ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

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Question no 1. Describe different sources of knowledge and which one is more authentic in
your opinion and why?
Definition of Knowledge - Origin Definition: 'Epistemology' comes from the Greek word
'episteme' meaning Knowledge and logos meaning speech or science. - Epistemology is one of
the branches of philosophy, related to information theory. It solves two important information
problems - the origin of the information and the validity of the information
3. The concept of knowledge encompasses a fact or state of knowledge acquired through
knowledge or association. Moreover, knowledge is understood by enlightenment. Indian
philosophy is believed to violate the veil of ignorance.
4. Definitions of information - Plato explored the three definitions of information below: -
Information is perception or feeling; - Knowledge is a true belief; - Knowledge is a true belief
based on sound reasoning. - Plato eventually called the information 'The Fixed Truth'. - Dewey
defines information as 'ideas from the truth'.
5. - The National Curriculum Statement (2005), while placing the knowledge of the
knowledgeable person in the center, also defines the information. According to it, “Knowledge
can be regarded as information organized into language into thought patterns (or conceptual
structures), thus creating meaning, which helps us to understand the world in which we live. It
can also be thought of as functional patterns, or intellectual body of thought, which contribute to
the creation, creation and creativity of things. Over time, people have altered vast amounts of
knowledge, including a wide range of ways of thinking, feeling and doing things, and building
up more knowledge (P.25). ” Definitions of Information
6. Considerations from Definition - According to the widely accepted definition, - information is
worthy of true belief. - It is a form of belief that is both the knowledge that both knowledge and
belief can have the same things that is true of someone who believes is true, among other things,
to the one that knows. - For example, the rising of the sun in the east is a knowledge or belief
based on a fact that is attained daily by millions of people.
7. Knowledge base - Information not available: Information is shared understanding; it can be a
fixed truth or a consensus between the two ideas. This includes the abstract nature of the
information. - Social Information Environment: Information is a shared understanding of the
community, as it is developed through the pursuit of community members collectively. People
get a lot of information from their experiences; simultaneously they create information by
interacting with other people. Therefore, information is acquired and constructed only in society,
and its roots lie in human social activities. - Information Collected: It collects naturally because it
is stored in the community and passed on from one generation to the next. It continues to grow
and develop from generation to generation with the help of a new understanding of truth, true
knowledge
8. - Limited and Unlimited Information: Collective information also informs us of both limited
and unlimited information. At any stage in human development, knowledge comes at odds with
the limitations of the limited character of the existing experience and the available means of
obtaining information. In other words, what is known is always bound by something unknown
but not something unknown. - Information is always in Probation - Information meets our daily
needs - It means reaching the truth Nature Information
9. Visualization, Pregnancy and Sensory Recipients of Information • Hearing Attention • Hearing
Translation • Definition Response • Definition Vision • Visual Process
10. Sight - Sight involves giving meaning to the output of the nerves. In the Organ Course:
Research, Diagnosis and Interpretation of sensory information. - In theory, sensory data is
enriched in the way we see more than it actually exists. - Ex: Seeing a colorful orange spot not
only recognizes it as an orange but also as a food article and an orange flavor is expected.
Q.2 Differentiate different types of research on the basis of their purpose explaining their
use in life.
Definition: Research is defined as the careful consideration of research regarding a particular
concern or problem using scientific methods. According to American sociologist Earl Robert
Bobbie, “research is the systematic study of how to describe, explain, predict, and control a
visual event. Includes teaching and drawing methods. ”
Inductive research methods analyze the observed event, while the withdrawal methods confirm
the observed event. Teaching methods are associated with quality research, and drawings are
often associated with volume analysis.
Types of research methods and example
Research methods are widely classified as Quality and Quantitative.
Both methods have different formats and methods of data collection. Level: Research Methods in
Education (8604)
Qualification criteria
Advanced research is a method of collecting data using interview methods, usually open-ended
questions. Collected answers are actually not numbers. This approach helps the researcher to
understand what participants think and why they think a certain way.
Types of quality methods include:
One-to-one Interview
Focused Groups
Ethnographic Studies
Text Analysis
Case study
Methods of measurement
Measurement methods deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses a systematic way of
investigating events or data. Answers questions to support relationships and measurable variables
to explain, predict, or control something.
Types of quantitative methods include:
Survey research
Descriptive research
Relationship research
Remember, research is important and useful only if it is valid, accurate and reliable. Negative
results can lead to customer conflict and reduced sales.
It is important to ensure that your data is:
Permissible - established, sensible, robust, and impartial.
Accurate - error-free and includes the required information.
Reliable - other people investigating in the same way may produce the same results.
It's time - right now and collected in due course.
Complete - includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.
Q.3 Discuss different designs of experimental research and their use n education for
improvement.
Experimental research is a method used by researchers for single-variable mutations and to
control all other variables. The procedure, treatment and program in this type of study is also
presented and considered in conclusion.
Commonly used in sciences such as social sciences, psychology, physics, chemistry, biology and
medicine, experimental research is a collection of research projects that use deception and
controlled experimentation to understand common processes. To determine the effect of
dependent variations, one or more variables must be used.
Exploratory research is a systematic and scientific method of research in which the researcher
uses one or more variables, and manages and evaluates any changes in other variables.
The purpose of the experimental study is to predict events. In many cases, tests are performed to
determine the cause. Experimental research is beneficial to the community as it helps to improve
daily life.
Experimental research describes the process a researcher goes through to control certain
variables and to deceive others to see if the test results show that cheating has caused a specific
result.
Experimental researchers evaluate an idea (or practice or process) to determine its effect on the
outcome. Researchers decide on an idea that “should be explored,” give individuals the
opportunity to hear it (and make certain people experience something different), and then decide
whether those who have experienced the idea or practice have done better with one effect than
those who have not. .
Threats to Working in Experimental Research
By affirming a "threat," we simply mean that it is a powerful factor in having biased
consequences. In 1963, Campbell and Stanley identified different categories of those threats.
Instruments. Flexible applications are performed with test tools or test conditions, or pre- and
post-test tests are not equal to the difficulty, which raises the gain or decrease of false
performance.
Testing. Exposure to previous tests or interventions results in performance on post-tests.
History. This threat of eligibility exists where events, other than treatment, that occur during the
testing period may affect outcomes.
Maturity. During the test period, physical or psychological changes occurred between subjects.
Choice. There are systematic differences in skills or study characteristics between comparable
treatment groups.
Distribution Treatment. The implementation of specific treatments influences topics in
comparative treatment
Examination Death. Loss of study course for one or more treatments during the study period may
be biased.
In many cases, threats to qualifications cannot be avoided. The presence of a qualifying threat
should not be construed as implying that the test findings are inaccurate or misleading. Knowing
about verification threats gives the examiner a framework to assess a particular situation and
make a decision about its magnitude. Such information may also allow for action to be taken to
limit the impacts of the eligibility threat in question. Depends on the quality of the research
methods used to investigate these treatments.
Types of experimental research projects
There are three basic types of experimental research projects. This includes
1) True test designs
2) Pre-test projects,
3) Quasi-experimental designs.
The extent to which the researcher assigns topics to situations and groups divides the type of
experimental design.
Real Test Projects
Real experimental designs are characterized by random selection of participants and random
distribution of participants in the study groups. The researcher also has complete control of
external variables. Therefore, it can be confidently determined that the impact of the dependent
variable is due to the variability of the independent variable. For these reasons, real experimental
designs are often regarded as the best type of research design.
True testing is considered to be the most accurate test study design. True testing is a form of
experimental design and is considered to be the most accurate type of experimental research.
This is because the real test supports or refutes the theory using mathematical analysis. True
assessment is also thought to be the only experimental design that can establish a causal and
impact relationship.
Types of true test designs
There are several types of actual test designs and they are as follows:

One example study design

One group was studied simultaneously after a specific treatment that was thought to cause a
change. One carefully studied case compared with the general expectation of what the case
would look like if treatment did not occur and other unexpectedly observed events. No control or
comparison group is used.
Standing group comparisons
The group that received the treatment compared with the group that did not receive treatment.
The observed difference between the two groups is thought to be the result of treatment.
Post-Test Project Only - This type of project consists of two randomly assigned groups: a test
group and a control group. No group was tested prior to the start of treatment. Treatment is used
in the experimental group and post-test evaluations are performed in both groups to assess the
effect of treatment or deception. This type of design is common when it is not possible to
preview lessons.
Design for Experimental Experiments Only -
Topics are also randomly assigned to the test or control group. Both groups were tested
independently of the variables. The experimental group received treatment and both groups were
tested after the test to assess the effects of independent variability on dependent variables.
One-group pre-test design
One case is considered twice, one before treatment and one after treatment. Changes in benefit
outcomes are thought to be the result of interventions or treatments. No control or comparison
group is used.
Solomon Four Group Design - Themes are randomly assigned to one of four groups. There are
two test groups and two control groups. Only two groups were pre-tested. One pre-tested group
and the unprotected group received treatment. All four teams will receive a post-test test. The
effects of the variance detected at the beginning and then compared the effects of the
independent variations of the dependent variables as seen in the post-test results. This method is
a combination of the previous two methods and is used to eliminate potential sources of error.
Factorial Design -
The researcher controls two or more independent variables (features) simultaneously to
determine their effects on dependent variables. This design allows for testing of two or more
ideas in one project.
Randomized Block Design -
This design is used where there are natural differences between subjects and possible differences
in assessment conditions. If there are a large number of test groups, a random block design may
be used to bring some homogeneity to each group.
Q.4 what are historical sources? Keeping in mind them, discuss historical criticism in
detail.
History is a study of public health in the past, in all its aspects, in relation to current
developments and future prospects. It is a personal matter over a period of time, an investigation
into the past. Indeed, evidence is a historical teaching and learning resource. It is an investigation
into what happened in the past, when it happened, and how it happened. It is an investigation of
the inevitable changes in human affairs in the past and how these changes affect, influence or
determine patterns of life in society. History, or should be an attempt at rethinking the past.
Collingwood (1945) is particularly interested in this concept of history.
History aims to help students understand the current social, political, religious and economic
conditions of the people. Without historical knowledge we cannot have the origins of our
religion, Customs, administrative institutions and so on. History teaching helps students to
describe the present tense, analyze it and follow their own course. The relationship of cause and
effect between the past and the present is presented in an interesting way in history.
History therefore helps us to understand today's problems both at the national and international
levels accurately and precisely. In this section we will be discussing the meaning, nature and
scope of history, the objectives and objectives of second-level history teaching and teaching
history values.
The Concept of History
History is the analysis and interpretation of a person's past which enables us to learn to keep up
with the changes that are taking place over time. It is your action for both the investigation and
the ideas that seek to explain how people have changed over time. Historians use all kinds of
evidence to analyze, interpret, revisit, and redefine the past. This includes not only written texts,
but also oral communication with objects such as architecture, art objects, photographs, and
drawings. Historians are trained in how to locate and evaluate these sources and the challenging
task of making sense of them in them. History is a way of understanding the past and the present.
Different meanings of the past allow us to see the present in a different way and therefore to
think — and work for — a different future. She is often referred to as the “queen” or “mother” of
social sciences. It is the basis of all study subjects that fall under the category of Humanities and
Social Sciences. It is also the basis of philosophical research, Natural History
1. Current time analysis in light of the past: The present time has changed from the past. Modern
history helps us to understand how society has come to its present state in order to explain
logically. The causal relationship between selected events is explored which helps to reveal the
nature of the events and the design of common rules.
2. History is a personal study: History deals with the struggle of man over the years. History does
not stand still. By selecting "multi-person biographies" and presenting their lives in the right
context and ideas in the human context, we understand the sweeping of events. It follows an
exciting story of how human development has evolved over the years, how one has learned to
use and control one's environment and how current institutions have developed since time
immemorial.
Scope of History
The scope of History is great; it is a matter of man in relation to all his conduct. The scope of
history refers to the scope, integration, diversity and level of learning that the research provides.
History that was limited to local history, over the centuries has become a universal human
history, reflecting human achievement in all fields of political, economic, social, cultural,
scientific, technological, technological, religious and artistic, etc., and at various levels — local,
regional, national, and international. . It starts in the past; makes it its own anchor sheet and
points to the future. Events such as wars, uprisings, uprisings and fall, the fortunes and
misfortune of the great builders of the empire and the general masses are a matter of history.
History is a broad and comprehensive topic - Geographical History, Art History, Cultural
History, Literary History, Cultural History, Religious History, Mathematical History, Physics
History, Chemistry History, Education History, Biology History, History of Atom, History of
Philosophy — actually the history of any social, environmental, and biological science we love.
History today has become a global epidemic.
Heritage for teaching History
Value is the experience or fruit that a person receives in the process of achieving a goal while a
goal is a conscious and practical goal that we always put before our minds. It is always right in
front of us on the road to success. History is as important as research in more than one way.
Some numbers are standard which means they apply to teaching a lesson in all situations. Some
prices are limited and straightforward. They work on certain types of history, holding a certain
level of schooling or are a necessary teaching result when done in a certain way. The historical
values of teaching can be stated as follows: The value of discipline: History bears good fruit in
training the mind. It trains mental powers such as deep thinking, memory and thinking. It speeds
up and deepens understanding, providing insight into social, political, economic, and religious
performance.
General Objectives of Teaching History
1. Developing self-awareness: History needs to be taught in order to develop self-awareness.
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial
tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against
him. Without researching these historical facts, man will always be a stranger to himself.
Similarly in the absence of historical research, groups and individuals will fail to understand who
they are. As an important topic, history provides useful information needed to understand
common interpretations in everyday reading — words, places, dates and events etc. Historical
knowledge is therefore part of the identity and fulfillment of our environment.
2. Giving a proper view of time, place and society: History provides an accurate understanding
of the concept of time, place and society. It reflects the relationships of the present and the past,
the place and the distant life of the individual and the world
The lives and cultures of foreign men and women, in time and space. History is a link between us
as individuals and as individuals.
3. Enabling learners to evaluate the values and achievements of their age: History provides
young people with reference standards by which to measure values.
And the achievements of their years. This enables them to recognize the problems of modern
society, political, social, and economic.
4. Teaching tolerance: History teaches tolerance - tolerance for different religions, different
honesty, different cultures, different ideas and opinions.
Q.5 Write note on followings
a) Research studies
The survey is considered a separate study. Some epidemiologists may call it the epicenter of the
epidemic. The survey results provide a 'picture' of the population. Surveys are a useful tool for
measuring people's health or monitoring the effectiveness of preventive interventions or the
provision of emergency services.
Although the survey may provide a much quicker and less expensive way to assess people's
health
Another consideration in the construction of survey samples

Although this is not a survey study, you should know some ways to draw a sample for an
epidemiologic survey. First, if the population is not counted (listed), a simple random sampling
method can be used to draw a representative sample of potential participants. For example, you
might generate a list of all the children attending a public school and from that list, randomly
select study students. Simple random sampling processes can be performed in many software
packages, including Excel. The use of a simple sample allows us to compile the research results
and return to the sample.
Sometimes, we want to make sure that there are a sufficient number of responses from small
groups in comparison. To do that, we may use randomly stratified samples that divide groups
into homogeneous. Then we can draw some simple random samples for each group. Stratified
samples confirm that selected small groups of people will be represented in the sample. If the
strata are of the same type, the statistical accuracy from the stratified samples is greater than that
obtained by simple random samples. Combined samples may be equal to (or not equal to) the
size of the stratum. If samples are not equal, total population ratings are made up of group
estimates per segment of the sample. Collection sample is a type of stratified sample, and usually
refers to geographical location taking. The collection could be the location of a zip code in the
US or streets within the city.
Formal sampling occurs when we select our sample in an orderly manner. For example, you
could select all 10 houses on the street to take part in a home survey. Formal sampling may be
easier to use than simple random sampling and may represent population and simple random
sampling. However, if the entire rah unit corresponds to a sequence present in the population that
results in each sample member being selected in the same part of the repeating pattern, the
sample will be biased. For example, if the screening is done every seventh day, starting on
Monday, the whole sample will only represent a Monday feel.
Multi-stage sampling occurs when a combination of sampling methods is used.
Finally, there are a few types of tests that can be used but that may produce biased human
ratings. First, we may choose a sample that is more practical, such as randomly asking people on
a street corner or in a store to take part in a survey. Sample help may be helpful in collecting
initial or survey data for future survey that may be large and have robust sampling methods.
Lastly, you may choose to make targeted samples because you are more interested in the answers
of a particular group. Each of these methods is useful, but the results can be achieved by anyone.
b) Relationship Studies
A relationship is a state of being closely connected and perhaps connected.
A relation can also refer to a situation in which things are connected or related in that way.
The word interrelationship can be used to mean both.
Elements in relation can be defined by a related adjective.
The verb interrelate means to connect in this way or to make things connect in this way.
Relationships, affiliations, and affiliations are used in situations where two or more features are
strongly influenced or closely linked. For example, a study of unemployment and crime in a
particular area may conclude that there is a connection between you. Just because there is a
connection between two things does not mean that one creates another or creates another
(although in some cases this may be true).
Such terms are commonly used in connection with complex topics, such as economics, science,
and politics. This often involves situations where many things happen at the same time.
Communication can involve things that affect each other or work together to affect something
else.
For example, the economy is affected by many factors, such as employment, interest, and
inflation.
It is more common to describe things as related or to say that they are related than to use the
word relationship to refer to the relationship between them.
Example: Storm strength depends on the relationship of several factors, including temperature
and air pressure.