Circulatory System

Circulatory System Function:

• Transporting oxygen, nutrients, and waste
• Thermoregulation
• Protection against viruses through immunity

Open and Closed Circulatory Systems:

The circulatory system can be classified as either open or closed, depending on how the blood flows.
• In closed circulatory systems, the blood flows inside vessels that are separate from the
interstitial fluid of the body. This is the case for vertebrates and some invertebrates.
• In open circulatory systems, a fluid called hemolymph is pumped through a blood vessel that
empties into the body cavity. Hemolymph returns to the blood vessel through openings called
ostia. Arthropods and some mollusks have open circulatory systems.

Circulatory System Architecture:

The circulatory system consists of cylindrical vessels, including arteries, veins, and capillaries, that
originate from the heart. In vertebrates and some invertebrates, it forms a closed-loop system where the
blood circulates unidirectionally (in one direction) from the heart around the systemic circulatory route
and back to the heart.

Types of Circulatory Systems in Animals:

The circulatory systems in animals vary based on the number of heart chambers and circuits through
which the blood flows.

Simple Circulatory Systems

Invertebrates generally have simpler circulatory systems compared to vertebrates. Some animals, like
sponges, don't have a circulatory system and rely on diffusion for exchange. Others, such as jellyfish,
use diffusion through their epidermis and internally through the gastrovascular compartment.

Fish Circulatory Systems

• Fish have a single circuit for blood flow and a two-chambered heart.
• The heart consists of a single atrium and a single ventricle.
• The atrium collects blood that has returned from the body.
• The ventricle pumps the blood to the gills for gas exchange and re-oxygenation.
• This is known as gill circulation.
• The oxygenated blood then continues through the rest of the body before returning to the atrium.
• This is known as systemic circulation.
• Unidirectional flow of blood creates a gradient of oxygenated to deoxygenated blood in the
fish's systemic circuit.

Amphibian Circulatory Systems

• In amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, blood flow is divided into two circuits.
• One circuit goes through the lungs and back to the heart (pulmonary circulation).
 • The other circuit goes throughout the rest of the body and its organs, including the brain
(systemic circulation).
• Amphibians have a three-chambered heart with two atria and one ventricle.
• The two atria receive blood from the two different circuits.
• There is some mixing of blood in the ventricle, reducing oxygenation efficiency.
• However, a ridge within the ventricle diverts oxygen-rich blood to the systemic circular system
and deoxygenated blood to the pulmocutaneous circuit.
• Gas exchange occurs in the lungs and through the skin.
• This arrangement, known as double circulation, allows amphibians to maintain high pressure
in the vessels, pushing blood to both the lungs and body.

Reptile Circulatory Systems

• Most reptiles have a three-chambered heart.
• The heart directs blood to the pulmonary and systemic circuits.
• The ventricle is divided by a partial septum to reduce mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
• Some reptiles, like alligators and crocodiles, have a special hole called the "Foramen
of Panizza."
• The hole allows blood to move between the ventricles, along with connective tissue
that slows down blood flow to the lungs.

Mammal and Bird Circulatory Systems

• Mammals and birds have hearts with four chambers: two atria and two ventricles.
• The oxygenated and deoxygenated blood is separated in these animals.
• This separation improves the efficiency of double circulation.
• Double circulation is necessary for the warm-blooded lifestyle of mammals and birds.
• It is interesting to note that birds and mammals independently evolved four-chambered
hearts, different from the three-chambered heart of reptiles and amphibians.

BLOOD GROUPS

Blood is classified into different blood groups based on the presence or absence of certain substances.
These substances include antigens, which are types of sugars and proteins found on the surface of red
blood cells, and antibodies, which are types of proteins primarily found in plasma, the liquid component
of blood.

Antigens and Antibodies

 • All cells have different combinations of markers or "antigens" on their surface.
• The immune system uses these antigens to distinguish the body's own cells (self) from foreign
substances (non-self).
• When the immune system recognizes a foreign antigen, it releases antibodies, which attach to
the foreign entity and mark it for removal and destruction by other parts of the immune system.

The ABO Blood Group System

The ABO blood group system is based on the presence of two antigens, antigen A and antigen B, on
the surface of red blood cells.
• Blood type A: Red blood cells have antigen A only.
• Blood type B: Red blood cells have antigen B only.
• Blood type AB: Red blood cells have both antigen A and antigen B.
• Blood type O: Red blood cells have neither antigen A nor antigen B.

In the plasma, individuals will have antibodies against the antigens they don't have on their own red
blood cells.
• Blood type A: Antibodies against antigen B.
• Blood type B: Antibodies against antigen A.
• Blood type AB: No antibodies against antigen A or antigen B.
• Blood type O: Antibodies against both antigen A and antigen B.

The Rhesus (Rh) System

The Rhesus system, also known as the Rh system, refers to the presence or absence of the RhD antigen
on the surface of red blood cells.
• Rh positive (Rh+): Presence of the RhD antigen.
• Rh negative (Rh-): Absence of the RhD antigen.

Blood Types
Combining the ABO blood group with the Rh factor results in eight possible blood types:
• O positive (O+)
• O negative (O-)
• A positive (A+)
• A negative (A-)
• B positive (B+)
• B negative (B-)
• AB positive (AB+)
• AB negative (AB-)

Testing and Pregnancy

Testing to determine whether an individual is Rh positive or Rh negative is routinely done during
pregnancy, as well as for blood donors and recipients of blood transfusions. If a mother is Rh negative
and her baby is Rh positive, there is a risk of the mother producing antibodies that can attack the baby's
red blood cells. An injection called anti-D can be given to the mother to help prevent the production of
these antibodies.

Universal Donors and Recipients

• Universal red cell donors: Individuals with O negative blood can donate red blood cells to
anyone since their blood cells do not trigger the recipient's immune system.
• Universal recipients: Individuals with AB blood group can receive red blood cells of any type
since their immune system does not fight against A or B antigens.
• Universal plasma donor: People with blood group AB can donate their plasma to anyone since
it does not contain antibodies to other blood groups.