NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

It is important that we understand how a propeller produces thrust. It does

this in accordance with Newton's Laws of Motion.

QUESTION: There are 3 of Newton's laws that you should remember.

Can you describe any of them? (15 mins).

ANSWER: A tricky question this one - and so early on in the book as

well. The following paragraphs give the answer.

1st Law
An object will stay in a state of rest or uniform motion
unless acted on by an external force. Not particularly
relevant to propellers - but the next two are.

2nd Law
This states that the force produced is proportional to the
mass times the acceleration and can be written as

F <x ma

Using SI units it can be written

F = ma

where F = force in Newtons

m = mass in kgs
a = acceleration in m/s 2

Note: To give you some idea of the actual values. If you held
a small apple in your hand it would produce a downward
force of 1 Newton (IN) - about. One kg is 2.2 Ibs - or about
10 small apples. So the Newton is not very big, is it?

3rd Law
To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
(The school boys - or school girls - favourite).

Now how do these laws help us with the propeller? (Figure 1)

As the propeller rotates, it's aerofoil section causes the air in front of it to be
drawn into the propeller which accelerates it rearwards. Thus we have a in
Newton's second law.
\

The air has mass (1.2 kg per cubic metre at sea level) so we also have m in the
equation F = ma. Thus we have force - BUT it is in the "wrong" direction -
BACKWARDS.

Newton's 3rd law comes into play here - for every action (the backwards force)
there is an equal and opposite reaction (a forwards force acting on the
propeller). So we have thrust. It is the same principle for jet engines and
ship's propellers.

QUESTION: When the aircraft is stationary the air velocity in front of the
propeller is zero - or nearly so. Can you see that a problem
arises as the forward speed of the aircraft increases? Can
you describe what it is? (10 mins)

ANSWER: With an increase in forward speed of the aircraft the velocity

of the air in front of the propeller gets greater, this means
that the acceleration between v and V is less and the
effectiveness of the propeller decreases.

The propeller converts the rotary torque of the engine - piston or turboprop -
into propulsive thrust by accelerating a large mass of air backwards
comparatively slowly, compared to a jet engine which accelerates a small mass
of air backwards at a relatively high velocity.

The propeller of a turbo-prop engine uses about 90% of the engines available
power for propulsion, while 10% of the propulsive force comes from the
residual energy in the exhaust gases. For a piston engine all the available
power is used in the propeller.
The blade has an aerofoil section similar to that of an aircraft's mainplane, but
whereas the reaction on an aircraft's mainplane can be resolved into lift and
drag, the reaction on the propeller blade is resolved into thrust and drag.

The airflow over each part of the blade varies with it's radius from the hub. For
this reason the pitch angle, or twist of the blade, will be high at the root and
low at the tip.

The blade can also be thought of as a cantilever beam (a beam supported at

one end only). The stresses in it are complex, but in general:

• The centrifugal force produces a tensile stress.

• The production of the thrust force produces a bending stress.
• The above bending stress will produce tension in the rear of
the blade and compression in the front.
• Further bending moments will be applied to the blade due to
it's rotation, and it being opposed by the drag.

For the above reasons the blade is made thick at the root and tapered off
towards the tip, so that the thickness/chord ratio at the tip is considerably
less even than the wing of the aircraft to which it is fitted.

The propeller normally consists of two or more blades each of which is a

twisted aerofoil section of irregular planform. The blades are attached to a
central hub, which is mounted onto a shaft driven by the engine. The engine ~
driven shaft is directly connected to the crankshaft on low power engines, or
indirectly connected through a reduction gearbox on engines of higher power
rating. As each blade is of aerofoil cross section, and rotated at an angle of
attack, thrust and torque forces are produced by each blade.

REGULATIONS

Propellers must meet the requirements as laid down by the CAA. These are
published in BCARs section C now replaced by JAR-P for propellers and JAR-E
for engines with some requirements for propellers stated in BCAR 23 - Light
Aeroplanes.

DEFINITIONS

Various terms will be used throughout this book to describe the operation of
both fixed pitch and variable pitch propellers.

The terms described below should be understood and committed to memory,

but at least this section can be used as reference when reading other parts of
the book.
Angle of Attack. The angle between the chordline of the propeller and
the relative airflow (Figure 2).

Aerodynamic Twisting This is a twisting moment caused by the centre of

Moment (ATM) pressure being forward of the pitch change axis
(usually) and this causes a moment (force times
distance) which tends to turn the blade into coarse
pitch. Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM) and
ATM act in the same direction when the propeller is
windmilling.

Aerofoil The cross section of a wing or blade at right angles to

chord and depth.

Asymmetric Not symmetric.

Auto Feathering This system allows the propeller to be feathered

System should there be engine failure at high power settings
ie, during take-off. It is activated by a low torque
signal from the engine torque meter system. See the
book in this series "Engine - Instrumentation".
'Beta' or Blade Angle On some gas turbine engines, a form of control known
Control of Propellers as 'beta' or blade angle control, is used for ground
operations, and this may be applied to either single
or double acting propellers. With this system, the
throttles operate in a gated quadrant. During flight
the throttles cannot be closed below the 'flight idle1
gate, and the Propeller Control Unit (PCU) operates
normally to maintain any pre-selected rpm. In the
ground idling and reversing range, the throttles
control propeller pitch directly to vary power at both
positive and negative blade angles, at constant
propeller speed, and the governor mechanism of the
PCU is overridden.

Blade Aerofoil designed to rotate about an axis to create

lift/thrust.

Blade Angle The angle between the chord line, at a station, and
the plane of rotation (Figure 2).

Blade Axis This is defined by the geometry of the root pitch

change bearings. It is the axis about which the blade
is moved.

Blade Back The cambered side of the blade corresponding to the

top side of an aircraft wing.

Blade Cuff Aerodynamic collar fitted to the blade shank to

improve cooling air to a piston engine.

Blade Face The opposite side to the blade back. The flat side of
the blade aerofoil. Sometimes called Thrust Face.

Blade Pitch The angle between the chord line of the blade and the
plane of rotation. (Figure 2)

Blade Root That part of the blade where it is faired smoothly into
the propeller hub. Usually inside the spinner.

Blank Shank The area of the blade next to the root. It is thick,
strong, well rounded and produces virtually no
thrust forces. Is outside of the spinner.
Blade Station The radial location of a blade element (thin cross
sectional slice) usually expressed as a decimal fraction
of the propeller radius. Sometimes expressed as a
linear distance from a reference such as the spin axis.
(Figure 3)

Blade Sweep Tangential change in the centroids (centroid = centre

of mass) of all the blade elements from the radial axis.
Some propellers have trailing sweep. Leading sweep
is rare. Some modern propellers have a varying
trailing sweep where the change increases from root
to tip.

Blade Tilt Change in the position of the centroids of each blade

from the plane of rotation. When viewed from the side
the blades appear to bend forward (forward tilt) or
backwards (backward tilt). Blade tilt is rare.
Blade Twist (1) Unwanted variation in pitch from root to tip
caused by ATM and CTM. (2) Natural twist in
blade which reduces blade angle from root to tip.

Blade Vector Diagram A vector diagram showing the forces acting on the
blade.

Blade Width Ratio Ratio of mean chord to propeller diameter.

Brake Horse Power The power available at the output shaft of an engine.

Camber The curvature of the back and face of a propeller.

The greater the camber the greater the ability of the
propeller to absorb power. This means a more
powerful engine and more thrust.

Centre of Pressure The point on an aerofoil section of a blade where all

the thrust forces are said to act.
Centrifugal Twisting A moment set up by the centrifugal forces of the blade
Moment (CTM) which tend to rotate the blade towards fine pitch.
(Figure 4)

Chord Line An imaginary straight line starting at the centre of

curvature of the leading edge of the blade section and
ending at the trailing edge.

Club Propeller Used for bench testing engines. Has short stubby
coarse pitch blades to provide the necessary torque to
the engine but with a reduced propeller area. Safer
and takes up less space.

Disc Area The frontal area swept by the rotating propeller.

Discing This is the condition when the blades are set

(temporarily) in a zero blade angle - ie, in the plane
of rotation. It will occur during the transition from
fine to reverse pitch, naturally it will be best if this
transition can be achieved fairly rapidly, with only a
low power selected to reduce the risk of engine
overspeeding. Sometimes used to cause aerodynamic
drag.

Effective Pitch The distance the propeller actually moves through the
air in one revolution. (Figure 5)
Effective Propeller The net thrust from the propeller. Gross thrust
Thrust minus increase in drag due to slipstream equals net
thrust.

Geometric Pitch The theoretical distance a propeller moves forward in

one revolution i.e. the amount it would move forward
if it was cutting through a solid. (Figure 5)

Helix Angle The angle between the resultant direction of the

airflow and the plane of rotation. Sometimes
called the Angle of Advance.

Mach Crit (MCRIT) Parts of a propeller will reach Mach 1 before the rest -
commonly the blade tips. When any part of the
propeller reaches Mach 1 this is called MCRIT.

Mach Number Named after Ernst Mach, an Austrian physicist and is

the ratio of the blade linear speed to the local speed of
sound (762 MPH. 340 m/s at sea level).

Master Station Since the blade angle changes along its length from
root to tip the angular setting of the blade must be
measured from a particular station. This station is
called the Master Station.

Paddle Blade Has a wide chord maintained to the tip.

Plane of Rotation The plane in which the propeller rotates at right

angles to the propeller shaft.

Power-off Drag This condition will occur in the air when the engine
power is reduced - propeller blades will go to a finer
pitch in an effort to maintain rpm, producing higher
drag levels due to the larger blade area facing the
normal airflow.

Propeller Efficiency This is a measure of how much of the available power

(Brake Horse Power) the propeller converts to thrust
(Thrust Horse Power).

% Propeller Efficiency = Thrust Horse Power x 10Q

Brake Horse Power

It is usually at a maximum at about 350 knots

airspeed.
Propeller Slip The difference between Geometric and Effective Pitch
(Figure 5).

Propeller In order to reduce vibration on multi engined aircraft

Synchronising it is essential to have all engines running at the same
rpm Synchronising is the process of achieving this.
It can be aided by the use of a synchroscope on the
flight deck which shows the speed of all engines
related to a designated 'master engine'.

Propeller Propeller vibration can be further reduced on some

Synchrophasing aircraft if all the propellers can operate in some fixed
geometric relation one to another. In other words
each blade of all the propellers are at a different angle
when viewed from the front. This can be achieved by
using electrical signals from the rpm system to
slightly bias the propeller control units.

Solidity A measure of the capacity of the propeller to absorb

power. It is the ratio between that part of the
propeller disc viewed from the front which is solid and
the part which is air.

Subsonic Where the relative airflow is below the local speed of

sound.

Supersonic Where the relative airflow is above the local speed of

sound (greater than Mach 1).

Symmetric An object which has an exact mirror image about a

centre line.

Thrust Face The Blade face.

Thrust Horse Power The actual thrust the propeller is producing. Not
used a lot these days.

Torque Measured as force times distance with units of ft Ibs,

or Nm. It is a measure of the amount of twist in a
shaft. May be applied to a stationary or rotating shaft.
It is a good measure of the real power being
transmitted to the propeller.

Transonic Where some parts of the airflow over a blade is

supersonic and others subsonic.
Windmilling The condition when airflow over the propeller
blades tends to make the engine/propeller
rotate. This effect can occur both on the ground
and in the air due to high winds and/or a low
power selection i-1 flight, usually when the
aircraft is descending.

BLADE OPERATION

The propeller blade is an aerofoil and when an aerofoil is placed in an airflow it

produces lift and drag. The propeller is nothing more than two or more
aerofoils rotated in the (usually) vertical plane. They still produce lift and drag
but they are now called thrust and drag.

The drag that is caused by the rotating blade produces Torque.

The amount of thrust and torque produced by a propeller will depend on the
engine power; the angle of attack of the propeller, and its speed of rotation
which is directly related to the speed of the airflow over the blade.

Consider any four points A to D along the propeller from hub to tip. Point A
being at the hub and point D at the tip. Each point is rotating at the same rpm
but each point has a different linear velocity. Point D has a significantly higher'
linear velocity (and hence airspeed) than point A.

The thrust of the propeller is directly related to the airflow velocity, so this
would mean that the tip would produce the maximum thrust with the points
towards the hub producing progressively less.

This state of affairs would cause a significant bending moment on the blade
and cause it to bend forward and eventually fail. To prevent this the thrust is
distributed along the blade to progressively be reduced towards the tip.

To achieve this the blade angle is decreased from root to tip (the blade is
twisted). This causes a change in angle of attack and allows each part of the
blade to produce the maximum amount to thrust consistent with its airspeed
and structural strength.

The amount of thrust and torque along the blade varies considerable because
of its shape. At the root the section is thick, slow moving, and affected by the
air passing through or over the engine.
At the blade tip the section will be thin and (usually) well rounded. There will
be induced drag and vortices. There will also be high tip speeds which on some
propellers will produce compressibility effects (Merit).

For these reasons the most effective part of the blade is that section between
1/3 and 3/4 of the blade length from the hub.

QUESTION: Can you describe what is meant by the term "Induced

Drag"? (10 mins)

ANSWER: It is where the air spills over the propeller tip from the high
pressure side (the blade face) to the low pressure side (the
blade back). It is the form of vortices which take some
energy from the propeller and hence from the engine.

Vector Description of Propeller Operation (Figure 6)

A vector is a line which represents magnitude and direction. The length of the
line - drawn to some scale - represents the magnitude while the angle it is
drawn represents the direction.

On a moving aircraft the propeller blade is moving forwards and at the same
time moving at right angles to the direction of the aircraft movement. Its
ACTUAL movement is the RESULTANT of these two. These forward and
sideways movements can be drawn as vectors on a Blade Vector Diagram - and
from them the resultant can be obtained. It is usual for the aircraft velocity to
be drawn horizontally and the propeller blade velocity to be drawn vertically.

It is easier to consider the two variables in turn, holding the other quantity
temporarily fixed.

The propeller aerofoil will produce its maximum thrust with minimum torque
when the angle of attack is at the optimum for that propeller. This will be the
condition for MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY.

(a) WITH BLADE VELOCITY HELD CONSTANT. For any aircraft velocity
this will give blade direction, thus a relative airflow direction and an
angle of attack.
If an increased or reduced aircraft velocity is considered, this changes
the relative airflow direction and thus the angle of attack. It can be seen
that the angle of attack REDUCES WITH INCREASED AIRCRAFT
VELOCITY. This means that there will only be one aircraft velocity and
angle of attack that gives maximum efficiency. This is usually aircraft
cruise velocity. Below this speed the angle of attack is too large, and
above this speed the angle of attack is too small, and in each case the
efficiency is reduced.
(b) WITH AIRCRAFT VELOCITY HELD CONSTANT. The blade velocity will
now control the blade direction, relative airflow and angle of attack.
If an increased or reduced blade velocity is considered, this changes the
relative airflow direction and thus the angle of attack. The angle of
attack INCREASES WITH A RISE IN BLADE VELOCITY.

When considering both the propeller speed and the aircraft speed there will be
only ONE COMBINATION of aircraft velocity and blade velocity which gives the
maximum efficiency to both the vector components. Propeller in-efficiency is
usually the result of "slip".

Improving Propeller Efficiency

Improvements have been achieved by improving the design of the blade

aerofoil, but the improvements have been small.

The propeller has a high efficiency with small blade angles and low aircraft
forward speeds - including take-off. This gives an optimum angle of attack.

Also if a large blade angle is used with high aircraft speeds then this will also
give an optimum angle of attack and high efficiency.

This shows the need for a VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLER if efficiency is to be

maintained throughout the speed range. However, these are expensive and
more difficult to maintain.

BLADE STATIONS (Figure 7)

Starting from the centreline of the hub of a propeller, each blade can be
marked off in increments known as BLADE STATIONS. If the blade angle is
measured at each of these stations, the blade angle near the centre of the
propeller will be highest, with a decrease in blade angle toward the tip. This
decrease in blade angle from the hub to the tip is known as pitch distribution.
A cross section of each blade station will show low-speed aerofoils near the
hub and high-speed aerofoils towards the tip.

The pitch distribution and the change in aerofoil shape along the length of the
blade is necessary because each section is moving at a different velocity with
the slowest speeds near the hub and the highest speeds near the tip.

The aerofoil sections at all the blade stations unite to form a blade that creates
thrust when rotated about a central axis. Each section is so designed to
operate at its own best angle of attack to create the maximum thrust when
revolving at its best design rpm.
QUESTION: Can you think of any practical uses for blade stations?
(5 mins)

ANSWER: May be used for:-

(a) Location of measuring points to measuring blade

angle.
(b) The location of propeller markings.
(c) The identification and classification of blade damage

THE FIVE FORCES ON A PROPELLER

The following are the main forces to be experienced by a propeller:

* Centrifugal.
* Thrust.
* Aerodynamic Twisting (producing ATM).
* Centrifugal Twisting (producing CTM).
* Torque bending.

(a) Centrifugal Force (Figure 8)

This is due to the rotation of the propeller. The blade and hub must be
strong enough to withstand this considerable tensile stress.
(b) Thrust Force (Figure 9)

As the blade aerofoil produces thrust the blade tends to bent forward,
causing tension, shear, and compressive stresses. This is minimised
by blade twisting as described previously.

(c) Aerodynamic Twisting Force (Figure 10)

This produces a moment because the aerofoil centre of pressure is

ahead of the blade axis. This produces a moment which tends to turn
the blade towards a LARGER blade angle i.e. towards COURSE PITCH.
This moment is called Aerodynamic Twisting Moment (ATM). This is
true unless the angle of attack is negative when the blade is driven
towards fine pitch
(d) Centrifugal Twisting Force (Figure 11)

This force is produced because of the unbalanced components of the

centrifugal force. It produces a moment which will tend to turn the
blade towards a smaller blade angle ie, turn the blade towards a FINE
PITCH. The moment is called Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM).

With reference to Figure 12. A and B represent equal masses of blade

material. Propeller rotation about O produces centrifugal forces (OC
and OD). These forces may be resolved into components parallel and
perpendicular to the blade axis OX.

The forces parallel to the blade axis are resisted by the blade thrust
bearings and their sum total constitutes the centrifugal pull on the
blade root. The perpendicular forces are not balanced and produce a
twisting moment about the blade axis. The sum total of all such masses
produces a considerable twisting moment which tends to turn the blade
to fine pitch.
(e) Torque Bending Force.

This is produced as the blades tend to bend against the normal

direction of rotation. Caused by the aerodynamic drag on the blade.
Also called 'propeller torque'
VIBRATIONAL FORCES AND CRITICAL RANGE

When a propeller is producing thrust, aerodynamic and mechanical forces are

present which cause the blades to vibrate. If not compensated for in the
design, these vibrations may cause excessive flexing, work-hardening of the
metal, and result in sections of the propeller blade breaking off during use.

Aerodynamic forces have a vibration effect at the tip of a blade where the
effects of transonic speeds cause buffeting and vibration. These vibrations
may be decreased by use of the proper aerofoils and tip design.

Dynamic vibrations are generated by the power pulses in a piston engine and
are considered to be more destructive in their effect than aerodynamic
vibration. These engine power pulses cause a propeller blade to vibrate and
set up standing wave patterns that cause metal fatigue and failure. The
location and number of stress points changes with different rpm settings, but
the most critical location for these stress concentrations is about six-inches
(153mm) in from the tip of the blades.

Most airframe-engine-propeller combinations have no problem in eliminating

the detrimental effects of these vibrational stresses. However, some
combinations are sensitive to certain rpm ranges and have this CRITICAL
RANGE indicated on the tachometer by a red arc. The engine should not be
operated in the critical range except as necessary to pass through it to set a
higher or lower rpm.

If the engine is operated in the critical range, there is a possibility of structural

failure in the aircraft due to the vibrational stresses set up.
PROPELLER BALANCE

The propeller must be balanced when it is running to reduce vibration as

much as possible. This will reduce fatigue stress and give a more comfortable
flight. The propeller must be balanced:

* Statically
* Dynamically
* Aerodynamically

(a) Static Balance.

This is balance in one plane only - a condition where there

is no persistent tendency for a free propeller to rotate from any
position. It is mounted on an arbor, on a rigid knife edge balancing
stand, in a room free of air currents. It is rotated several times and each
time any "out of balance" is corrected for by the addition of small lead or
steel weights to the hub or propeller.

Alternatively an electronic balancing machine may be used. On some

propellers solder is added to the tips - blended in to reduce the
aerodynamic effect.

(b) Dynamic Balance.

This is balance in two planes. When the propeller is rotated there are no
"out of balance couples" produced. The propeller is best balanced on a
special rig (this will tell you where on the circumference of the hub, its
value, and its fore and aft position to place the weight). In general terms
when any weight is attached to the hub for static balance purposes it
must be attached in such a position (in a fore and aft direction) so as not
to produce a couple when the propeller is rotating.

(c) Aerodynamic Balance

All the blades must produce the same thrust. This can be achieved by
having correct aerofoil sections and correct blade angles. For VP
propellers this means the correct fitting and alignment of each blade in
the hub.

Note: With all balancing procedures always refer to the propeller

manual/aircraft manual.
PROPELLER TRACK

When the propeller is rotating each blade must have the same position in
relation to the plane of rotation, ie the "track" must be correct. This is checked
by turning the propeller by hand and checking that identical marks on the
blade tip pass exactly over the same point - using a stand or bench placed
close to the propeller. Alternatively the track may be checked with the
propeller on a surface table using a height gauge.

PROPELLER VISIBILITY

When the propeller is rotating it can almost become invisible. To reduce this
problem the blade tips are painted in a contrasting colour, or some blades are
painted with coloured bands which may produce a "corkscrew" effect when
rotating.

TIP SPEED

Flutter or vibration may be caused by the tip of the propeller blade travelling at
a speed approaching the speed of sound, thus causing stressing and fatigue to
develop. This condition can be overcome by operating at a lower rpm or
reducing the propeller diameter without changing the blade profile.

Tip speed is actually the principle factor determining the efficiency of high-
performance propellers of conventional two or three blade design. It is
essential to keep the tip velocity below the speed of sound. At sea level the
speed of sound is generally taken to be 340 m/s (1120 ft/s), but it decreases
with altitude.

The efficiency of high-performance propellers of conventional two or three

blade design may be expressed in terms of the ratio of the tip speed to the
velocity of sound. For example, at sea level, when the tip speed is 900 ft/s, the
maximum efficiency is about 80%.

It is usually necessary to gear the drive shaft so that the propeller will turn at
a lower rpm than the engine in order to obtain tip ratios below the speed of
sound. For example, if the engine is geared in a 3:2 ratio, the propeller will
turn at two-thirds the speed of the engine.

When the propeller turns at a lower rpm the aerofoil sections of the blades
strike the air at a lower speed and they therefore do not do so much work in a
geared propeller as they would do in one with a direct drive. It is necessary in
this case to increase the blade area by using a larger diameter or more blades.
 BLADE MATERIALS

Blades may be made from:

Wood

Older blades may be made of laminated woods such as lignum-vitae,

a very dense wood, with leading edges protected with metal
sheaths.

Metal

Such as solid duralumin. If they are to carry heater elements they

are rebated along the leading edge (to about 2/3rds of the radius from
the hub) to receive electrical heater elements.

Composite

Newer blades are being made from composite materials - carbon

fibre or aluminium main spars with foam filler for the aerofoil shape
covered with a strong composite outer layer.

Wood

In the early days of aviation, all propellers were made of wood, but the
development of larger and higher horsepower aircraft engines made it
necessary to adopt stronger and more durable materials; hence, metal is now
extensively used in the construction of propellers for all types of aircraft.
A wooden propeller is not cut from a solid block but is built up of a number of
separate layers of carefully selected and well-seasoned hardwoods, as shown in
figure 13.
Types of wood include:

* Lignum-vitae.
* Yellow birch.
* Sugar maple.
* Black walnut.

As shown in figure 13 the laminations of wood are given a preliminary shaping

and finishing and then are stacked together and glued with high-quality glue.
Pressure and temperature are carefully controlled for the prescribed time.
After the glue has set according to specification, the propeller is shaped to its
final form using templates and protractors to ensure that it meets the design
specifications.

After the propeller is shaped, the tip of each blade is covered with fabric to
protect the tip from moisture and reduce the tendency to crack or split. The
fabric is thoroughly waterproofed. Finally, the leading edge and tip of each
blade is provided with a sheet-brass shield to reduce damage due to small
stones, sand and other materials encountered during takeoff and taxing.

The shielding or erosion strips on the leading edge and the tips is vented by
drilling holes about 2mm in diameter. These holes help to eliminate any
moisture that might condense under the metal.

The centre bore of the hub and the mounting-bolt holes are very carefully
bored to exact dimensions. This is essential to good balance after installation.

During the final production stages, the propeller is balanced, both horizontally
and vertically (statically and dynamically), and aerodynamically. Finally it is
given a coat of finishing varnish.

Metal

The majority of modern propellers are manufactured from light alloy forgings,
accurately machined to give the precise aerofoil shape and blade angle.

After forging a close tolerance centre bore is provided to receive a steel hub or
adapter. Bolt holes are drilled to allow the propeller to be attached to a
standard propeller shaft. It is then given an anti corrosive treatment.

QUESTION: Can you describe what is meant by "forging"?

(5 mins)
ANSWER: It is a form of stamping process where the propeller is
stamped to shape using a hydraulic press.

QUESTION: What is the standard anti-corrosive treatment for aluminium

alloys? (2 mins)

ANSWER: Anodising. This is usually employed on aluminium

propellers.

Composite Materials

Composite blades have a greater strength/weight ratio than metal blades and
do not suffer from corrosion; they are more popular for the larger turbo prop,
aircraft.

The composite material consists of various plastic resins reinforced with fibres
made of glass, carbon (sometimes called graphite), Kevlar, or boron. These
fibres have high tensile strength and without a bonding resin would be useless
in compression (they would bend).

The resin may be a two part epoxy resin or polyester, or polyamide.

Glass fibres with epoxy resins have been used for many years to produce such -
things as radomes and radio transparent panels.

Carbon fibre/epoxy resin components have been developed more recently to

produce a structure with a higher strength/weight ratio than glass fibre
composites.

Construction techniques vary but most manufacturers use a non monolithic

design ie, the structure is not the same all the way though, and in many cases
foam filling is used with a Kevlar or glass fibre shell.
Spar/Shell Composite Propeller

Figure 14 shows a typical Spar/Shell designed propeller.

The spar consists of solid aluminium alloy (from which most of the strength is
obtained), and the shell is made up of fibre glass. The gaps between the fibre
glass shell and the spar are filled with plastic foam which give the structure
the required amount of stiffness and compression strength without incurring a
significant weight penalty.

It would be considered a semi monocoque design as at least some of the load is

taken by the outer skin of the propeller. (A monocoque structure is where the
skin or shell takes all the load and there is no internal support)

Shell Composite Propeller (Figure 15)

This is also a semi monocoque structure where a Kevlar shell is supported

internally by shear webs and the cavities in between are filled with a foam fill.

The Kevlar shell is made up of unidirectional and multidirectional layers of

material bonded together with an epoxy resin.

The leading and trailing edges, and the tip are locally reinforced with
unidirectional Kevlar.

The leading edge is further protected by a metal cap. This cap is bonded onto
the propeller to help reduce the erosive effect of rain, hail and airborne debris.

The webs, also of unidirectional Kevlar, are constructed between the back and
face sides of the propeller to resist shear, flexing and buckling.
The Kevlar skin is bonded to an aluminium alloy shank and retained by a
retention winding where the propeller is attached to the spider hub. The
aluminium alloy shank is then attached to the spider hub by a blade clamp.

The primary retention winding holds the shell tightly against the aluminium
alloy shank. The winding is made from a Kevlar roving impregnated with an
epoxy resin.

This arrangement ensures that the blade cannot separate from the propeller
hub even under the most extreme centrifugal forces.

The end of the Kevlar shell is flared to match the contour of the al alloy shell
and this forms the basis of the secondary retention system. A blade clamp is
then attached around the hub spider boss and clamps the propeller from
behind the flare to the hub from behind the main bearing.

The main bearing takes the main centrifugal forces and allows the propeller
blade to change pitch.

FIXED PITCH PROPELLERS

Usually made of aluminium alloy, though some older ones are made of wood,
and some newer ones may be made of composite material. Usually two bladed
and made as one single piece of material (Figure 17).
 GROUND ADJUSTABLE PROPELLERS

These are designed to allow the propeller pitch to be changed on the ground -
depending on how the engine is to be configured for the best operation under
certain conditions eg:

TO ALLOW SET PITCH TO

max. rate of climb fine allow engine to run at max

rpm
best cruise less fine allow engine to run slower
and more efficiently

Note: If the pitch is too fine then the engine will overspeed.

A ground adjustable propeller may have blades made from wood or metal. The
hub may be of two piece steel construction with clamps or a large retention
nut to hold the blade in place on the hub.
To change the blade angle the nut or blade clamps are loosened and the blade
adjusted to the new angle as indicated by a propeller protractor.

There are angle markings on the hub, but these are not considered accurate
enough so a propeller protractor is used.

To adjust the propeller the complete assembly is mounted on a mandrel fitted

to, or placed on, a propeller surface table (figure 19). The blade clamps are
loosened so that each blade can be turned by hand. Each blade is adjusted in
turn to the correct angle as indicated by the protractor. A specific station is
used on the blade as indicated in the propeller/aircraft maintenance manual.
Checking the angle on the aircraft will be described more fully later.
 VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLERS

As explained previously, for the propeller blade to produce maximum thrust it

must be at the correct angle to the relative airflow. Changes in this angle are
influenced by changes in engine rpm and airspeed.

Under certain conditions the engine rpm may be reduced and even brought to
a stop by the blade angle being too high (coarse) - not unlike a car attempting
to climb a steep hill in to high a gear.

If the blade angle is too small (fine) then engine rpm could exceed it's design
maximum and suffer severe damage.

To enable the propeller to run at it's most efficient rpm, and prevent overspeed
of the engine, some form of automatic control of the blade angle is required.
On some installations this control is semi-automatic and needs certain inputs
from the pilot. On more modern systems control is fully automatic and
achieved by governors and actuation devices.

Variable pitch propellers can vary considerable in design and operation and
will depend on the aircraft/engine combination; the configuration of the engine
and propeller, and the required performance. Performance can be related to
speed, cruising height, payload, theatre of operation, and a host of design
parameters, not least of which is the manufacture's preferred systems.

Propellers and their systems can be divided into many different categories, of
which the following are typical:

* Simple two pitch - coarse and fine

* Fully variable - normally constant speeding systems

These can be further divided into:

* Electrically operated - rare

* Automatically operated - by blade aerodynamic forces - rare
* Automatically operated - by oil pressure

Fluid operated systems can be classified as:

* Moving piston
* Moving cylinder

These can also be divided into:

* Single acting
* Double acting
The following pages show examples of different types of propellers/systems.

You are not expected to remember the details of them, but you should read
through each one and understand what you have read. You should also relate
this information to your own propeller experience - if possible.

You should be able to describe (to someone without any previous knowledge of
the subject) how a pitch change system works - including the PCU and the
piston/ cylinder/ propeller mechanism.

Range of Propeller Pitch (Figure 20)

A variable pitch propeller will have two or more blades which are secured into
a hub with a ball or roller bearing assembly. Each blade is connected to a
pitch change piston/cylinder, so that as the piston/cylinder moves to the from
or rear all the blades are made to pivot together, thus changing the blade
pitch.

The piston/cylinder is made to move by the action of an engine driven

Propeller Control Unit (PCU) which uses engine pressure lubricating oil
boosted to a higher pressure as the hydraulic fluid providing the force. The
pitch range is about 35°.

The variable pitch on a propeller can be operated by an electric motor or more

commonly a hydraulic piston/cylinder arrangement.

Most VP props will be able to change between the following main pitch
settings:

(a) Super Fine Pitch. On direct coupled turbo prop engines the turbine,
compressor and propeller are directly coupled and this can result in a
large rotating mass that can make starting difficult. Super fine or
ground fine pitch (about 0°) reduces the drag from the propeller and
hence the load on the starter motor, making starting easier.

(b) Fine Pitch. The smallest positive blade angle normally used. The
engine is able to turn at high rpm and thus it will be able to produce
high power outputs. This pitch is used on TAKE-OFF and for high
power climbs.

(c) Coarse Pitch. A large blade angle, this means that the engine will turn
at a lower rpm. This pitch is normally used to produce economical
CRUISE at high forward speeds.
(d) Feathered Pitch. The blade is fully rotated until the leading edge is
facing the normal airstream, so that the airflow over both sides of the
blade is the same. The engine is then stopped, the propeller will thus
remain stationary in flight with no windmilling and very little drag.

This pitch is only used on muli-engined aircraft to enable the

engine to be switched off as the result of a defect or for crew training. In
some specialised cases it can be used as an economy measure.

(e) Reverse Pitch. The blades are moved from fine pitch through the plane
of rotation to a negative blade angle.

Thus the airflow moved by the propeller is pushed forwards, instead

of rearwards, the REACTION to this airflow produces a rearwards force.

This pitch may be used to supplement the normal aircraft wheel brakes
during landing.
 It will stop the aircraft more quickly and shorten the landing run with
less wear on the brakes and tyres, but with more wear on the engine,
and increased fuel consumption. In some cases the aircraft can be
taxied backwards for parking. It is normally only fitted to larger aircraft.

AUTOMATIC PITCH CHANGE PROPELLER (Figures 2la & b)

These propellers are designed so that the blade angle will change in response
to the forces applied to them - thus changing the load on the engine as flight
conditions change.

There are no cockpit controls or control system - the propeller will change
automatically in response to the loads imposed upon it.

At high power setting/low speed (as in a climb) the blade angle will decrease to
provide good climb performance. The reverse will happen at low power settings.

Sometimes called the Aeromatic Propeller it uses the aerodynamic and

centrifugal forces that will balance each other out to achieve the desired angle.

Figure 21 shows how these forces are related to each other. Note that the
propeller centreline is behind the hub centreline and that the angle between -
them remains constant as the blade angle changes. This arrangement results
in the blade moving forward of the hub plane of rotation when at low angles -
and moving behind the hub plane of rotation at high blade angles.

Consider the aircraft in the cruise condition. The throttle is pushed forward
and engine rpm start to rise. This increase in rpm will result in an increase in
the CTM which tends to decrease the blade angle. The increase in lift of the
propeller caused by the increase in rpm will tend to decrease the blade angle.

The higher rpm results in a higher blade angle of attack with the result that
the centre of lift moves towards the leading edge of the blade further increasing
the movement toward a lower blade angle.

As the aircraft starts to accelerate the blade angle of attack starts to decrease
and the centre of lift starts to move rearwards.

The initial increase in rpm caused an increase in the force of the counterweight
towards a higher blade angle, but this was insufficient to overcome the
combined forces moving the blade to a lower angle.
However, as the centre of lift moves rearward, tending to increase blade angle,
and the system rpm increases with a rise in airspeed, the force generated by
the counterweights becomes sufficient to move the blade to a higher angle.

At the point where the airspeed no longer increases the opposing forces
balance out and the blades assume the best position for the existing conditions
of airspeed and engine power setting.
ELECTRICALLY OPERATED CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLER (Figure 22)

Typical of this type of propeller is that fitted to the Beechcraft 215.

The pitch is controlled by an electric motor which is held stationary on a fixed

circular bracket which is attached to the engine and goes around the propeller
shaft.

A pinion gear wheel on the motor engages with a ring gear. This ring gear
controls the position of the pitch control bearing by means of internal threads
on the ring gear hub. These threads engage lugs on the pitch control bearing
causing them to move forward or backwards as the ring gear is rotated by the
motor.

The ring gear does not rotate with the propeller it only moves when the electric
motor is operated.
Operation

Control of the pitch is via a 3 position switch in the cockpit (Decrease-OFF-

Increase). The "decrease-increase" commands means decrease rpm - increase
rpm. During starting, the propeller is set! o the Hi rpm (low pitch) position.

The same position is held for take-off and as cruise is approached so the
switch is moved to the Lo rpm position (high pitch) and released when correct
rpm is indicated.

For approach and landing the propeller is set to the maximum low pitch, high
rpm position.

THE McCAULEY PROPELLER (Figure 23)

This is an all metal constant speed propeller controlled by a single-acting

governor.

The control of the pitch is via an oil fed single cylinder and piston.

When the piston is moved it causes the actuating pins to move forwards or
backwards, these are attached to the blades via the pitch link assembly which
rotate in their bearing assemblies.
When the piston is fully forward (assisted by the spring) the blades are in the
low pitch position. If the engine overspeeds the governor will direct oil
pressure through the centre of the crankshaft; through the centre of the
piston rod to the piston head. This will cause the piston to move back
coarsening the pitch and reducing the rpm.

If engine rpm falls below the selected speed the governor will allow oil out of
the cylinder and the return spring will move the piston forward twisting the
blades to a finer position. This action is assisted by the centrifugal twisting
moment of the rotating blades.

THE HARTZELL CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER (Figure 24)

This propeller may be non-feathering or may be capable of feathering or

reversing, depending on the type. The metal blades are supported on a spider,
and clamps connect the blade shanks to the spider with bearings. A hydraulic
cylinder is mounted in front on the rotational axis and connected to the blade
clamps (which have counterweights attached) for pitch change.

When the propeller is running the centrifugal force on the counterweights, and
the aerodynamic twisting moment tends to turn the blades into coarse pitch.

Propeller governor oil pressure in the propeller cylinder and CTM tend to turn
the blades into fine pitch.
The feathering propeller uses a spring to assist the counterweights to increase
the pitch. High pitch stops prevent the propeller feathering when the aircraft
has landed and the engine is cut. The stops are spring loaded latches attached
to the hub which engage high pitch stop plates bolted to removable blade
clamps. At speeds in excess of 500 rpm the latches are disengaged from the
stop plates by centrifugal force.

Reversible pitch props have another oil system which is controlled by a valve
operated by the pilot. When selected the oil pressure moves the blades from
low to reverse pitch and the feathering spring tension returns the blades when
the oil pressure is released.

At this point it is worth having a look at a propeller control unit. There are
several different types - a typical one is explained.

PROPELLER CONTROL UNIT (PCU) (Figure 25)

The PCU will be able to change the pitch of the propeller in response to pilot
demand within the normal operating ranges to maintain a pre-selected rpm
setting, by controlling the flow of pressure oil to or from the propeller pitch
change unit. The PCU is driven by the engine and consists of the following
assemblies:

* Governor Oil Pump. A small spur gear pump which receives normal engine ~
pressure lubricating oil and raises its pressure still further. This high
pressure oil is used to move the piston in the pitch change assembly. A
pressure relief valve (not shown for clarity) across the pump outlet controls the
output pressure, surplus oil is dumped back to the pump inlet.

* Oil Control Valve. This is a steel shaft with a number of 'lands'. The valve
controls the flow of oil, passing to or from the pitch change cylinder, thus
controlling the propeller pitch. The valve is moved by either the pilot's control
lever through a rack and pinion and spring assembly, or a pair of centrifugally
operated bob weights.

* Bob Weights. These are a pair of 'L' shaped weights rotated by the engine on
a carrier plate. The centrifugal force created on the weights is opposed by a
spring. The weights act directly onto the oil control valve to reposition it.

* Rack and Pinion Assembly. Consists of a rack and pinion and a strong
spring. The pilots propeller control lever is linked to move the pinion which in
turn moves the rack. The control movement thus changes the load on the
spring, which, with the bob weights, will reposition the oil control valve and
change the propeller pitch.
* Pilots Propeller Control Lever. Not strictly a part of the PCU but of course
related to it:

The lever range is usually marked at one end MAX RPM which is FINE
PITCH. This position creates the biggest load on the spring, and causes
the oil control valve to be lowered. The other markings are usually a MIN
RPM position which is COARSE PITCH.

This position creates only a small load on the PCU spring. The
FEATHER POSITION, if included, is beyond the coarse pitch position and
when selected POSITIVELY repositions the oil control valve. The reverse
pitch is usually achieved through a separate electrical selection.
When oil flows into the pitch change cylinder the cylinder is caused to move
forward, compressing the return spring and moving the blades into the fine
position via the pitch change links. When oil pressure is released the cylinder
is allowed to move back under the influence of the return spring,
counterweights, and ATM.

DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION OF A VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLER

The engine is always started on the ground with the propeller control lever set
to the MAX rpm or FINE PITCH position.

Thus the controls load the PCU spring which depresses the oil control valve
against a nil or low centrifugal load from the bob weights, which pushes them
inwards.

In this position the oil control valve directs governor pump oil to turn or
maintain the propeller in the fine pitch position against a stop.

As engine speed rises the centrifugal load on the bob weights also increases
which tends to progressively return the oil control valve and bob weights to the
neutral (upright) position.

Only as max rpm is reached does the centrifugal load on the bob weights
increase sufficiently to pull them outwards from the neutral position against ~
spring load. This movement lifts the oil control valve and allows oil to drain
from the propeller pitch change cylinder.

The propeller pitch will now move slightly towards COARSE, under the action
of the pitch change cylinder return spring, blade counterweights and ATM.
The coarser pitch increases the load on the engine and the rpm stabilises. In
this manner the rpm is maintained at the maximum value. In this position the
propeller is CONSTANT SPEEDING.

Although the propeller has slightly coarsened, the pilots control lever is still
selected to the fully fine pitch or max. rpm position.

If the rpm should fall for any reason while a max rpm selection is made, the
PCU spring force overcomes the bob weight load and the oil control valve is
depressed which in turn directs governor pump oil to FINE off the propeller
pitch slightly. A finer pitch will cause the engine/propeller rpm to rise
returning to the selected value. Again the pilots control has not moved in this
change. This is the UNDERSPEED condition and its correction.
Flight Operation

During take-off the propeller should CONSTANT SPEED at MAX rpm. This
comes about from the repeated situation of rising airspeed producing smaller
blade angle of attack and an overspeed condition, which is continuously
corrected as the blades move slightly towards coarse pitch.

In cruising flight the engine power is reduced to the appropriate value by

movement of the throttle. Engine rpm will fall in consequence, and the
propeller will go into fine pitch in an attempt to maintain the selected rpm.

The propeller control lever can then be moved towards coarse pitch to further
reduce rpm to the correct cruise value.

In this position the propeller will assume an ON SPEED position CONSTANT

SPEEDING at the new selected rpm value. Any rpm variation will be dealt with
as previously described.

Speed Conditions

On Speed Condition In this condition the propeller is running at the rpm

selected by the pilots control. Thus centrifugal force on the bob weights
balances the force of the governor control spring, the bob weights remain
vertical.

The governor control valve is in a neutral position and traps oil in the pitch
change cylinder. The propeller pitch and thus rpm remain constant.

Underspeed Condition. In this condition the propeller is running at LESS than

the selected rpm. Thus control spring force in the governor unit is GREATER
than the centrifugal force on the bob weights which move inwards.

The governor control valve is LOWERED, supplying high pressure oil to the
pitch change cylinder. Blade angle decreases - propeller moves towards FINE
pitch - engine speed rises until the rpm returns to the ON SPEED CONDITION
again.

Overspeed Condition. In this condition the propeller is running at MORE than

the selected rpm. Thus governor control spring force is LESS than the
centrifugal force of the bob weights, which fly outwards. The governor control
valve is raised, high pressure oil OR springs (as in this case) increase blade
angle - propeller moves towards COARSE pitch, rpm reduces until the ON
SPEED condition is restored.
Feathering Operation

In the event of engine malfunction or for training purposes (multi-engined

aircraft only) if the engine is throttled back and eventually stopped. The
propeller control lever is moved to the feathering position and this positively
lifts the oil control valve and allows oil to drain from the pitch change cylinder.

The pitch change cylinder will push the blades to, and maintain them in, the
feathered position. The engine/propeller will now remain stationary in flight.

On some aircraft an automatic feathering facility is available.

Figure 26 shows an example of a feathering propeller with latches built into

the hub assembly. The propeller operating mechanism is sprung loaded and
counterweighted so that the blades always try and go to the feather position all
the time. If oil pressure is lost the blades will automatically feather.

To prevent the blades from feathering when the engine is stopped on the
ground the spring loaded latch mechanism engages at a designed low rpm.
Movement of the blades to the feather position is therefore prevented.

Three types of latching mechanism have been used for this function: the
inertial; the pressure, and the centrifugal. The centrifugal is the most popular.
BLADE ANGLE CONTROL ON THE GROUND

On some gas turbine engines, a form of control known as "Beta" or blade angle
control is used for ground operations. This may be applied to single or double
acting propellers.

With this system the throttles or power levers operate in a gated quadrant.
During flight these levers cannot be closed below the "flight idle" gate, and the
PCU operates normally to maintain the pre-selected rpm.

In the ground idling and reversing range the power levers control the propeller
pitch to vary power at both positive and negative blade angles, at constant
propeller speed, and the governor mechanism is overridden.

Figure 27 shows a typical single acting, moving cylinder, oil operated auto-
feathering propeller system incorporating blade angle ground control.

The cockpit controls consist of:

* A power lever - connected to the FCU

* A propeller control lever - connected to the governor PCU

The power lever controls power output in all modes and propeller blade angle
in the Beta Mode. It is linked to a cam assembly on the side of the engine and
from there to a system of linkages that go rearward to the FCU and forward to-
the Beta control valve.

The power lever adjusts both fuel flow and blade angle in the Beta or "ground"
mode. In the Alpha or "flight" mode it controls the fuel flow only.

The propeller control lever is connected to the PCU which adjusts system rpm
in the Alpha mode and a fuel cut-off lever (hp cock) connected to the FCU.

Beta Mode operation is usually in the range of 50 to 85% rpm. In this range
the power lever is used to control both fuel flow and propeller angle. When the
power lever is moved forward, the cam assembly causes the fuel flow to the
engine to increase. At the same time the linkage to the propeller governor
moves the Beta control valve forward out of the governor body, and propeller
oil pressure is released.

As the oil is released so the propeller cylinder moves in; the slip ring of the
cylinder moves in and the linkage returns the Beta control valve to the neutral
position. This gives proportional movement to the propeller.(Negative feedback).
If the power lever is moved rearward, the fuel flow is reduced, the Beta control
valve is move in, and oil pressure is directed to the propeller to decrease
propeller blade angle. As the cylinder moves out so the Beta control valve
returns to the neutral position by the action of the slip ring and linkage. This
again gives a proportional response.

If the power lever is moved rearwards passed the zero thrust position the blade
moves to a negative angle to provide reverse thrust, and fuel flow is increased.
This allows for variable reverse thrust using the cam on the side of the engine.

During the Beta Mode the propeller governor constant-speed mechanism is

'underspeed' with the pilot valve is lowered. The governor oil pump supplies oil
for propeller operation in the Beta Mode.

In the Alpha Mode the system rpm is high enough for the propeller governor to
operate, and the system is in a constant-speed mode.

As the power lever is moved forward more fuel flows to the engine to increase
power, and the propeller governor causes an increase in the propeller blade
angle to absorb the extra power - thus selected system rpm is maintained.

When the power lever is moved rearward the blade angle will be decreased by
the governor to maintain the selected rpm.

To feather the propeller, the propeller control lever is moved fully aft. The pilot -
valve in the governor is raised and all of the oil pressure in the propeller is
released.

The springs and the propeller counterweights will move the propeller to
feather.

To move to unfeather, the engine is started and the power turbine rotates. The
governor or Beta control valve will take the propeller to the selected blade angle
or governor rpm setting. The engine will be started before the propeller reaches
it's proportional rpm because of the free turbine nature of the engine.

PROPELLER PITCH STOPS (LARGE PROPELLERS ONLY)

The following pitch stops could be used:

(i) Ground Fine These are used on certain types of turbo prop
(ii) Flight Fine engines only.
(iii) Feathered
(iv) Reverse
(v) Coarse Pitch Stop
Ground Fine Pitch

During starting and ground running at low power on certain direct coupled
turbo propeller engines a very fine propeller pitch may be required, to minimise
propeller load and thus reduce the risk of engine overheating. This pitch is
TOO FINE and dangerous in flight due to the risk of engine overspeeding. The
ground fine pitch stop is normally fixed - except in a propeller which is capable
of reverse pitch, in which case it must be removable - by selection from the
cockpit.

Flight Fine

A removable stop to limit the minimum pitch which can be obtained in flight.
This stop is in the form of a spring collet. When ground fine pitch is required,
a solenoid in the propeller control unit is energised, normally by operation of
the STOP WITHDRAWAL LEVER, THROTTLE AND WEIGHT SWITCHES.

Feathered

The maximum pitch which can be achieved on multi engined aircraft only.
This can be achieved manually by moving the propeller control lever to the
feathered position which positively raises the governor control valve. The use
of an additional electrically operated feathering pump may be necessary to
move the blades fully to the feathered position.

On some engines automatic feathering can be initiated by means of LOW

TORQUE sensing switches on the engine, which when activated operate the
valve lift solenoid of the PCU which causes the lifting of the governor control
valve, and move the bob weights outwards.

Electric power may also be supplied to the feathering pump, and the feathering
operation commences, and continues until the blades reach the feathering
stop.

The stop itself is fixed in the propeller casing, to limit the maximum blade
angle.

Reverse Pitch

In a reversing propeller, the mechanism includes a removable (ground) fine

pitch stop, which enables the propeller to fine off to a negative blade angle.
This can only happen when certain actions and conditions are fulfilled.
Reversible pitch propellers have another oil system which is controlled by a
valve operated by the pilot. When selected, the oil pressure moves the blades
from low to reverse pitch and the feathering spring tension returns the blades
when the pressure is released.

This allows a separate oil supply to move a pitch lock piston and lock support
thus freeing the spring collet, (the stop) which retracts inwards.

Electrical control is exercised by throttle switches, weight contact (weight

switch on the landing gear called a ground/air sensor by Boeing - WOW
Weight on Wheels switch by Airbus) and a master switch to arm the circuit.

This condition is selected once the aircraft is on the ground after landing
usually, to aid the aircraft wheel brakes, to shorten the landing run and
reduce wear on the brake system. It is sometimes known as POWER ON
BRAKING. The stop itself is fixed in the propeller casing to limit the maximum
negative blade angle.

Other types of stop which can be used are centrifugal, manual or electrical.

PROPELLER UN-FEATHERING

On turbo-prop engines, when the HP fuel cock is open and the power lever
closed the governor valve directs oil from the feathering pump to the rear of the
pitch change piston. Selection of the feathering pump switch supplies oil to
the PCU and to the propeller.

When the blades have turned from the feathered position the airflow starts to
windmill the propeller and engine - the engine should start, and normal oil
pressure should build up to complete the un-feathering operation. In
summary:

1. Set controls for starting.

2. Set propeller control lever to fine pitch.

3. Operate feathering pump (electrical - or un-feathering

accumulator.

4. Switch off the relevant services after the engine has started.
PISTON ENGINE CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLERS - ELECTRICAL
FEATHERING

As we know the motive power for the operation of the pitch change mechanism
is oil pressure derived from a pump.

The oil is supplied from the pump/control valve to a piston and cylinder
arrangement in the hub of the propeller which is connected via suitable
linkages to each blade.

During normal operation the oil under pressure is admitted to one side or the
other of the piston. This is controlled by the CSU. Movement of the piston will
change the pitch of the blades.

On single engined aircraft a feathering system is not usually employed and no

electrical circuitry is not involved. On multi engined aircraft, however, an
individual electrical system for each propeller provides feathering should any
particular engine be shut down in flight.

Feathering

Should an engine be shut down then the normal source of oil pressure supply
will not be available to operate the feathering mechanism, so an alternative
supply must be provided.

This supply is provided by an electrically driven pump - known as the

feathering pump. This draws oil from the engine oil supply and feeds it under
pressure to the propeller pitch change mechanism.

This high pressure oil, fed to the appropriate side of the piston of the pitch
change mechanism, causes the propeller blades to be moved passed fully
coarse so that they are positioned edge-on to the airflow, i.e. feathered.

The circuit - (Figure 28)

While you are not expected to know the details of the circuit you should be
able to understand how it works, the general principles, and what to look for
should a fault occur.
The feathering pump is a high current consumer and (as in all these cases),
requires a large diameter cable with the shortest possible cable run (reduces
weight and the voltage drop which would occur on a long cable run). To be able
to switch this supply a relay (or relays) must be fitted. This means that the
cable can have the shortest possible run direct form supply to motor without
having to go via the cockpit to be switched.

The same principle applies to starter motors.

Operation

Engine starting.

Pressing the engine starter push causes:

(a) A supply to be connected to the master and starter relays (the

starter relay supply is via a fuel switch (not shown).

(b) A heavy duty supply will then be completed to the series wound
starter motor.

Feathering.

Pressing the feathering push will cause:

(a) A supply to be completed to the master and feathering relays.

(b) A heavy duty supply to be completed to the compound wound

feathering pump.

(c) A "lock on" solenoid circuit to be completed for the feather push
via the oil pressure switch.

(d) When sufficient oil pressure has built up to feather the prop the
oil pressure switch opens the circuit, de-energises the feather
push relay, the feather push opens, the feather relay cuts out,
and the feather pump motor stops.
Un-feathering.

On starting the engine the engine should automatically start un-feathered. If it

does not un-feather when the engine has reached steady speed then the
feather push should be pushed in and released as soon as the propeller has
started to move from the feathered position. (Remember we are talking about a
piston engined aircraft here).

Figure 29 shows another (typical) feathering installation.

THE HYDROMATIC VP PROPELLER (Figure 30)

In this type of mechanism the piston is connected by pins and rollers to a fixed
curved cam track and moveable cam/bevel gear. The bevel gear meshes with a
similar bevel gear on the root of each blade. Axial movement of the piston
causes rotation of the moveable cam/bevel gear and thus alteration of the
blade angle. Operating oil is conveyed to the propeller mechanism through
concentric tubes in the bore of the engine reduction gear shaft.

The propeller consists of three main assemblies:

1. The hub and blade.

2. Distributor valve.
3. Pitch change mechanism.
This moves it rearwards to increase the pitch angle of the blades and hence the
load on the engine. At the same time, displaced oil from the rear of the piston
is directed by the governor piston valve to the inlet side of the governor pump.
The increased pitch angle of the blades causes the rpm to fall until a. state of
balance is reached and the governor piston valve returns to the "on speed"
condition.

Underspeed Condition (figure 31b)

If the rpm falls below the selected speed, the spring force, being in excess of
the governor flyweight force, causes a downward movement of the governor
piston valve. In this position, operating oil is directed to the rear of the
propeller pitch change piston, moving it forward and increasing the pitch of the
blades (and increasing the load on the engine). At the same time, the oil
displaced from the front of the piston is returned to the governor pump. This
condition will apply until the selected rpm is restored.

In-flight Feathering (figure 31c)

The blades may have to be set to "feather" because of engine or governor

failuie in flight. In addition feathering the propeller may be part of a test flight
program.

Feathering the propeller prevents it windmilling in the airflow and also reduces
the drag on the propeller and hence the total drag on the aircraft.

The pilot first stops the engine by setting the throttle to idle and closing the HP
cock. This is followed by selecting "feather" by moving the HP cock past the
"OFF" position to the "feather" position. This moves the feathering lever on the
governor which mechanically lifts the governor piston valve and opens the (
coarse oil line.

Remember the engine is stopped with the propeller in the windmilling

condition, so that full system pressure is not available from the governor
pumo.

The pilot has to operate a "Manual Feather Switch" which activates the electric
motor within the feathering unit. The reserve supply of "feathering oil" is
sucked from the tank and high pressure oil is pumped to the pitch change
mechanism via the governor. The pitch change piston is forced rearwards and
the blades are thus set to the feather position. Displaced oil is returned to
drain via the governor.
Unfeathering in Flight (figure 3Id)

After feathering, the engine may be restarted - if the flight crew feel it is OK to
do so. Before the engine is restarted the blades need to be set to the "flight
fine" position. If the blades were set to coarse during the restart of a turbo prop
engine it would cause excessive turbine temperature due to insufficient airflow
through the turbine. The high propeller torque would not allow the engine the
run at a high enough rpm.

The pilot selects the HP cock to the "OFF" position. This moves the feathering
lever on the governor and the governor piston valve is pushed to the bottom of
the unit under spring pressure. The "fine" oil line is now open allowing oil from
the front of the pitch change mechanism to drain away as the pitch change
piston moves forward.

The blades are moved towards fine pitch by operating the feather motor to
supply oil pressure to the pitch change mechanism. This will cause the
propeller to windmill and the engine can now be started in the normal way.
That is, selecting the HP cock "OPEN" and pressing the relight button. As the
rpm increases the governor pump resumes operation and the selected "on
speed" condition is again controlled by the propeller governor.

The turbo prop engine has to be started with the blades set to fine. On the
ground when the start sequence is initiated the blades are at the "ground fine
pitch" angle so the propeller torque is at a minimum. Movement of the throttle
lever from the "ground idle" position (say 7000 rpm) causes the engine and
propeller to accelerate to the "minimum cruise" condition by the addition of
fuel to the engine.

The "minimum cruise" condition is the point at which the governor comes into
effect, and is know as the "minimum constant speed" rpm. Before "minimum
constant speed", which is determined by the loading of the governor spring, the
governor does not change the pitch of the blades. For the Rolls Royce Dart
engine with the R250 propeller, for example, this is between 10400 and 11000
rpm.

The "dead movement" is achieved by a sleeve fitted in the rack and pinion
mechanism. The first 35% throttle lever movement only moves the sleeve (via
the rpm lever), thereafter the sleeve comes into contact with the governor
spring. Movement of the throttle lever beyond the 35% position increases the
governor spring loading causing an increase in rpm with propeller pitch
progressively coarsening from ground fine to flight fine.
Flight Fine Pitch Stop (FFPS) (figure 31e)

The FFPS lever controls this stop. The lever is normally fitted to the throttle
box on the flightdeck and is moved forward and rearwards.

During flight the lever is always in the forward position - the stop is "armed"
and the FFPS solenoid de-energised. In the rear position the stop is "disarmed"
with the solenoid energised.

When the aircraft lands the pilot selects the "stop withdrawn" position (moves
the FFPS lever rearwards). This energises the FFPS solenoid and illuminates
the flightdeck FFPS withdrawal lamp. With the FFPS solenoid energised an oil
line is opened which allows oil pressure to flow to the "lock operating valve",
sometimes known as the "third oil line valve".

A piston inside this valve opens another oil; line. Oil pressure from the PCU
pump flows through this line and acts upon the Pitch Lock Piston forcing it
rearwards. This means that the spring collets are no longer supported and can
collapse. As the PCM piston is continually trying to move forwards (blades
towards fine) the spring collets collapse and the PCM piston moves until it
comes into contact with the fine pitch stop.

Autofeather (figure 3If)

In the event of an engine failure the pilot will normally manually feather the
propeller. If he/she delays, of if there is a governor failure that is not
immediately apparent the propeller will "auto-feather".

As the engine loses power torque will decrease and this is sensed by the low
torque switch which closes at say 50 psi. This energises the auto-feather relay
which in turn energises the feather relay and the valve lift solenoid. When the
valve lift solenoid is energised an oil line is opened to allow oil pressure to flow
to the underside of the valve piston. Consequently the feather motor supplies
high pressure oil to raise the governor piston valve hydraulically without input
from the pilot.

Auto-coarsening (figure 31g)

In some circumstances a fault in the propeller control system could result in

the blades entering the ground range (ie, below say 19.5° blade angle) during
flight.
It could enter the ground range, for example, if the third oil line valve stuck
open - this would effectively dis-arm the FFPS. In this condition the oil
pressure is free to flow to the pitch lock piston, forcing it rearwards.

There is nothing to prevent the blades entering the ground range as the spring
collets can now collapse and be overridden by the PCM piston. (Study the
hydraulic system and check that this is so).

This fault would not be apparent until the pilot throttled back as this is where
the blades should stop (at the flight fine position). As this is likely to occur just
before landing it is serious and could jeopardise the safety of the aircraft. To
prevent the movement of the blades into the ground range in such
circumstances a cam operated Hub Switch is fitted.

The hub switch is a micro-switch which makes at blade angle 17.5° and
breaks at 19.5°. When the switch is made the valve lift solenoid is energised as
the PCIS is already made in normal flight conditions. Additionally the switch
allows current to the Below Stop Warning lamp, thus illuminating the lamp for
this particular propeller (eg no 3). As before high pressure oil from the governor
pump is directed to the underside of the governor piston valve.

The piston valve is raised against governor spring pressure which allows high
pressure oil to flow to the pitch change mechanism. The pitch change piston is
then forced rearwards so the blade pitch becomes coarse. However, the blades
are unable to travel to the feather position because the valve lift solenoid is de-
energised at 19.5°. This is because the hub switch is broken at this point.

The governor piston valve is forced back down under spring pressure, opening
the "fine" oil line again. The blades again tend towards ground fine (because
the fault still exists) until the hub switch again comes into operation at 17.5°.
This cycle is repeated continuously until the pilot selects manual feather.

The pilot is alerted to this condition - known as "blade hunting", because the
BSW flightdeck lamp for that propeller will flash.

HUB AND BLADE ASSEMBLY (Figure 32)

Hollow shank duralumin blades are carried on a spider which transmits the
torque of the engine. The blades and spider are held together by the barrel
which takes the centrifugal pull of the blades. Gear segments on the root faces
of the blades mesh with the rotating cam of the pitch change mechanism. The
hub is secured onto the propeller shaft by a split front cone and retaining nut.
DISTRIBUTOR VALVE ASSEMBLY (Figure 33)

This assembly consists of an aluminium housing containing a spring loaded

valve which controls feathering and unfeathering. Passages within the housing
allows oil to the pitch change mechanism. A tube at the inboard end of the
housing runs down the propeller shaft. A sleeve fits round this tube to form a
passage for the supply of oil to the propeller.

PITCH CHANGE MECHANISM

The dome is a duralumin forging and contains a piston having inner and outer
skirts between which are four sets of rollers. Axial movement of the piston in
the dome is converted into radial movement of the blade roots through a pair
of concentric cylinder cams.

One of these cams is fixed while the other moves and engages with its bevel
gear with the blade gear segments. The piston rollers run in slots in these
cams, which are slopped in opposite directions. As the piston moves so the
inner moving cam turns through twice the distance of the lead of the cam
slots.

The first 60% of the cam slots have a gentle slope, the remainder of the slope is
at a sharper angle which allows a much shorter feathering time.
BLADE AND PITCH ADJUSTMENT (Figure 34)

1. The blades are moved to the fine pitch stop.

2. The blade angles are then checked and the one that is nearest to the
fine pitch setting (within a tolerance given in the manual) is used as the
master blade.
3. The coarse and fine pitch stop rings are removed and the fine pitch stop
ring is fitted at the correct angle as laid down in the manual.
4. The rest of the blades are checked against the master blade (to be
within a tolerance as laid down in the manual).
5. The stop rings are then reset to the correct setting.
BLADE INDEXING (Figure 35)

Individual blade indexing is the fine adjustment in minutes of arc of each

propeller blade to bring them all to the same degree of similarity. It is carried
out in accordance with the maintenance manual and requires the adjustment
of the index ring, gear segment and bush flange.

THE PROPELLER CONTROL UNIT (Figure 36)

The gear type pump of the controller unit receives and boosts the engine oil
and delivers it to the VP prop mechanism via a speed governor assembly. A
relief valve relieves excess pressure back to the inlet side of the pump
The speed governor assembly comprises a piston valve having two lands and
operating under the influence of spring loaded centrifugal governor weights.

Outlet ducts from the top and bottom of the chamber connect with the front
(coarse pitch) and rear (fine pitch) of the propeller piston. Constant speed rpm
is selected by a control lever on the unit - interconnected with the engine
throttle controls. This varies the loading on the governor spring.

Manual feathering is selected by another lever on the unit - interconnected

with the high pressure fuel cock controls. This raises the piston valve to a
position where pressure oil is delivered to the coarse pitch side of the propeller
operating piston.

The controller unit also incorporates solenoid operated valves for the control
requirements of the turbo propeller. One solenoid operates the
propeller auto-coarsening circuit.
This solenoid valve controls the flow of pressure to the underside of a small lift
valve servo piston in the controller unit which lifts the landed piston valve to
coarse pitch delivery position.
Another solenoid operates in the propeller pitch lock withdrawal circuit and
allows pressure oil to flow to a third oil line valve which opens to allow
pressure oil direct into the lock withdrawal oil line (the third oil line, for the
purpose of operating the propeller pitch lock.

A pressure cut-out switch operates in the feathering pump circuit. This

switch operates across the fine and coarse pitch oil lines and opens on the
build up of coarse pitch oil pressure to automatically cut-out the feathering
pump motor.

TYPICAL TURBO PROP PROPELLER (Examples Figures 37 and 38)

This is a four bladed, 20 root size, No 4 SBAC, shaft mounted, left hand
tractor mounted turbo-propeller.

For maximum efficiency of the jet engine the spinner frontal are has been kept
to a minimum.

The variable pitch mechanism consists of a front mounted cylinder, in which

moves a hydraulically operated piston connected by linkage to pins on the
blade roots.

The piston is caused to move by oil pressure in the fine or coarse pitch lines, -
which will be converted to rotary movement of the blades by the linkage.

The turbo-propeller requires additional pitch controls for ground and flight
modes. This mechanism takes the form of a hydraulically operated pitch lock
unit housed within the propeller cylinder.

The unit consists of a spring loaded piston which supports the front end of a
spring collet to form a mechanical stop in the forward end of the propeller
operating piston at the flight fine pitch angle position.

The pitch lock may be operated by oil pressure in the lock withdrawal oil line,
or by an increase in the fine pitch oil pressure.

Fine and coarse pitch oil is conveyed to the propeller mechanism through two
concentric oil tubes which screw into a transfer plug at the rear of the engine
shaft bore. The inner tube conveys coarse pitch oil and the outer fine pitch oil.

The propeller may also be fitted with an electro-hydraulic safety device which
comes into operation in the event of pitch lock failure.
This device consists of a blade actuated hub mounted switch. If the pitch lock
was to fail, it closes onto the slip rings fitted in the engine mounted brush gear
and initiates pitch coarsening.
THE SPINNER

This is a stream lined fairing over the propeller operating mechanism. Usually
made of aluminium alloy and attached to the propeller by quick release
fasteners attaching to a metal flange on the bulkhead attached directly to the
propeller spider.

The spinner may be strengthened internally by stringers and may be

electrically de-iced/anti-iced. In this case the spinner will have electrical
heater mats bonded to it's outside surface (or internal heater elements) and
connected via wiring to a contact terminal on the spinner bulkhead.

When the spinner is fitted into place the spinner contact terminal will make
contact with a similar contact terminal attached to the propeller bulkhead.

This in turn is connected to propeller slip rings at the rear of the bulkhead.
The bulkhead slip rings connect to the aircraft electrical supply via stationary
brushes in a brush block assembly mounted on the engine structure.

On some later propellers there are no electrical contacts. The power transfer is
achieved by induction using an ac supply.
SUPERSONIC PROPELLERS

These are inefficient at low speeds but offer prospects of high efficiency at
aircraft Mach numbers of between 0.8 and 1.5 (blade Mach numbers between
1.2 and 1.5). These propellers are solid steel or carbon fibre with
thickness/chord ratios no more than 5%. They have a low aspect ratio and are
usually swept or of scimitar plan form, and may have a double wedge aerofoil
section.
CONTRA-ROTATING PROPELLERS

This system consists of a pair of propellers, mounted one in front of the other
on concentric drives shafts with an idler gear in one of the gear trains, and
rotating in opposite directions.

The advantages are:

(a) Absorb more power within the same disc area.

(b) Impart little torque to the aircraft (high powered single engined
aircraft have a considerable torque reaction problem at high throttle
settings.
(c) Reduced hub size.
(d) Smaller diameter - shorter landing gear - reduced weight.

The disadvantages:

(a) Expensive.
(b) Difficult to maintain
(c) The airflow from the front blade affects the rear blade and a
minimum gap must be provided - this increases hub size and weight.

CO-AXIAL PROPELLERS

These are very similar to the contra-rotating propellers but each propeller is
driven by a separate engine, so either can be stopped individually. The are
mounted on co-axial shafts and are contra-rotating.

SYNCHRONISATION SYSTEM

The propeller synchronisation system is used to set all governors at exactly the
same rpm, thereby reducing noise and vibration. A synchronisation system
may be used with mechanical or electrical governors.

The synchronisation system is normally used for all flight operations except
take-off and landing. A master engine is used to establish the rpm to which all
other engines (slave engines) will adjust.

"PILOT" SYSTEM

On some aircraft the system comprises a "synchroscope" in the cockpit and the
pilot has to adjust the controls manually. The synchroscope system compares
electrically the speed of rotation of all the SLAVE engines and compares them
to the MASTER engine.
It will then indicate this to the pilot by a rotating needle on an instrument
(synchroscope) in the cockpit - one needle for each slave engine, eg four
engined aircraft - three needles.

The needle will rotate one way if the engine is running faster and the other if it
is running slower. It is up to the pilot to "nudge" the offending engines throttle
to get the needle to stop rotating - not easy but at least its rate of rotation can
be reduced to be nearly stopped.

AUTOMATIC SYSTEM

It is designed to get all the engines to run at a common speed automatically.

The system uses a MASTER engine and compares the alternator outputs from
all the other engines to the master engine output. An "error" from any of the
SLAVE engines is detected and a signal is sent to a "corrector motor" fitted to
that slave engine. This alters the setting of the power controls to that engine.

Voltage Signal

The signal may be generated by a tachometer-generator (driven by the engine)

whose voltage is used to operate a differential motor. The voltage signal is
used at the differential motor to compare the slave engine rpm to the master
engine rpm. The engine which generates the higher voltage will determine the
direction the motor rotates and this adjusts the governor setting of the slave
engine.

Frequency Signal

The signal may also be generated by a frequency generator. In this case it is

the FREQUENCY that is monitored and not the voltage.

QUESTION: Can you explain frequency? (10 mins)

ANSWER: Frequency is the term used to indicate how often an

alternating voltage output changes. For example on many
aircraft with a constant frequency ac generating system
the frequency is 400 cycles per second (400 Hz).

So as the frequency is monitored and not the voltage it is impossible to run a

motor (as we did with the voltage signal) directly from the signal.
A typical system consists of a master governor; a slave governor for each
engine; a magnetic pulse pick up on each governor; a control panel in the
cockpit; an electronic comparitor unit and an actuator for each slave engine.
(Figure 41)

The frequency from each engine governor (magnetic pick up) is sent to an
electronic comparitor unit which sends a correcting signal to the appropriate
slave engine governor control mechanism.
\

Systems Operation

On a four engined aircraft there are normally 2 master engines which the pilot
can select.

QUESTION: Can you think why there are two master engines available.
(5 mins)

ANSWER: An alternative engine is provided in case the (one) master

engine fails.

The master engines are normally numbers 2 (port inner) and number 3
(starboard inner). On a twin engined aircraft the port engine is normally used. -

On some systems a "re-sync" button is provided in the cockpit to reset the

"sync" system. Normally the sync system will not operate unless the engines
are within 100 rpm of each other. When the re-sync button is pushed it allows
the slave engine to move a full 100 rpm towards the master engine.

This button is used if one or more slave engines are more than 100 rpm out of
sync from the master engine.

QUESTION: The sync system is used for all phases of flight except for
take-off and landing. Can you think why it is not used on
take-off and landing? (5 mins)

ANSWER: If the master engine fails with the sync system ON then all
engines will try to follow with an immediate 100 rpm loss
of power on all slave engines. Not a good idea on take-off (or
landing).
During normal operation the sync system is switched on when all engines are
within 100 rpm of each other. This will then cause all slave engines to adjust
to the same rpm of the master engine through signals being sent to their
respective governors.

If a master control is incorporated in the cockpit it can be used to adjust the

rpm of all engines simultaneously. When the master control lever is moved it
may cause the sync system to be interrupted momentarily, but
synchronisation should return as soon as the lever stops moving.

Maintenance

Of course, all routine maintenance is carried out in accordance with the

maintenance manual (AMM) and the maintenance schedule.

It will involve checking for damage, security, moisture ingress, signs of

burning, cleanliness, open circuits, correct lubrication and functional testing.

Non routine maintenance will include fault finding, component changes and
functional testing.
A Typical Test (but always refer to the AMM)

1. Start all engines and set to within 100 rpm of each other.
2. Select master engine - if not already selected automatically.
3. Switch on sync system and <^v ^ck all engines synchronise.
4. Change master control rpm and note that all slave engines follow.
5. Test the re-sync system by changing the rpm of each slave engine by
less than 100 rpm and noting that it returns to the master rpm
setting once the switch is released. Moving it outside this range should
cause the system to go out of sync.
6. Turn off sync system.
7. Set engines more than 100 rpm different from master and press re-sync
button.
8. Each time re-sync button is pressed all slave engines should move closer
to the master engine by 100 rpm until all engines are synchronised.
i
SYNCHROPHASING
This is another way of reducing vibration.

If all engines are running at the same rpm and all the propellers are at the
same angle together (ie, all number one blades of all propellers vertical
together) then this can lead to a set of sympathetic vibrations which increases
the overall vibration level. If the angles can be set so that each blade of the
propeller reaches "top dead centre" at a different time on each propeller then
the overall vibration level can be reduced, but still keeping all engine rpms
together. This reduction in vibration can also reduce the noise level.

A Typical System

This uses a pulse generator (a single tooth "phonic wheel" on the propeller hub
and a coil and magnet on the non rotating part of the engine). This generator
is keyed to say number 1 blade of each propeller which sends a pulse each
time number 1 blade passes the coil and magnet.
The pulses from the slave engines are compared by an electronic comparitor to
the pulse from the master engine, which, if necessary, will send a correcting
signal to the governor of the appropriate engine to establish its correct phase
relationship.

The pilot can select synchronisation and synchrophasing, or turn both off.
It also allows the pilot to adjust the phase relationship between the engines to
reduce the vibration under varying flight conditions.

System Operation

With the engines operating within 100 rpm of each other the system is turned
on. The slaves will synchronise to the master.

The phase electronic unit will adjust the governors of the slaves to set the
propellers at the phase angle set on the pilot's control.

Maintenance

Carried out in accordance with the manual and is very similar to the
maintenance of a synchronising system.
 DE-ICING/ANTI-ICING

De-icing is the removal of ice after it has formed and anti-icing is the
prevention of ice formation.

Turbo prop propellers are only anti-iced - on de-icing we don't want pieces of
ice breaking away and going down the engine intake.

There are two anti-icing systems that may be fitted to propellers - fluid and
electrical. The fluid system is mainly de-icing while the electrical system can be
designed to operate in either mode. On many small aircraft there are no anti-
icing systems fitted.

FLUID DE-ICING SYSTEM

The de-icing fluid mixes with the water or ice on the surfaces of the propeller
and reduces the freezing point of the mixture, it penetrates and loosens ice
already formed which then disperses with centrifugal action.

A typical system consists - in order:

1. A tank.
2. An electrically operated pump - may be manually selected or
automatic.
3. A filter.
4. Low pressure warning transducer - red light in the cockpit.
5. Proportioning unit - gives the correct metered amount of fluid to
each area - props, left wing, right wing etc.
6. Slinger ring.
7. Leading edge grooves in a rubber overshoe on the propeller.
8. Pipework - usually nylon with compression fittings, except for the
supply pipe to the slinger ring - this is metal - copper, stainless
steel.
Operation

Fluid is pumped to the slinger ring supply pipe and pumped into the slinger
ring. When the engine is running centrifugal force will cause the fluid to be
forced to the outside of the ring.

At each blade position a pipe, leading from the "bottom" of the slinger ring will
direct fluid to the front of the blade via a blade cup (The blade cup is designed
to allow the blade to change pitch). Here centrifugal force and the airflow will
cause it to be distributed to both sides of the blade and to flow towards the tip.
Groves in a leading edge rubber overshoe are designed to assist this.

Functional check

The system can be checked for flow rate by operating the system and
monitoring the amount of fluid delivered into a calibrated container. This is
carried out over a timed period in accordance with the manual.

A full functional check requires an engine run, the system to be operated and
the blades checked for fluid distribution after the engine run. Fluid
distribution can be checked by feel and visually. The visual check can be
enhanced by the application of a "developer" applied to the front and back of
all blades prior to engine start up.

System Cleaning and Inhibiting

If the system is not to be used for any period of time then it should be cleaned
and inhibited.
To clean the system use a mixture of 95% methylated spirit in distilled water.
Fill the tank and run the system until it is dry - with the engines running.

Use the correct inhibiting fluid in the tank, cover the overshoes, and run the
system.

ELECTRICAL ANTI-ICING SYSTEM

The electrical anti-icing of the propeller and spinner is carried out on the cyclic
principle. Current is fed to the propeller blades, spinner, leading edge, etc.,
alternately, controlled by an automatic time switch. Some elements may be
continuously heated.

The cyclic method allows a thin layer of ice to form on the spinner nose and on
the leading edges of the blades. The layer of ice acts as a thermal barrier so
that when the current is switched on the temperature rises more rapidly than
on an unprotected surface.
The inner surface of the ice adhering to the propeller blades and spinner is
melted, loosening the whole of the ice which is immediately broken up by
centrifugal force and dispersed by the airflow.

The current is then switched to other heater elements and the uncovered
surfaces of the blades and spinner cool, allowing another thin layer of ice to
form and be similarly dispersed when the heater elements are again switched
on. The use of the cyclic principle also permits a smaller generator and
thinner wires to be used.

A 200 volt, 3-phase generator supplies the current through an automatic time
switch to the brush gear housing assembly. But remember on small aircraft
the power supply is usually dc.

Brush Gear Housing

This assembly incorporates a brush housing having three brushes which

transmit the electrical current to the propeller slip rings. The propeller
bulkhead incorporates 3 slip rings. Suppressers are fitted in each phase
circuit between the plug connection and the brush housing.

The brush gear housing is suitably shaped to clear the engine shaft and is
secured to the engine casing. Each brush assembly consists of a carbon
graphite brush having a spring and a brass end cap soldered to a pig-tail lead.
The brush housing assembly is readily detachable and is secured to the brush
gear housing by two bolts, which pass through the assembly and screw into
steel inserts in the housing.

Slip Ring Assembly

This assembly is secured on the rear of the propeller hub and transfers the
electrical current from the brush gear housing assembly to the de-icing
elements of the propeller blades and spinner.

The slip ring housing is secured to studs on the hub driving centre flange and
forms a mounting for the spinner backplate. The bolts which secure the
backplate to the housing provide the means for balancing the slip ring housing
assembly as alternative bolts with thicker heads may be fitted where necessary
to achieve a satisfactory balance.

Three elongated holes in the outer flange of the housing allow passage for the
spinner de-icing cables from the slip ring terminals to the backplate electrical
contacts.

Each slip ring is connected to one of four (four bladed propeller) terminal studs
by means of copper connecting strips. These studs pass through insulation
bushed holes in the housing and screw into nuts brazed on the connecting
strips.

Remember, on some modern propellers power transfer from the "stationary"

part of the electrical system to the rotating part on the propeller is achieved by
the use of ac induction coils - there being no actual contact between the
stationary part and the moving part.

Blade De-Icing

A de-icing overshoe is fitted into a rebate which extends equally along both
faces of the leading edge of each propeller blade, the external surface fitting
flush with the blade face.

The overshoe houses a de-icing element which consists of resistance wire

interwoven in a cloth of woven glass threads. The whole heater element is
cemented between sheets of polymer which provide the inner and intermediate
insulation and a packing piece and wire gauze give protection.
The element is wired in three phases and the wires are connected at the root
end by crimped ends to an insulated cable assembly. The cable is brought out
from the overshoe cuff through a rubber cable outlet and is long enough to
allow for the blade pitch range movement. The terminal ends of the leads are
connected to the appropriate terminals of .'.he propeller de-icing slip ring group.

Spinner Contacts

The plunger contact assembly consists of a moulded guide block which has an
insert into which is fitted a tungsten tipped, sliding plunger. A moulded spring
cap cover with a terminal bolt, to which the de-icing element cable is attached,
is secured to the guide block by three bolts and nuts which also secure the
assembly to the spinner.

When the spinner is offered up to be attached to its mounting ring the 3

plungers make contact with the three fixed contacts and a good electrical
contact is made.
Spinner De-icing Elements

The de-icing elements are bonded in the nose of the spinner and comprise a
circular nose element and radial double elements. The elements are wired
electrically in three groups of three, each group forming one phase and the
nose element is inter-connected into the element phases. Each element
consists of glass threads woven to form a glass cloth base with strands of
resistance wire woven through and bonded between layers of rubber sheet.

A cable lead is soldered to each of the three phase connections. The cables are
routed through the support ring and tubular channels of the spinner support
brackets to terminate on their respective plunger contact terminals.

Electrical De-icing System - Checking

The electrical heaters in the leading edges can be checked in the usual way,
i.e. same as any other electrical system. Besides a visual check for damage,
security, open circuits, burning, etc, the following checks should be carried
out in the correct order:

(a) Continuity check

(b) Insulation check
(c) Functional check

For (a) and (b) refer to the book in this series "Electrics" - Module 2.
For (c) refer to the manual - but in general:

1. Run the engine.

2. Switch on the anti-icing system.
3. Check the cockpit instrumentation noting:
* The current demand.
* The cyclic timing rate - operate the change switch (if fitted)
and note the change.
* The reduced supply as the aircraft is on the ground - if
applicable.
3. Switch the system off, shut the engine down and feel the
leading edges of the blade - CAREFULLY. All the elements should
be hot. If not then there is an open circuit somewhere, or the
fuse/ C/B has operated, or there is no supply.

Remember also to inspect the brushes and slip rings for security and wear and
damage and correct seating. Ensure slip rings and brushes are clean.
Note:

Electric Element/Cable - Open Circuit

This means that the heater element/cable is broken and will not conduct
electricity. It can be verified by using a 2Vi volt lamp and battery continuity
tester (or a multimeter set to resistance).

If the de-icer element/shoe is open circuit then it will have to be repaired. If

facilities are available (with qualified personnel) locally then it may be repaired
- usually by replacement but always in accordance with the propeller manual.

If it cannot be repaired "on site" then the propeller will have to be returned to
the manufacturer/supplier for repair.