i) Monometric Efficiency qman
The ratio of the manometric head to the head imparted by the impeller to the water.
Manometric head
"'
= Head imparted by impeller to water

(ii) Mechanical Efficiency q

,
It is defined by the power available at the impeller to the power at the shaft of the
centrifugal pump.
Power at the impeller
.'. qm =
Power at the shaft

- (Work done by impeller per second / 75)

Shaft H. P.
 - y (v) Shaft1H. P.
Pumps And Pumping
Requirements,Valves And
Appurtenances

(iii) Overall Efficiency q,

It is defined as the ratio of power output of the pump to the power input to the pump.
Weight of water lifted x Hm
The power output of the pump =
75

Power input to the pump = Power supplied by electric motor = S.H.P. of the pump

r Q Hm
." l o= 7 5 x S'H. P.
It can also be written as

Brake Horse Power (B.H.P.)

It is given as B. H. F! = Water Horse Power / q
The work done by the pump in lifting Q m3 / s of water by a head H
= y QH kg m/sec (where y = unit wt. of water in kg/m3 and
Q = discharge to be pumped in m3/sec)
:. Water horse power = W. H. P. = yQH / 7 5
:. B. H . P . = W H P / ~= y Q H / 7 5 q

17.4.4 Multistage Centrifugal Pumps

A multistage pump is having the following two functions :
Ci) To produce a high head, and
(ii) To discharge a large quantity of liquid.
If a centrifugal pump consists of two or more impellers, the pump is called a multistage
centrifugal pump. The impellers are mounted on the same shaft or on different shafts. If a
high head is to be developed, the impellers are connected in series or on the same shaft
while for discharging large quantity of water, impellers or pumps are connected in
parallel.
Multistage Centrifugal Pumps for High Heads
For developing a high head a number of impellers are mounted in series or they are
mounted on the same shaft as shown in Figure 17.12.

PIPE CONNECTING FIRST IMPELLER

TO DELIVERY PIPE
!,' \ \

IMPELLER NUMBER TWO

NUMBER ONE

Figure 17.12 :Two Stage Pump with Impeller in Sedes

water Distribution Water from suction pipe enters the first impeller at inlet and is discharged at outlet
with increased pressure. The water with increased pressure from the outlet of the
first impeller is taken to the inlet of the second impeller with the help of a
connecting pipe as shown in Figure 17.12. At the outlet of second impeller, the
pressure of water will be more than the pressure of water at the outlet of the first
impeller. Therefore, if more impellers are mounted on the same shaft, the pressure
at the outlet is increased further.
If n = number of identical impellers mounted on the same shaft,
H, = head developed by each impeller
Then total head developed = n x H, . . . (17.20j
The discharge passing through each impeller is same.
Multistage Centrifugal Pumps for High Pressure
For obtaining high discharge, the pumps are connected in parallel as shown in
Figure 17.13. Each of the pump lifts the water from a common sump and
discharges water to a common pipe to which the delivery pipes of each pump is
connected
common pipe
-7#
r
r
----C
91 -
\ r
Q,+ Q,

Qi az
Delivery pipes -.

first
t- second pump
I

LL SUMP
Fipre 17.13 :W o Centrifugal Pumps in Parallel
Each of the pump is working against the same head.
If n = number of identical pumps .manged in parallel
q = discharge from one pump.
:. Total discharge = n x q
Cavitation
Cavitation is defined as the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a
flowing liquid in a region ;here the pressure of the liquid falls below its vapour
pressure and the sudden collapsing of these vapour bubbles in a region of higher
pressure. When the vapour bubbles collapse, a very high pressure is created. The
metallic surfaces, above which the liquid is flowing is subjected to these high
pressvres which cause pitting action on the surface. Therefore, cavities are formed
on the metallic surface and also consideraye noise and vibrations are produced.
The efficiency of a pump also decreases.

17.4.5 Design Aspects of Centrifugal Pumps

Various design relations under various heads are presented as follows :
Number, Shape, Curvature and Breadth of Blades
It is easy to recognise Eq. (17.11) as also expressing theoretical head generated by
the pump. This equation shows that head generated depends, among other factors,
on the peripheral or tangential velocity (U1) at exit and the meridional velocity
(velocity of whirl), V,,, at exit. It is to emphasise that Eq. (17.1 1) was derived with
an implied assumption that there are infinite number of blades on the wheel. . Pumps And Pumping
Requirements, Valves And
However, in reality, the impeller wheel has finite number of blades, of small but Appurtenances
finite thickness each, which reduces the cross-sectional area available for flow of
water. The actual velocity of whirl, V,,, is therefore less than its theoretical value.
Hence, the actual head developed with finite number of impeller blades is slightly
less than the head calculated using theoretical Euler relationship Eq. (17.1 1).
Experiments made with impellers of identical size, speed and vane angle, but with
different number of vanes have indicated that as the number of vanes was
increased the actual head developed approached the theoritical head. It has also
been reported that the value of ratio of actual head to the theoretical head varies
from 0.6 to 0.8 as the number of vanes increase from 4 to 12. An approximate
formula giving the number of vanes used in practice for radial flow impeller is
given by the following relationship :

d2 + dl
q!, = 6.5 -sin pm
d2 - dl
where dl and d2 are (shown in Figure 17.13(a), inner and outel. diameters,
respectively, of vanes and Pm is the mean of the vane angle at inlet and outlet of
the vane (Figure 17.14).

1) R a d i a l f l o w Impeller solid line d i a m e t e r s

d l t o d2 l o w specific speed (Al 0 , d; A2 )
2) M i l e d f t o w I m p e l l e r (A; 0; 0; d2)
3) Mixed f l o w Impeller (A; 8 ; 0; A> )
t o r increased Q .

(a) Radial 'Impeller

(do)
2
I

(b)Propeller Type Impeller

Figure 17.14 :Evolution of Pump Impellers

Shape and curvature of vanes of an impeller govern the flow pattern in the flow
passages and guide (diffuser) vanes. Flow pattern, in turn, depends ch the
rotational speed of the wheel. Thus, the specific speed is the most convenient
parameter in identifying the shape and curvature of the impeller. Shape and,
curvature vary from radial, mixed and axial flow iinpellers with specific speeds
increasing in that order. Thus, the shape of the impeller passage depends on the
Water Distribution basic quantities like discharge Q, head H, rotational speed of the impeller N, which
define the specific speed (Ns).

For experimentation, Q and H are kept constant, while the speed (N) is altered with
the same inlet edge. Figure 13.14(a) shows the radial flow impeller with
characteristic dimensions 4, dl, d2 and b2 indicated. It i$ to be pointed out that

with regard to the theoretical head to be developed , U1 to be

maintained depends on the head (H) and is kept ind\ependentof d.Further, d2, the
outer diameter of the vane is expressed as :

It is obvious that if the velocity of whirl at exit, V,,, is to remain invariable with
increasing speed, N, d2 must be reduced to some value d2 ' (i.e., A2 B2 A ' B2 '
shown dot-dash-dot line in Figure 17.14(a). As the impeller gets shorter there is the
need, to improve the suction performance of the pump, the impeller width at inlet
is lengthened to A1' B1'. If for a given head and speed, Q is to increased, keeping,
V, constant, then do increases to do' and b;? to b2' such that the blade gets a
shape of A1" B1" B2A; (shown as a dashed line in Figure 17.14(a). This gives a
mixed flow higher specific speed impeller.
Impeller Dimensions
Referring to Figure 17.14(a), dsh denotes the diameter of the shaft and dh the
diameter of the hub, where the diameter of the shaft depends on several mechanical
factors like : power, speed, permissible deflections, etc. However, the diameter of
the hub, dh, is made as small as possible on the inlet side. Usually, the hub
diameter is chosen according to the following criterion :

The value of inlet diameter (do) is based on the values of axial velocity (V,) which
is usually between 1.5 to 6 m/s and depends on the prevailing suction conditions.
When the discharge Q, (which includes leakage loss) is known the entry area (A,)
is obtained from the following equation :

[ "$1
By adding the hub area ah = - to A , the inlet area A;,
have :
is obtained. Thus, we

The impeller outlet diameter d2 is obtained using Eq. (17.24). The area of flow at
blade inlet location (Al) is given by the following relationship (also refer
Figure '17.1 1)

Al = (Inlet coefficient of construction) x

El
However, the inlet construction coefficient depends on the following factors :
(i) the distance betweefi the two neighbouring blade tips at inlet, measured along
the periphery;
 (ii) the blade tip angle at the inlet; and Pumps And Pumping
Requirements,Valves And
(iii) the blade thickness. Appurtenances
The breadth of impeller bl at inlet is therefore, given by :

The area of flow at the impeller outlet (A2) is given by :

discharge
A2 = (outlet construction coefficient) x

The outlet construction coefficient depends on :

(i) the distance between the two neighbouring blade tips measured along the
periphery, at the outlet,
(ii) the blade angle at the outlet, and
(iii) the blade thickness.
The breadth b2 of the impeller at outlet is given by the following relationship :

Thus, in the light of the foregoing discussion one can summarise the main steps
involved in the method of calculating the impeller dimensions, such as :
(i) diameter (d2) at the outlet of the blade tip (for given U and N) through
Eq. (17.24),
(ii) diameter of the hub (dh) through Eq. (17.25),
(iii) diameter at inlet of the blade (do) through Eq. (17.27),

)
1
(iv) breadth of the blade (bl) at inlet through Eq. (17.29),
(v) breadth of the blade (b2) at outlet through Eq. (27.31).
Axial Thrust
In a single entry impeller an axial thrust is developed in the machine, since the
suction pressure acts on the surface of the back shroud facing the suction end while
a considerably higher pressure is experienced on the other side of the shroud by the
1 water leaving the impeller. Therefore, thrust bearing is provided for the shaft to
bear this thrust. In a double entry (double suction) pump, this problem is
minimised by balancing the axial forces owing to symmetry of water entry points.
I
Drive Motors 1 Engines
t
Diesel engines and electric motors are most commonly used prime movers for
pumps used in imgation and water supply. Diesel engines are used in pumping at
places where electric power is not available. Diesel engines are also used as stand
by for electric power. The most convenient and also cost effective source of power
for pump sets is three phase 440 V electric supply. In addition to lower cost, clean,
smooth, noiseless, continuous power can always be provided by electric power. Its
operating efficiency is generally uniformly high, and compared to diesel power,
electric power supply needs less attention and is easy to switch on. Smoke is
totally absent and fire hazards are negligible. Both vertical and horizontal shaft
settings make it suitable for both open-well canal pumping system as well as
deep-well system.

17.4.6 Operation of Pumps

Operation and maintenance of a pump need due attention for ensuring long trouble-free,
I and efficient service.
b
Water Distribution Starting of a Centrifugal Pump - Minimum Starting Speed
When a pump is started, there will be no flow of water until the pressure difference
developed in the impeller is large enough to overcome the manometric head (H,).
If the impeller is rotating with some speed (N), there is no flow taking place, water
rotates almost like a forced vortex with a centrifugal head of,

The flow will commence only if,

(n:d2 N / 6 0 ) ~- (n:dl ~ / 6 0 ) ~
2 H,,,
2g 2g

gives the minimum speed (N) required for a pump to commence the flow.
Maintenance of a Pump
Some of the troubles commonly experienced during the operation of the
centrifugal pump are listed below :
(a) . Pump failing to start
Following reasons for the pump not starting can be listed, such as :
(i) Probably the pump is not primed properly. Reprime the pump by opening
the air vent until steady unbroken stream of water (without air) issues out;
(ii) Total static head may be more than the design head. Check the suction side
vacuum gauge and pressure gauge properly. Check the head losses;
(iii) Rotation of the wheel may be taking place in the wrong direction;
(iv) The impeller might have got clogged. Open and clean the impeller;
(v) There may be a clogged strainer, leading to excessive suction head; and
(vi) Speed may be lower than the minimum speed as pointed out above.
(b) Pump starts but may not deliver water and raise its head
Following causes can be attended to :
(i) Air may be leaking through suction line and stuffing box;
(ii) Speed may be smaller than the required value;
(iii) Delivery head may be higher, hence the discharge drops down;
(vi) Suction lift may be too high.
(v) Foot valve may not have enough submergence or may have clogged; and
(vi) Bearing may be worn-out.
17.4.7 Pump Characteristics
Characteristics of centrifugal pumps are parameters to compare and monitor their
performance under various conditions. These characteristics are discussed as given
below :
Specific Speed and Similitude Studies
Specific speed (N,), as a parameter, has been defined through Eq. (17.23). It
includes all the three important variables like discharge Q, head H , and the
rotational speed N of the pump. Specific speed, as may be easily verified, is a
dimentioned term. In more specific terms, it is defined as the speed (in rpm) of a
geometrically similar pump of such a size that under corresponding conditions that
 would deliver 1 litre of water per second against a head of 1 metre. This concept ~ u m And
p Pumping
can, however be used to predict or compare the behaviour of a pump, based on the Requirements, Valves And
Appurtenances
studies on similar pumps of different sizes. Herein, it may be noted that the
numerical value of specific speed depends on the system of units chosen, e.g.,
metric unit U.S.customary units, etc. The expression for Ns given in Eq. (17.23)
earlier can be derived from first principles as shown below :
Consider discharge, Q = K n b2 d2
( ) V'
With reference to Figures 17.11 and 17.12, we know that b2, d2, VP denote
breadth, diameter and radial velocity of flow at the impeller exit. Since b2 is
proportional to using appropriate constant of proportionality and it is easy to see
that
V' is proportional to K , we can state Eq. (17.33) as :

or, = constant
4 K
nd2N
Further, the peripheral velocity, U1, = -, we have :
60

But, also Ul = K and hence d2 = N

d?T . . . (17.35)
Or, = constant
d2N
Eliminating d2 from Eq. (17.34 and (17.35), and dropping the subscript 'm' we et : t
H3 / 4
= constant

= C (say) . . . (17.36)

From the definition of specific speed N, = @, we can say that for

Q = 1 (lit / sec), and H = 1 m, the quantity N = Ns = C

Table 17.2 that follows, gives the range of specific speeds for various types of
impellers.
Table 17.2 :Range of Specific Speed (Ns)
-
Qpes of Pump Impeller Range of Ns
Slow speed radial flow 300 - 900

Medium speed radial flow 900 - 1500

Mixed flow 2400 - 5000

Axial flow (propeller) -

5000 15000
(Refer to Figure 17.4for identifying impeller shapes)
Performance Curves
Every centrifugal pump has its operating design and speed of operation. A typical
Water Distribution characteristics curves chart is shown in Figure 17.15. These curves provide some
of the important conclusions, which help in selecting a particular pump for a
particular use. The curves are drawn by plotting variation of head, efficiency and
brake horse power against the corresponding rate of discharge at constant speed of
the pump.
I I

1
-
capacity oischarge (lit resJmin1

Figure 17.15 :Characteristic Curves of a Centrifugal Pump at a given Speed

From curves, following conclusions can be made :
(i) At a particular speed of operation, as the discharge increases, the head produced
decreases. The maximum discharge being limited to a certain minimum head,
below which the pump does not work. At zero discharge (i.e., when the
discharge valve is closed), the head developed is maximum and is known as
shut off head. This is not permitted to last longer otherwise the pressure
abnormally rises above the design head.
(ii) For a particular speed of operation, the maximum efficiency is obtained at a
particular discharge. This discharge is known as the normal discharge or the
j ) rated discharge or the rated capacity of the pump at a given speed. Therefore,
when variable discharge is required working at a particular speed, the pump
does not function at its maximum efficiency. Therefore, in order to obtain
variable discharge at maximum efficiency, the alternative is to vary the speed
with belts and pulleys or with a variable speed motor. But this is not practical
for continuous use. Hence, to regulate the flow, several pumps of smaller
capacities are provided in parallel so that variable number is operated
depending on the requirement of the flow. In water works, where water demand
varies with hours of the day and days of the week and months of the year, a
number of pumps may be operated depending on the water demand or
alternatively all the pumps are operated at full capacity and the excess water
during the period of less demand is stored in the service reservoir and utilized
during high demand periods.
(iii) For a particular speed, the brake horse power required from the motor (i.e.,
prime mover) to drive the pump increases with the increase in discharge, this
being maximum at the shut off head. Since the discharge valve is closed under
this condition, the prime mover will not be overloaded.
Main Characteristics
Figure 17.16 presents the typical main characteristics of centrifugal pump.
Figure 17.16(a) giving manometric head H,,, varying with discharge Q in ( 11s)
for different speeds (rpm) i.e., for each constant speed, variation of head with
discharge is shown (head initially rising and then falling sharply); Figure
17.16(b) depicting curves that show the variation of shaft horse power with
discharge for various speeds (shaft horse power is continously rising with
increasing discharge); and Figure 17.16(c) showing variation of overall
efficiency with the increase in Q. All curves are almost parabolic in form.
Operating Characteristics (Figure 17.16 )
Normally a pump is run at a constant speed. Head and efficiency for different
discharges (from shut off condition to full value open) are plotted. The design
 head is the head corresponding to the maximum efficiency condition. Pumps And Pumping
Requirements, Valves And
Constant Efficiency Curves (Figure 17.18) Appurtenances

Figure 17.18 is drawn using the information from Figure 17.16(a) which gives
variation of head H,,,with Q for different constant speeds, with speed as a third
parameter. Iso-efficiency points are plotted on this plot using information from
Figure 17.16(c). Thus, the curve of maximum efficiency is plotted through the
valley generated by iso-efficiency curves.
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
Net positive suction head (NPSH) is the absolute pressure head at the pump inlet
minus the vapour pressure head (in absolute unit) corresponding to the local
temperature, plus the velocity head. If P, is the atmospheric pressure, then we say
(p,/y) is the atmospheric pressure in terms of head of water. If h, is the suction
lift, we can write with reference to point (0) and (1) in Figure 17.9 :

. . .(17.37

(a)

(b)

960 rpm
-C-e 880
---- 8 00

'I"
Overall
20 -
Ic)

Q-
Figure 17.16 :Main Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps
Water Distribution
 I
1 SAQ1 Pumps And Pumping
Requirements, Valves And
i It is required to calculate the effective head and power of drive motor for a Appurtenances
centrifugal pump to deliver a discharge of 100 1/ s, from a sump to an overhead
tank, from the following data.
Difference of water levels in the sump and overhead tank = 24.8 m
Suction lift = 2.8 m
Delivery head = 22.0 m
Head loss in suction pipe = 1.06m
I
Head loss in delivery pipe line = 5.41 m

SAQ 2
Calculate the dimensions of a centrifugal pump impeller with 7 blades. Suction
side is axial, and the discharge is 100 1 / s at a total head of 40 m. Prime mover is
electric motor of 1470 rpm, with the efficiency of the pump being 78%. Further,
assume the following data :
Shaft diameter = 4.0 m
Volumetric efficiency = 96%
Velocity coefficient for inlet = 0.157
Velocity coefficient for outlet = 0.120.

17.4.8 Advantages of Centrifugal Pumps

Mostly two types of pumps are in use in water works. The centrifugal pumps and positive
displacement (reciprocating) pumps. We have already discussed the important differences
in operating characteristics of both the pumps earlier. However, centrifugal pumps are
preferred to reciprocating pumps due to following advantages :
(i) The cost of a centrifugal pump is less as it has fewer parts.
(ii) Installation and maintenance are easier and cheaper.
(iii) Discharging capacity is much more than that of a reciprocating pump.
(iv) It is compact and has smaller size and weight for the same capacity and energy
transfer.
(v) Its performance characteristics are superior.
(vi) It can be operated at very high speed without any danger of separation and
cavitation.
(vii) It can be directly coupled to a ~electric
i motor or an oil engine.
(viii) The torque on power source is uniform, the output from the pump is also
uniform.
However, because of higher efficiency, the reciprocating pumps are employed for high
heads and small dischprge. A reciprocating pump can build up very high pressure - as
i
high as 700 bar or even more.
Water Distribution Example 17.1
A centrifugal pump delivers water against a net head of 14.5 metres and design
speed of 1000 rpm. The vanes are curved back to an angle of 30' with the
periphery. The impeller diameter is 30 cm and outlet width is 5 cm. Determine the
discharge of the pump, if manometric efficiency is 95%.
Solution
Given Net head H,,, = 14.5 m
Speed N = 1000 rpm, Vane angle at outlet @ = 30'
Impeller diameter means the diameter of the impeller at outlet
:. Dia Dl = 30 cm = 0.30-m, Outlet Width B1 = 5 cm = 0.05 m.
Manometric efficiency qmax= 95% = 0.95.
Tangential velocity of impeller at outlet

rlman = gHm/VwI x UI

From outlet velocity triangle tan @ = V' /(U, - Vwl)

ortan 30' = V'/(15.70 - 9.54) = V'/6.16

:. V' = 6.16 x tan 30' = 3.556 m / s

.: Discharge Q = n Dl B1 x V' = n x 0.30 x 0.05 x 3.556 = 0.1675 m3 / sec.) (Ans.)

Example 17.2
Find the power required to drive a centrifugal pump which delivers 0.05 m3/s of
water to a height of 20 m through a 15 cm diameter pipe and 100 m long. The
overall efficiency of the pump is 72% and co-efficient of friction f = 0.014 in the
4f L v2
formula, head loss, hf =
d x 2g'
Solution
Velocity of water in
Discharge - - 0.05
pipe Vs = Vd = V = = 0.707 m / sec
Area of pipe (n / 4) (0.15)2
Frictional head loss in pipe

Manometric head
H, = (h, + hd) + hfi + hf4 + v;/ zg
= 2 0 + 1.019+0.707~/(2x9.81)[because(h,+hd=Hs=20m]
= 21.044m

Overall efficiency q, =
YQ Hm
75 x S. H. P.
1000 x 0.05 x 21.044 = 19.5
:. SHP =
75 x 0.72 p.

:. S.H.P. = the power required to drive the centrifugal pump = 19.5 h.p. (Ans.) -.
Example 17.3 Pumps And Pumping
Requirements, Valves And
A three stage centrifugal pump has impellers 40 cm in diameter and 2 cm wide at Appurtenances
outlet. The vanes are curved back at the outlet at 45' and reduce the
circumferential area by 10%. The manometric efficiency is 90% and the overall
efficiency is .80%. Determine the head generated by the pumps when running at
1000 r.p.m. delivering 52 litres per second. What should be the shaft horse power?
Solation
Velocity of flow at outlet
Discharge
vf2 -
- Area of flow

Area of flow at outlet

Factor 0.9 has been taken for (a 10% reduction in the circumferential area)

Tangential Velocity of impeller at outlet

From velocity triangle at outlet

Using equation Tman = g Hm/ Vwl U1

Total head generated by pump = n x Hm

Weight of water lifted x Total head

:. Power output of pump =
75

Power output of pump

Total Efficiency =
Power input to the pump
= 74.845/S. H. P.
. Shaft horse power = 74.845 10.80 = 93.556 h. p. (Ans)
Water Distribution
17.5 RECIPROCATING PUMPS
In a reciprocating pump, mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy (or
pressure energy) by sucking the liquid into a cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating
(moving backwards and forwards) which exerts the thrust on the liquid and increases its
hydraulic energy (pressure energy).

17.5.1 Working of a Reciprocating Pump

Following are the main parts of a reciprocating pump as shown in Figure 17.19.
(a) A cylinder with a piston, piston rod, connecting rod and a crank
(b) Suction pipe
(c) Delivery pipe
(d) Suction Valve and

fx
(e) Delivery Valve

DELIVERY PtPE

CONNECTING R t m

-
0 . V. DELIVERY V W E
S. Y. -SUCTION VALVE

SUMP

Figure 17.19 :Components of a Single Acting Reciprocating Pump

Figure 17.19 shows a single acting reciprocating pump which consists of a piston which
moves forward and backward in a close fitting cylinder. The movement of the piston is
obtained by connecting the piston rod to crank by means of a connecting rod. The Crank
is rotated by means of an electric motor. Suction and delivery pipes with suction valve
and delivery valve are connected to the cylinder. The suction and delivery valves are one
way valves or non-return valves which allow the water to flow in one direction only.
Suction valve allows water from suction pipe to the cylinder while delivery valve allows
water from cylinder to delivery pipe only. With the rotation of crank, the piston moves to
and fro in the cylinder. When the crank is at A the piston is at the extreme left position in
the cylinder. As the crank rotates from A to C (i.e., 0 = 0' to 0 = 180°), the piston
moves towards right in the cylinder. The movement of the piston towards right creates a
partial vacuum in the cylinder. But on the surface of water in the sump atmospheric
pressure is acting, which is more than the pressure inside the cylinder. Therefore, the
water is forced in the suction pipe from the sump. Water opens the suction valve and
enters the cylinder.
When the crank rotates from C to A (0 = 180' to 0 = 360') the piston from its extreme
right positiori starts moving towards left in the cylinder. The movement of the piston
towards left increases the pressure of the water inside the cylinder more than atmospheric
pressure. Hence, suction valve closes and delivery valves opens. The water is forced into
the delivery pipe and is raised to the required height.
17.5.2 Discharge through a Reciprocating Pump PumpsAnd Pumping
Requirements, Valves And
Refer Figure 17.19 Appurtenances
Let D = Diameter of the cylinder
A = Cross-sectional area of the piston or cylinder = n 9/ 4
r = Radius of Crank
N = r. p. m. of the Crank
L = Length of the stroke = 2 x r
h, = Height of the axis of the cylinder from water surface in sump.
hd = Height of delivery outlet above the cylinder axis also know as as delivery head.
Volume of water delivered in one revolution = Area x Length of stroke = Ax L
Number of revolution per second = N / 60
.; Discharge through the Pump per second
Q = A x L x N / 6 0 = ALN/60 . . . (17.40)
Weight of water delivered per second

17.5.3 Work Done by a Reciprocating Pump

Work done per second = Weight of water lifted per second x total height through which
water is lifted
= W x (h, + hd) . . . (a)
(h, + hd) is the total height through which water is lifted.
From Eq. (17.41), W = ( y x ALN)/60
Substituting the value of Win equation (a) above, work done per second

:. Power required to drive the pump :

Work done per second
P =
75

-y X ALN X (h, + hd)

60 x 75

-y x ALN x (h, + h4
4500

17.5.4 Double-acting Reciprocating Pumps

In case of a double acting pump, water is acting on both sides of the piston as shown in
Figure 17.20.
Hence, two suction pipes and two delivery pipes are required for a double acting pump.
When there is a suction stroke on one side of the piston, there is a delivery stroke on the
other side of the piston. Therefore, for one complete revolution of the crank, there are two
delivery strokes and water is delivered to the pipe by the pump during the two delivery
strokes.
Let D = Diameter of the piston
d = diameter of the piston rod
:. Area on one side of piston :Al = n '
D /4 = A
Area on the other side of the piston where piston rod is connected to the piston
Water Distribution

.: Volume of water delivered in one revolution of crank

= Al x length of stroke + A2 x length of stroke

:. Discharge of pump per second

= Volume of water delivered in one revolution x No. of revolution per second

PISTON ROD
.-

D -DELIVERY VALVES

SUMP L E V U
--- -- - - --
- -
-
---
- --
-----
- --
--I-

7 Figure 17.20 :A Double Acting ReciprocatingPump

If the diameter of the piston rod d is very small compared to the diameter of the piston,
then it can be neglected and discharge of pump per second

Work done by a double acting reciprocating pump :

Work done per second = Weight of water delivered x Total height
- 2 y A L N x (hs + hd) . . . (17.44)
60
:. Power required to drive the double - acting height
Work done per second
P =
75

- 2 y x ALN x (hs + hd)

-
4500 . . . (17.45)
Slip of Reciprocating Pumps
Slip of a pump is defined as the difference between the theoretical discharge and
actual discharge of the pump.
:. Slip = Qa - Qact

Slip is mostly expressed as percentage slip

:. Percentage Slip = (Qth - QacJ X 100 /Qth
= (1 - Qact/Qh) X 100 = (1 - cd)X 100 ..
 where QaCt1Qth= Cd = Co-efficient of discharge P u m p And Pumping
Requirements, Valves And
Classij%ation of Reciprocating Pumps Appurtenances
Reciprocating pumps are classified as :
(1) According to the water being in contact with one side or both sides of the piston:
(a) Single-acting pump
(b) Double-acting pump
(2) According to the number of cylinder provided :
(a) Single cylinder pump
(b) Double cylinder pump
(c) Triple cylinder pump
17.5.5 Suitability of Reciprocating Pumps
Since a definite volume of water is discharged in each stroke, the discharge rate depends
only on the speed with which the piston is moved and is in dependent of head. It gives a
constant discharge under variable heads. Hence, they are very useful for very high and
variable heads. Such type of pumps are durable and flexible. If there is no leakage, high
efficiency is possible. Its initial installation cost is high. They are not suitable for
pumping water containing sediments as there may be sudden stoppage of the pump
causing serious damage to the pump. Maintenance charge is high. They are most suitable
for work under high heads but small discharge.
Example 17.4 1

A single acting reciprocating pump, running at 55 r.p.m delivers 10 litres of water

per second. The diameter of the piston is 20 cm. and stroke length is 40 cm. Find :
(i) The theoretical discharge through the pump,
(ii) Co-efficient of discharge, and
(iii) Slip and the percentage slip of the pump,
Solution
Speed of the pump N = 55 r. p. m
Actual discharge = 10 litres 1s = 0.01 m3 1s
Die of piston D = 20 cm 0.20 m
:. Area = A = n / 4 ( 0 . 2 ) ~= 0.0314m2
Stroke Length, L = 40 cm = 0.4 m
(i) Theoretical discharge for single-acting reciprocating pump is given by

(ii) Co-efficient of discharge is given by

(iii) Slip = Qh - Qact = 0.01 15 - 0.01 = 0.0015 m3 1s

And percentage slip = [(Qh - Qact)/Qth] X 100
= [(0.0115 - 0.010)/0.0115] X 100
= 13.043 % (Ans.)
Example 17.5
A double-acting reciprocating pump is discharging 1000 litres of water per minute
running at 42 rpm. The diameter and stroke of the pump are 20 cm and 40 cm
respectively. The suction and delivery heads .are 6 m and 22 m. Find out the horse
power requif_edto drive the pump and slip of the pump.
Solution
Actual discharge Qac,= 1000 litres 1 min = 1.0 1 60 = 0.167 m3 I s
/
A ,
,,A - /- /A\ n2 - /A\ f n 3\2 - n nq 1A -2
 Theoretical discharge for double acting pump = Qth = 2 ALN/ 60

- 2 x 0.0314 x 0.4 x 42 = 0.0176m 3 /

60
Slip = Qth - Qet = 0.0176 - 0.0167 0.0009m3 / sec. (Ans)
Power required to drive the double acting pump

P=
2 X y x Am (h, + hd
4500

= 6.568 k,pa(Ans.)
17.5.6 Rotary Pumps
Rotary pumps are positive displacemetlt punlps where rotary motiotl is used in place of
reciprocating motion. It has rotating elements tuning inside a casing with inlet and outlet
ports as shown in Figure 17.21.

(0) WITH CAMS ( b ) WITH GEARS

Flgute 17.21 :Rotary Pumps

Rotary motion is obtained by using two cams or two gears as shown in the figure. In the
gear type two meshed gears rotate in opposite directions in the casing, the flow of water
being around the outside of the gears with backflow prevented where the gears are
meshed together. The efficiency of rotary pump is less than that of reciprocating pumps
and discharge decreases somewhat more as the pressure head increases due to increased
slip. In water works, the principal use of a rotary pump is for fire fighting where they are
used as a portable pump. They operate at around 500 to 1400 rpm and power is derived
from automobile engine which normally drives the truck which goes for fire fighting.
Rotary pumps are more common where it has to work under high pressure but discharge
is small and pump space is limited. They are self-primed hence, priming is not required.
The flow from such pumps are nearly free from variation and the flow is almost constant.

17.6 MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF PUMPS

The most common and versatile pumps used in water works are centrifugal pumps due to
the advantages as explained earlier. Another type of heavy duty pump is reciprocating
pump which is used for high heads and has been explained in earlier sections. In addition
to these, some other type of pumps are also there which are used sometimes in specific
conditions. They are jet pumps, airlift pumps, hydraulic rams and submersible pumps etc.

17.6.1 Jet Pumps

Jet Pumps operate on the ejector principle that a stream of water or compressed air is
injected into the throat of a venturi nozzle, which produces low pressure and draws
additional fluid from an external source into the throat. The combined stream is expelled Pumps And Pumping
Requirements, Valves And
in the diverging venturi tube and by the time it has reached the outlet end of the tube it Appurtenances
acquires considerable pressure head. (Figure 17.22)
Small pumps of this type are used to prime centrifugal pumps. They are also
manufactured for pumping water from small deep wells. A foot valve is installed in the
intake to keep pump primed when not in operation. They are designed to lift water around
60 to 70 metres. The efficiency of such a pump is low. But they are compact and light,
making it portable and easy to handle. \

ater from we(( ptus

Low pressure or
suction zone

Water from well

Figure 17.22 :Jet Pump

17.6.2 Air Lift Pumps

The air-lift pump consists of an air pipe, foot piece and educator pipe as shown in
Figure 17.23.
Comp. Air? Air Compressor
Water Distribution Compressed air trom lrle air pipe enters the educator ipe at its lower end'through the
P
foot piece and the combined air-water mixture in the, vertical educator pipe, rises to the
surface because the long column of mixed air and whter is lighter than the shorter colum
of water in well surrounding the educator pip& is an unequal U tube. The depth below
the water level in the will upto the foot piece (air diffuser) is called the depth of
submerged (D,). The length of the educator pipe above the water level in the well is the
effective lift (He) (Reference Figure 17.23.) The ratio of depth of submerged to the sum
of depth of submerged and effective lift is called the percentage submergence and must
be at least 25 per cent to operate all and about 70 per cent to operate at best efficiency.
Air-lift pumping system consisting of a pump and an air compressor is useful when
pumping gritty or corrosive liquids as there are no moving parts. Due to absence of
moving parts wear and corrosion do not occur so rapidly as in the case of deep well
turbine pumps. Such pumps are very useful where large quantity of water is desired fro
small drilled hole i.e., tube wells.
The rate of discharge for minimum air consumption (and best efficiency) at a given
submergence increases as the percentage submergence increases. Efficiency for air-lift
pumps generally vary between 4 0 and 70 per cent. This value is to be combined with the
motor and compressor efficiency (60 to 80 per cent) in order to get a ratio of the energy
output to the electric-energy input.
The percentage submergence is given as
Depth of submergence (D, f) x 100
Depth of submergence (D, f) + Effective lift of Pump (&)

D, + He represents effective length of educator pipe.

Inspite of low efficiency, an airlift pump can deliver large amount of water from small
diameter wells. They are cheaper, reliable and simple in operation. Pumping from a
number of wells can be done by installing a common compressor unit. The yield from the
well can be increased by supplying more amount of compressed air.
Air lift pumps are less flexible in fulfilling variable demands. They are generally having
low efficiency. They are not so successful in raising water much above the ground level.

17.6.3 Hydraulic Ram

A hydraulic ram is a kind of a pumping arrangement which does not utilise any outside
power. It is a pump of impulse type which raises water by the period application of force
suddenly applied and suddenly discontinued. Figure 17.24 shows the set up of a hydraulic
ram.
D(every t a n k 1

-- - --
-----
-

Delivery PIP@

---.---

r I

VD Vg - DeLivery valve

-
SUPPLY
vatre
Vw - Waste Valve
A
Valve boxf

Figure 17.24 :Line Diagram of a Hydraulic Ram

It consists of a valve box in which low heid water flows. The box contains a waste Pumps And Pumping
valve,Vw and a delivery valve,VD , which are non-return valves that allow the flow only Requirements,Valves And
Appurtenances
in one direction. Valve VD is connected with an air vessel which is connected to the
delivery tank as shown in the figure. It works on the principle of water hammer. When a
flowing liquid is suddenly brought to rest, the change in momentum of liquid m s s causes
a sudden rise in pressure. This rise in pressure is utilised to raise a portion of the liquid to

Initially the water flows down the supply line, the valve Vw is opened and water edcapes
through it to waste. As the velocity of flow in the supply pipe increases, dynamic pressuie
on the underside of valve Vw increases, which closes the valve and the water in the
supply line is suddenly brought to rest and consequently pressure in the valve box
increases. The increased high pressure lifts the valve VD and a part of water edters the air
vessel. Subsequently, air pressure inside the air vessel increases and that forces water to
delivery tank through the delivery pipe. As soon as momentum of water gets destroyed in
the valve box, valve VD closes and the valve Vw opens. The pressure in the valve box
falls below the atmospheric pressure momentarily and the flow of water from supply
tanks recommences and the cycle is repeated. The air vessel provides storage and helps to
regulate the flow at the delivery end.
Efficiency of a hydraulic ram depends on
(i) losses in the pipe
(ii) losses in the valve box and
(iii) ratio of VH and hlH. For optimum performance values of 1/H and h . should be
2.5 and 5 respectively and under this condition, efficiency upto 75% can be
obtained.
The efficiency of hydraulic ram is expressed as D' Aubuisson's efficiency or Rankine

Energy supplied to the delivery tank

D' Aubuisson's efficiency =
Energy supplied from the supply tank

= y q H / y Q h = qH/Qh

and Rankine efficiency w - h)

- gh (Q - 4)
Q = Discharge from supply tank to the valve box
q = Discharge from valve box to delivery tank
h = Height of water in the supply tank above the valve box
H = Height of water in the delivery tank above the valve box
Since it works automatically, requires very little maintenance. Running cost is negligible
as no power is required to run the pump. Hence, it is most suitable for remote places
where there is no power supply.

A hydraulic ram is receiving water at the rate of 23 litres per second from a height
of 3.2 m and it raises 2.3 litres / sec to a height of 23 metres from the ram.
Determine D' Ambuisson's and Rankine's efficiencies of the hydraulic ram.

discharge through the supply pipe

Q = 23 litres / sec = 0.023 m3 / sec .
Supply head h = 3.2m
Discharge raised = q = 2.3 litres / sec
= 0.0023 m3 / sec
Height of water raised from hydraulic ram H = 23 metres.
qH = 0.0023 x 23
D' Aubuisson's efficiency : = ,- ,,,,,, ,,
Water Distribution ' .

Rankine's efficiency :

- 0'0023 19'8
= 0.6875 = 68.75 % Ans.
0.0207 x 3.2
17.6.4 Submersible Pumps
Submersible pumps are centrifugal pumps installed under water. Actually they should be
termed as "Submersed motor" pumps because the pump is directly connected to an
electric motor sited immediately below it and the motor is capable of running under
water. As per modem practice, the windings are surrounded by water from the well or
bore-hole so that water can act as a coolant and also as a bearing lubricant. In some
models whole motor is sealed, off from water. The motor is a squirrel case a. c. motor
running at a fixed speed unless a variable speed frequency changer is interposed on the
line to change the speed. Power to the motor is fed by waterproof cables clipped to the
side of the rising main. They can be easily and quickly installed and can be of small
diameter.

17.7 BOOSTING
Boosting is a term used for any pumping arrangement, which increases the pressure or
quantity of water delivered through an existing main system. There are three main
arrangements, which are employed in practice depending upon requirement.
(a) Addition of a fixed extra flow to an existing supply.
(b) Addition of a fixed extra pressure to an existing supply.
(c) Maintenance of a given pressure irrespective of the flow.
17.7.1 Addition of Fixed Extra Flow or Pressure
If we want to double the flow, two similar pumps may be connected in parallel whereas if
the pressure is to be doubled two similar pumps may be connected in series. But for
intermediate increase of pressure or discharge, a smaller pump has to be added in series
or parallel. In such case a combined characteristics of the system has to be considered for
proper planning. Figure 17.25 shows the characteristic flow-pressure curve for a pump A.
Due to friction in the system results are not to be found as expected. Curves between

II
0
A = Slatic lifl

5 10 15 20 25 30
DEWERY (MILLION LIT/DAY )-

Figure 17.25 :Output of l k o Pumps Connected in Paraliel or in Series

 t

discharge and head of water has been drawn for pumps connected in series and parallel Pumps And Pumping
and of single pump also. Characteristic curve S also has been drawn for the system into Requirements,Valves And
Appurtenances
which the pumps are delivering water. The system head curve gives the relationship
between the discharge and the total head in a pumping system. It shows that more head is
required to increase the discharge through the system.
The point of intersection of the curves (A + A) and S indicates the joint output of the two
pumps A in series and it is observed that the joint output is less than the sum of the
individual nominal outputs. If pumps are connected in parallel, a pump characteristic
curve (A 11 A) is obtained. The point where this curve cuts curve S indicates the joint
output of the pumps while working in parallel.
To confirm that no suction trouble occurs the hydraulic gradient also should be studied.
Refemng Figure 17.26, jet pump initially drawing water from a reservoir No. 1 and
pumping it to reservoir No. 2.

Hydraulic gradient
ot increased flow
'c'
p- - --- . Reserwir No 2

I
I I

Ngure 17.26 :Effect of Boosting Flow in a Rising Main

When pump is delivering water, the hydraulic gradient for the pump's output is the line
abcd. If the flow is increased by an amount Q then the hydraulic gradient should change
to ab ' c ' d where b' is lower in elevation than b and c ' is higher than c. Initially
difference cb was the pumping head which was to be developed by the pump alone. Now
the difference c ' d ' should be developed by the two pumps working in series i.e., A + A.
Now following points should be satisfied :
(i) The position of b ' must not be so low in relation to the elevation of the pumps
that suction troubles start.
(ii) The enhanced pressure represented by c ' must not be beyond the safe rated
working pressure on the body of the pumps.
(iii) If the pumps are to be operated in series, the joint duty must not cause pump to
be overloaded.
L

(iv) If the pumps are to be run in parallel, they must have stable running
characteristics.
17.7.2 Maintenance of a Given Pressure
One of the most frequent use of a booster is to increase the pressure of water over a
distribution system at the time of high drawoff. Figure 17.27 shows the hydraulic
gradients that may be available before and after boosting.
The booster pump has to be so arranged to cut in automatically when pressure
downstream of the pump reaches a low value or the flow reaches a certain high value.
! A booster which is automatically controlled to maintain a given pressure involves a
complicated automatic control, which may cause some times pressure surging or sudden
draw-off. It is also an expensive arrangement. If a balancing tower is provided in the
system, much of the complication can be avoided. Additional water requirement in case
of more water demand can be served through the balancing tower. It will also maintain ,
the pressure, which may drop in the system due to increased water flow at the time of
more water demand.
- . ',