THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR

Prepared by Mbundire Farai Happy

02/08/23

The central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, endocrine system and genetics have
a high bearing on the behaviour of an individual. They influence in normal as well as in abnormal
conditions. This lesson therefore is aimed at outlining the role of the aforementioned systems in
behaviour.

The nervous system

The nervous system has two main parts:
The central nervous system is made up of the spinal cord and the brain.
The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that branch off from the spinal cord and extend
to all parts of the body.
The nervous system transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body, including internal
organs. In this way, the nervous system’s activity controls the ability to move, breathe, see, think,
and more.
Neuron
The basic unit of the nervous system is a nerve cell, or neuron. The human brain contains about
100 billion neurons. A neuron has a cell body, which includes the cell nucleus, and special
extensions called axons (pronounced AK-sonz) and dendrites (pronounced DEN-drahytz).
Bundles of axons, called nerves, are found throughout the body. Axons and dendrites allow
neurons to communicate, even across long distances.

1
Different types of neurons control or perform different activities. For instance, motor neurons
transmit messages from the brain to the muscles to generate movement. Sensory neurons
detect light, sound, odor, taste, pressure, and heat and send messages about those things to
the brain. Other parts of the nervous system control involuntary processes. These include keeping
a regular heartbeat, releasing hormones like adrenaline, opening the pupil in response to light, and
regulating the digestive system.
When a neuron sends a message to another neuron, it sends an electrical signal down the length of
its axon. At the end of the axon, the electrical signal changes to a chemical signal. The axon then
releases the chemical signal with chemical messengers called neurotransmitters (pronounced noor-
oh-TRANS-mit-erz) into the synapse (pronounced SIN-aps)—the space between the end of an
axon and the tip of a dendrite from another neuron. The neurotransmitters move the signal through
the synapse to the neighboring dendrite, which converts the chemical signal back into an electrical
signal. The electrical signal then travels through the neuron and goes through the same conversion
processes as it moves to neighboring neurons.
The nervous system also includes non-neuron cells, called glia (pronounced GLEE-uh). Glia
perform many important functions that keep the nervous system working properly. For example,
glia:
Help support and hold neurons in place,protect neurons, create insulation called myelin, which
helps move nerve impulses, repair neurons and help restore neuron function.
The following diagram summarizes the functions of the nervous system:

2
Peripheral Nervous System
This comprises of all those neurons which lie outside the brain and spinal cord and connect these
two with receptors, effectors and glands. It is divided into two parts i.e. somatic and autonomic
nervous system.
Somatic Nervous System
It is primarily related to voluntary activities. Central nervous system sends impulses to voluntary
muscles through somatic nervous system. It is further divided into cranial nerves and spinal nerves.

3
Cranial nerves originate from the bony skull and are found in pairs of twelve nerves. These are
motor, sensory and association nerves. Spinal nerves originate at regular intervals from the spinal
cord and they are in 31 pairs and are divided into five parts:

Autonomic Nervous System

This is rather important portion of peripheral nervous system. It is comprised of those neurons or
nerve cells which regulate and control involuntary muscles, glands like kidneys, cardiac muscles,
endocrine glands etc. Although connected with brain and spinal cord it acts in an independent
manner. Autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into – sympathetic nervous system and
parasympathetic nervous system.
Sympathetic system is located in the thoracic and lumbar region of spinal cord and is therefore
known as thoracic lumbar system. It acts in integrated manner. It prepares our body for emergency
situations e.g. when faced with danger it activates adrenal gland and pancreas thereby increasing
the quantity of blood sugar in blood and also increases the rate of metabolism. All these changes
in the body give us extra energy to meet the emergency situation.
Parasympathetic system is located in the cranial and sacral regions of the spinal cord hence called
craniosacral system. It functions to restore our bodily processes to normalcy. In other words it is
the opposite of sympathetic system. It lowers metabolic rate, heart beat and quantity of blood sugar
in the blood. Although the two systems are antagonistic they tend to act in a coordinated manner
e.g. in situations of fear or anger adrenal gland, pancreas are activated by the sympathetic system
to generate more energy. The parasympathetic system suspends digestive activity and other
functional systems so that energy freed from these is available for use to meet the emergency
situation.

The Endocrine System

4
The endocrine system is made up of several organs called glands. These glands, located all over
the body, create and secrete (release) hormones.
Hormones are chemicals that coordinate different functions in the body by carrying messages
through the blood to organs, skin, muscles and other tissues. These signals tell the body what to
do and when to do it (Cleveland clinic,2023).
Functions of the endocrine system
The endocrine system continuously monitors the amount of hormones in the blood. Hormones
deliver their messages by locking into the cells they target so they can relay the message.
The pituitary gland senses when your hormone levels rise, and tells other glands to stop
producing and releasing hormones. When hormone levels dip below a certain point, the pituitary
gland can instruct other glands to produce and release more. This process, called homeostasis,
works similarly to the thermostat in your house. Hormones affect nearly every process in your
body, including:
Metabolism (the way you break down food and get energy from nutrients).
Growth and development.
Emotions and mood.
Fertility and sexual function.
Sleep.
Blood pressure.
Sometimes glands produce too much or not enough of a hormone. This imbalance can cause
health problems, such as weight gain, high blood pressure and changes in sleep, mood and
behavior. Many things can affect how your body creates and releases hormones. Illness, stress
and certain medications can cause a hormone imbalance.
Parts of the endocrine system
The endocrine system is made up of organs called glands. Glands produce and release different
hormones that target specific things in the body. You have glands all over your body, including
in your neck, brain and reproductive organs. Some glands are tiny, about the size of a grain of
rice or a pea. The largest gland is the pancreas, which is about 6 inches long.
The main glands that produce hormones include:
Hypothalamus: This gland is located in your brain and controls your endocrine system. It uses
information from your nervous system to determine when to tell other glands, including the
pituitary gland, to produce hormones. The hypothalamus controls many processes in your body,
including your mood, hunger and thirst, sleep patterns and sexual function.

5
Pituitary: This little gland is only about the size of a pea, but it has a big job. It makes hormones
that control several other glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, ovaries and testicles.
The pituitary gland is in charge of many different functions, including how your body grows. It’s
located at the base of your brain.
Thyroid: Your thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. It’s responsible for
your metabolism (how your body uses energy).
Parathyroid: These four tiny glands are no larger than a grain of rice. They control the level of
calcium in your body. For your heart, kidneys, bones and nervous system to work, you need the
right amount of calcium.
Adrenal: You have two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. They control your
metabolism, blood pressure, sexual development and response to stress.
Pineal: This gland manages your sleep cycle by releasing melatonin, a hormone that causes you
to feel sleepy.
Pancreas: Your pancreas is part of your endocrine system, and it plays a significant role in your
digestive system too. It makes a hormone called insulin that controls the level of sugar in your
blood.
Ovaries: In women, the ovaries release sex hormones called estrogen, progesterone and
testosterone. Women have two ovaries in their lower abdomen, one on either side.
Testes: In men, the testes (testicles) make sperm and release the hormone testosterone. This
hormone affects sperm production, muscle strength and sex drive. (Cleveland clinic,2023).

6
The role of genetics in behavior
Human behavior is subject to genetic variations. The ways in which individuals differ in their
intellectual abilities, personalities, and mental health are, to a large extent, functions of their
inherited genetic predispositions. Decades of research on twins, adoptees, and families have led to
the inescapable conclusion that most reliably measured psychological characteristics are
influenced to some degree by genes. Behavior also shows signs of genetic influence; the way one
experiences stressful life events, for example, shows some genetic influence. Even personal
aspects of individuals, such as spirituality and political ideology, are affected to an extent by
genes.1 It should come as no surprise, then, that genes influence the ways in which families
function and how family members relate to one another.2 Familial relationships of all kinds—
parent-child, sibling, and spousal—can be shown to be at least partially the product of genetic
factors (Baker,2023).
In conclusion, this article has outlined the role of the nervous system, endocrine system and
genetics in influence behaviour. Though not exhaustive, it has clearly shown that biology has a
huge influence in behavior.

7
References
Baker,L.A.(2023).The biology of relationships:what behavioural genetics tells us
aboutinteractions among family members, retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4685725/

Cleveland clinic(2023). Endocrine system,retrieved from

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/21201-endocrine-system

National institute of health (2018).

https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/neuro/conditioninfo/parts

Pressbooks.bccampus.ca

8
9