Aviation Safety, Security, and Emergency Planning 1

Aviation Safety, Security, and Emergency Planning

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 Aviation Safety, Security, and Emergency Planning 2

Table of Contents
1.0. Introduction...........................................................................................................................2

2.0. Safety and Security Regulatory Framework.........................................................................2

2.1. Human Factors and Accident Causation Models..............................................................4

2.2. The Safety Management System.......................................................................................5

3.0. Critical Assessment of the Human Aspects of Security Devices and Procedures................6

3.1. Passenger Screening Procedures and Devices..................................................................6

3.2. Concerns in Relation to Human Aspects..........................................................................8

4.0. The Use of a Variety of Rules and Technologies for Aviation Security..............................9

4.1. Aviation Security Rules....................................................................................................9

4.2. Aviation Security Technology........................................................................................10

5.0. Contingency Plan................................................................................................................11

5.1. Accident Scenario – Aircraft Ground Emergency..........................................................11

5.2. Contingency Plan............................................................................................................11

6.0. Conclusion..........................................................................................................................12

Reference List................................................................................................................................13
 Aviation Safety, Security, and Emergency Planning 3

Aviation Safety, Security, and Emergency Planning

1.0. Introduction

The inception of air travel has been celebrated as one of the easiest and quickest means of

transport for short and long distances. However, the awe associated with aviation is often

surpassed by the associated dangers (Patriarca et al. 2019, p. 551). Arguably, even though

serious aviation accidents rarely occur, they are known to be fatal, leading to a massive loss of

lives. As a response to these concerns, safety and security have become the primary agenda for

global aviation regulatory efforts. Regulation plays a vital role in ensuring the entire aviation

system's safety and security (Michael 2015, p. 2). Similarly, to enhance safety and security,

various procedures and devices are used to screen passengers to ensure that they do not pose a

threat within the airport or aboard an aircraft. Moreover, both passengers and operators have

implemented rules and laws to govern and enhance security in the aviation sector. Contingency

planning plays a critical role in mitigating the impact of safety events to prevent adverse

outcomes. This research paper addresses the security, safety, and emergency planning

components of air travel by analyzing the safety and security regulatory framework, the

screening procedures and devices, security rules and technology, and contingency planning.

2.0. Safety and Security Regulatory Framework

Notably, air transport has seen tremendous growth in the recent past with an increase in

operators' number and the incorporation of new technologies, airliners, and systems to improve

efficiency. Regardless of the growth, Patriarca et al. (2019) assert that the aviation sector

continues to raise more safety and security concerns, evidenced by the increase in air crashes and

airliner bombing (552). Therefore, various institutions and organizations have been established

to develop and enforce standards, rules, and regulations on safety and security to ensure air travel
 Aviation Safety, Security, and Emergency Planning 4

safety. Moreover, the regulatory framework safety requirements have been developed and

refined throughout the years to address existing and emerging issues in the safety and security of

air transport (Havel and Sanchez 2014, p. 4).

The principal organization in charge of the safety and security regulation of the aviation

sector is the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), an agency of the United Nations

founded in 1944 to develop, enforce, and oversee the implementation of aviation safety and

security standards among other major responsibilities (Michael 2015, p. 2-3). Other

organizations and institutions regulating the safety and security of air travel include the Federal

Aviation Administration (FAA), Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), National Transport and Safety

Board (NTSB), and the European Aviation Safety Authority (EASA) (Michael 2015, p. 2).

Nevertheless, it is important to note that the aviation industry's safety regulation occurs at three

levels, including the international, regional, and national levels. ICAO addresses all the

international regulatory requirements. The organization establishes and enacts standards

associated with all safety aspects of air travel. Besides the standards, ICAO also develops a set of

recommended practices that apply in the aviation sector globally. Moreover, ICAO oversees the

development and implementation of a safety regulatory framework by all UN-member states

through an oversight authority (Havel and Sanchez 2014, p. 5). In the recent past, ICAO

extended its jurisdiction to require aviation service providers and aircraft operators to implement

a formal safety management program.

At the regional level, organizations such as EASA, established in 2003 by the European

Union, approves and certifies an aircraft's airworthiness and the manufacture and maintenance of

aviation products (Michael 2015, p. 3). Besides, EASA also vets and approves personnel and

organizations operating aircrafts. At the national level, countries establish state-specific

 Aviation Safety, Security, and Emergency Planning 5

authorities and agencies mandated to regulate and oversee the implementation of safety and

security standards. For instance, the FAA manages all security regulations for air travel both on

and off the ground. On the other hand, NTSB investigates air crashes and related accidents. By

establishing the causes of air accidents, the organization develops various standards and practice

recommendations to enhance air travel safety.

2.1. Human Factors and Accident Causation Models

Markedly, while it is true that some of the safety incidents and accidents in air travel are

attributable to mechanical and technical issues in the aircraft, the overall safety and security

spectrum is influenced partly by human factors (Arcúrio et al. 2018, p. 1). Human factors refer to

a combination of the mental, emotional, environmental, ad psychological elements likely to

influence how people interact with the aircraft and associated systems. According to the human

factors theory of accident causation, accidents occur due to a chain of events attributable to

human error, including inappropriate activities, inappropriate responses, and overload (Arcúrio et

al. 2018, p. 2-3. Recent research and evidential statistics indicate that these human factors play

an integral role in safety and security regulation (Patriarca et al., 2019, p. 551-552). Different

models have been developed to explain and understand the causes and manifestation of aircraft

accidents and incidents. These accident causation models include the simple linear, complex

linear, and complex non-linear theories (Michael 2015, p. 2-3. According to the simple linear

accident causation model, an accident occurs due to a chain of sequential events involving

individual, environmental, and social factors alongside the possibility of physical and mechanical

hazards triggering a safety incident.

On the other hand, the complex linear model holds that accidents occur due to unsafe

events and conditions that put the flight crew at risk. Unlike these first two models, the complex
 Aviation Safety, Security, and Emergency Planning 6

non-linear theory presumes that accidents occur due to mutually interacting factors in the real-

time air travel environment. Therefore, an understanding of the interaction of these factors helps

reduce the possibility of an accident occurring (Michael 2015, p. 3-4). Above all, the systems

theory posits that accidents are attributable to an interaction between the person, the machine,

and the environment. From these models, one can tell that human factors are central in safety and

security incidences in the aviation sector.

2.2. The Safety Management System

In response to the increased risk for safety events, incidents, and accidents in the aviation

sector, a safety management system (SMS) is recommended to enhance air travel safety and

mitigate the associated risks. Even though there is no universal definition of an SMS, it typically

refers to the array of tools and processes implemented formally to guide an organized safety

program. The FAA (n.d.) defines SMS as a "formal, top-down, organization-wide approach to

managing safety risk and assuring the effectiveness of safety risk controls." Hence, SMS also

includes all policies, practices, and systematic procedures involved in managing the risk of safety

events. In the aviation sector, operators are required to implement an SMS under ICAO's practice

recommendations and standards (FAA n.d.). The systems approach in SMS focuses on four key

areas, including safety policy, safety risk management, safety promotion, and safety assurance.

Under safety policy, operators are required to exhibit management commitment and

responsibility, appoint safety personnel, enact safety accountabilities, coordinate emergency

response planning, and have SMS documentation. Risk management focuses on hazard

identification and risk assessment and mitigation (FAA n.d.). On the other hand, safety

promotion entails training and education, and safety communication. Above all, safety assurance
 Aviation Safety, Security, and Emergency Planning 7

focuses on change management, safety performance monitoring and measurement, and

continuous SMS improvement.

3.0. Critical Assessment of the Human Aspects of Security Devices and Procedures

3.1. Passenger Screening Procedures and Devices

According to ICAO, screening and searching passengers and the luggage is vital to

aviation safety and security. The goal of screening and searching passengers and their luggage is

to ensure that they do not increase the risk of safety and security incidents (National Research

Council et al. 1996, p. 2). Thus, ICAO mandates that all passengers and their luggage undergo

strict screening before allowing them into sterile sections of the airport or boarding the aircraft.

Screening begins at check-in, where classified criteria identify selected subjects for more intense

scrutiny. Once a passenger passes this point, they go to a security checkpoint where they are

screened, and their luggage scrutinized for ay potentially harmful objects and security threats

(National Research Council et al. 1996, p. 3). Several procedures and technological devices are

used in the screening process. These devices and procedures include manual search, trace

detection equipment, imaging technologies, and metal detectors. Metal-detection devices are the

most important screening devices to detect concealed weapons and dangerous objects such as

knives, guns, and bombs. Some metal detecting devices are designed to detect specific metals

and alloys that could threaten safety (National Research Council et al. 1996, p. 5). If these

devices detect a concealed weapon or dangerous object, the security staff intervenes and further

interrogates the passenger to determine other potential threats.

Besides metal detectors, aviation security can also use imaging technologies such as x-

ray to detect metallic and non-metallic weapons, dangerous objects, and contraband concealed by

passengers on their bodies or luggage. Passive imaging technologies are usually placed at the
 Aviation Safety, Security, and Emergency Planning 8

entry point and work by scanning subjects for natural radiation emitted by the human body. On

the other hand, active imaging exposes the passenger to a unique type of radiation that the human

body reflects. The concept behind the screening imaging devices is that any foreign object such

as explosives, contraband, and metallic and non-metallic weapons emit or reflect radiation

differently than the human body (Morgan, 2001, p. 7). Image processing and analysis techniques

are used to evaluate the image of a subject that is presented on a screen. Nevertheless, it is

important to note that imaging devices cannot detect objects hidden inside the body. Regardless,

the devices are used widely due to their capability to detect a broad range of materials that the

usual metal detectors would otherwise not detect.

Another important tool used in screening passengers is trace-detection technology. These

technologies are specially designed to identify vapor with explosive substances or particles of

explosive material (National Research Council et al. 1996, p. 6). Notably, the presence of such

vapor or particles implies that the subject may be concealing a bomb. The first step in trace

detection is sample collection, where explosive substances are input into the detection instrument

through contact and non-contact techniques. The second step in the process involves the

identification of explosive materials through chemical identification technologies. For instance, a

mass spectrometer can be used to detect relevant chemicals. The only challenge with trace

detection technologies is that they cannot be used to detect metallic objects. Sometimes hand

search is necessary to identify whether a subject is carrying concealed items on their body. This

process is contact-based and involves the security personnel touching the subject's body and

luggage gently to detect any unusual items such as weapons and dangerous objects.
 Aviation Safety, Security, and Emergency Planning 9

3.2. Concerns about Human Aspects

Notably, even though the highlighted procedures and devices are vital in enhancing

security, they raise major concerns for travelers regarding several human aspects. Concerns

about these procedures and devices center on two important factors – health and privacy. First,

imaging techniques emit electromagnetic radiation that can be risky to health. Although research

evidence affirms that these devices' radiation levels are too low to pose a health threat, the risk

remains significant for the traveling public. Continued exposure to radiation can cause cancer

and other health complications that can be detrimental to the quality of health outcomes in the

long-term. Thus, aviation security should have alternative screening methodologies and devices

with the same or higher efficacy to alleviate health concerns (Morgan, 2001, p. 8-9). Concerning

privacy, imaging technologies show the surface of the human body's naked surface, potentially

revealing private parts such as the breasts, buttocks, and sex organs. The idea of having one's

naked body showed to the security personnel without consent raises privacy issues, primarily if

the perceived risk of a threat is low. Having security personnel of the same sex view these

images can lower the privacy concerns. Moreover, contact-based screening, such as hand search

and trace-technologies, also raises privacy concerns as no one is sure of the security personnel's

intention (ICAO 2006, p. 4-5). It is recommendable to obtain consent from a subject before

proceeding with the contact-based screening procedures to avoid legal ramifications.

4.0. The Use of a Variety of Rules and Technologies for Aviation Security

4.1. Aviation Security Rules

There are several rules used to govern and foster aviation security. These rules can be

summarized by five major principles fronted by ICAO and implemented by other regional and

national regulatory organizations and institutions (Havel and Sanchez 2014, p. 3-4). First, timely
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and accurate information is necessary for risk management when an aircraft is overflying a

conflicted zone. Flying over such zones increases the security risk as the aircraft can fall victim

to targeted missiles or be caught in the crossfire accidentally. The second principle on airport

security posits that security is subject to environmental factors within and beyond the airport

system. Landside security is necessary to ensure that public areas surrounding the airport are free

from threats (Patriarca et al., 2019, p. 554-555). Employees and airport attendees must be vetted

thoroughly before being allowed to work at the airport. Cybersecurity is also important as the

third principle of aviation security, where several layers of security are needed to advance

detection capabilities and thwart any threat based on proactive intelligence and information

sharing. Security is a product of proactive intelligence where information and data are used to

establish and respond to threats before they can cause harm.

This understanding affirms the need for harmonizing AP and PNR information

requirements to improve security. Airliners collect PNR and API information to facilitate the

government's intelligence efforts. Although there are complexities in data acquisition and sharing

due to the ethical concerns present, ICAO's general requirement that such data should inform and

influence proactive decision-making to deter security threats. The fifth principle of aviation

security relates to the security checkpoint and passenger screening highlighted in the previous

section. Anyone who checks in at the airport should be subjected to extensive screening to ensure

that they do not pose a security threat. As discussed earlier, various procedures and devices

should be used in the screening processes to detect any weapons or dangerous objects that

threaten the public's safety and security.

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4.2. Aviation Security Technology

The discussion on the procedures and devices used to screen passengers best summarizes

the technology currently used to foster aviation security. Notably, considering the significance of

human factors in the aviation safety and security equation, it is extremely important to utilize

appropriate technologies to thwart threats (Almazroui et al. 2015, p. 12). First, airports are

implementing automated screening lanes (ALSs), a modern, state-of-the-art checkpoint

technology that scans passengers and their luggage as they walk into the airport. This system is

more efficient, effective, fast, and significantly reduces the amount of time taken to screen a

subject. Airports also use metal detectors and imaging techniques such as x-rays and computer

tomography to detect concealed weapons and other dangerous objects that could jeopardize the

public's safety (Almazroui et al., 2015, p. 12). Moreover, biometrics technology has become

more important in security management, especially concerning intelligence gathering. This

technology proactively determines the real identity of a passenger to establish the security threat

posed. Although face detection is not widely used, it is also another important technique to

profile passengers and detect those who may pose a threat for further screening. Overall, the

different technologies heighten security and proactively address any threats before further

damage (Almazroui et al., 2015, p. 12).

5.0. Contingency Plan

5.1. Accident Scenario – Aircraft Ground Emergency

Different types of accidents involving the aircraft are bound to happen at the airport. One

specific example is when a plane engine blows and catches fire just before takeoff when the

aircraft is still on the runway. When an engine blows and catches fire, the possibility of the fire

spreading to other parts of the plane is extremely high. Often, the safety of the passengers and
 Aviation Safety, Security, and Emergency Planning
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everyone in the vicinity is the priority. Hence, the contingency plan described below details the

specific steps and emergency actions that should be followed if a plane engine catches fire before

takeoff.

5.2. Contingency Plan

Rescue and Life-Saving: When the accident occurs, the first step should be rescuing all

passengers and crew on the plane to avoid any injuries or possible death (Price & Forrest 2016,

p. 427). Mainly, the possibility of the fire spreading and the plane bursting into flames is

extremely high. Thus, all steps and actions should focus on rescuing those aboard the plane first.

Safety of the Public, Equipment, and Property: Once all passengers have been rescued, it is

important to focus attention on the people, equipment, and property within the accident's

vicinity. Everyone within the vicinity and portable equipment should be evacuated to a safer

place to avoid further damage or injury.

Firefighting: Following the accident, the firefighting personnel and equipment should be

deployed immediately to the scene to contain the fire. Usually, firefighting can be conducted

while rescuing passengers, other people, and property in the vicinity. However, it is

recommendable to contain the fire after rescuing people and property because anything can

happen.

Protecting the Accident Site: Once the fire is contained, the accident site should be protected

for follow-up investigations. Nobody should tamper with the plane or be allowed near it to

facilitate an objective investigation and determination of the accident.

Returning to Normal Operations: Such an accident can ground all airport operations to a halt.

Therefore, once the situation is contained, systems should be put in place to facilitate a

resumption of normal airport activities.

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Investigations and Resolution: The final step of the plan involves detailed investigations to

establish the accident's cause and implement corrective measures (Price & Forrest 2016, p. 428).

Appropriate action should be taken to avoid similar scenarios and mitigate the potential impact.

6.0. Conclusion

The tremendous growth and advances in the aviation sector and the subsequently

increased threat risk call for more efforts in advancing the safety and security of air travel. The

aviation safety and security regulatory framework defines the standards, policies, and regulations

that should be implemented by all airliners and aircraft operators to increase the safety and

security of air travel. Although passenger screening procedures and devices raise major ethical

concerns about health and privacy, they are crucial in proactively identifying and addressing

security threats. Human factors play a vital role in safety and security and should, therefore, be

the primary point of focus bolstering air travel's safety and security.
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Reference List

Almazroui, S, Wang, W, and Zhang, G, 2015, 'Imaging technologies in aviation security,'

European Journal of Applied Sciences, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 12-12.

Arcúrio, MS, Nakamura, ES and Armborst, T, 2018, 'Human factors and errors in security

aviation: An ergonomic perspective,' Journal of Advanced Transportation, 2018.

Federal Aviation Administration, n.d., 'Safety Management System,' FAA, Available at

https://www.faa.gov/about/initiatives/sms/

Havel, BF, and Sanchez, GS, 2014, 'The international law regime for aviation safety and

security,' The Principles and Practice of International Aviation Law, Cambridge

University Press.

International Civil Aviation Organization, 2006, 'Major international airport passenger and

carry-on baggage screening guidance material,' Fifth Meeting of the GREPECAS

Aviation Security Committee, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2006.

Michael. AD, 2015, 'Aviation safety: Regulatory framework, technology, and contingency plan,'

Munich, Grin Verlag.

Morgan, D, 2001, 'Aviation security technologies and procedures: Screening passengers and

baggage,' Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress.

National Research Council et al., 1996, 'Airline passenger security screening: New technologies

and implementation issues,' National Academy Press.

Patriarca, R, Di Gravio, G, Cioponea, R and Licu, A, 2019, 'Safety intelligence: Incremental

proactive risk management for holistic aviation safety performance,' Safety Science, vol.

118, pp. 551-567.

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Price, JC, & Forrest, JS, 2016, 'Airport emergency planning, part II: Emergency management

functions,' Practical Airport Operations, Safety, and Emergency Management, 427.