Mechanical Failure

• How do flaws initiate failure

• How is fracture resistance
quantified
•How to estimate stress to fracture
•How do loading rate, history and
temperature affect failure stress
1
Examples of Failure

Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

from waves.
From chapter-opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister’s Materials Science
and Engineering, Adapted Version.
(by Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.)
thermal loading. loading from walking.
From Fig. 21.26(b), Callister’s
From Fig. 21.30(b), Callister’s Materials
MSE, Adapted Version.
Science and Engineering, Adapted Version.
(Fig. 21.30(b) is courtesy of National
Semiconductor Corporation.)

2
Fracture mechanisms
 Ductile fracture
 Occurs with plastic deformation
 Brittle fracture
 Little or no plastic deformation
 Catastrophic

3
Ductile vs Brittle Failure
• Classification:
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister 7e.

%AR or %EL Large Moderate Small

• Ductile Ductile: Brittle:
fracture is usually warning before No
desirable! fracture warning
4
Example: Failure of a Pipe
• Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation

• Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.

Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.

5
Moderately Ductile Failure
• Evolution to failure:
void void growth shearing
necking and linkage fracture
nucleation at surface
σ

• Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
sites. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, 6
pp. 347-56.)
Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture

From Fig. 11.3,

Callister’s Materials Science and Engineering,
Adapted Version.

7
Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate pt at which failure originated

From Fig. 11.5(a) 8

Callister’s Materials Science and Engineering, Adapted Version.
Brittle Fracture Surfaces
• Intergranular
(between grains)
4 mm
• Intragranular
304 S. Steel (within grains)
(metal) 316 S. Steel
Reprinted w/permission (metal)
from "Metals Handbook", Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R. Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
160 mm
National Lab.)

Polypropylene Al Oxide
(polymer) (ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg, from "Failure Analysis of
"Defor-mation and Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Fracture Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Society, Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and (Micrograph by R.M.
Sons, Inc., 1996. Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
3 mm
1 mm
9
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
Ideal vs Real Materials
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
σ perfect mat’l-no flaws
E/10 TSengineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1 ε
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
-- the longer the wire, the Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
smaller the load for failure. Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
• Reasons: Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
-- flaws cause premature failure. and Sons, Inc., 1996.

-- Larger samples contain more flaws!

10
 Flaws are Stress
Concentrators!
Results from crack
propagation
 Griffith Crack
1/ 2
 a
σm = 2σ o   = Kt σ o
 ρt 

ρt

where
ρt = radius of curvature
σo = applied stress
From Fig. 11.8(a)
σ = stress at crack tip
m and Engineering,
Callister’s Materials Science 11
Adapted Version.
Concentration of Stress at Crack
Tip

From Fig. 10.8(b)

Callister’s Materials Science and Engineering,
Adapted Version.

12
 Engineering Fracture Design
• Avoid sharp corners!
σo σ
max
Stress Conc. Factor, K t = σ
w o
σmax
2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius
Adapted from Fig. 1.5
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1.0 r/h
1943.)
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
13
Crack Propagation
Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip
 A plastic material deforms at the tip, “blunting”
the crack.
deformed
region
plastic
brittle

Energy balance on the crack

 Elastic strain energy-
 energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
 this energy is released when the crack propagates 14

 creation of new surfaces requires energy

When Does a Crack Propagate?
Crack propagates if above critical stress
1/ 2
i.e., σm > σc  2Eγ s 
σc =  
or Kt > Kc  πa 

where
 E = modulus of elasticity
γ = specific surface energy

15
 Fracture Toughness
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C(|| fibers) 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B5,
K Ic (MPa · m 0.5 )

Callister’s Materials Science and

20 Engineering, Adapted Version.
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2
Y2 O 3/ZrO 2 (p) 4 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
10 C/C( fibers) 1 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 p = particles. Addition data as noted
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4
6 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
5 Al oxide PET
2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
4 Si nitride
Waltham, MA.
PP
3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
3 PVC Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
(1986). pp. 61-73.
2 PC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6 6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
<111> Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
0.7 Glass -soda 16
0.6 Polyester
Concrete
0.5
Design Against Crack Growth
• Crack growth condition:
K ≥ Kc = Y σ π a
• Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
--Result 1: Max. flaw size --Result 2: Design stress
dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
2
Kc 1  K c 
σ design < amax < 
Y π amax π  Yσ design 

σ
fracture fracture
no no
fracture fracture σ
17
Design Example: Aircraft Wing
• Material has Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
Kc --failure stress = ?
• Use... σc =
Y π amax
• Key point: Y and Kc are the same in both designs.
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm

(σc amax )A = (σc amax )B

Answer: (σ c )B = 168 MPa
• Reducing flaw size pays off!
18
Loading Rate
• Increased loading rate... • Why? An increased rate
-- increases σy and TS gives less time for
-- decreases %EL dislocations to move past
obstacles.
σ
TS ε
y
larger

σ TS
ε
smaller

ε
19
 Impact Testing
• Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- severe testing case
-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Adapted from Fig. 11.12(b),
Callister’s Materials Science and
Engineering, Adapted Version.

(Fig. 11.12(b) is adapted from

H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and
J. Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. III,
Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height initial height

20
Temperature
• Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and Kc
• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914°C)

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials ( σ y > E/150)

From Fig. 11.15

Callister’s Materials Science
Temperature and Engineering,
Adapted Version.
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
21
Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D.
Ballard, The Discovery of the Titanic.)
• Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.
• WWII: Liberty ships
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
"Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)
22
Fatigue
• Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress.
Adapted from Fig. 11.18,
specimen compression on top Callister’s Materials
Science and Engineering,
motor Adapted Version.
bearing bearing counter
(Fig. 11.18 is from
flex coupling Materials Science in
tension on bottom Engineering, 4/E by Carl.
A. Keyser, Pearson

• Stress varies with time. σ Education, Inc., Upper

Saddle River, NJ.)
σmax
S
σm
σmin time

• Key points: Fatigue...

--can cause part failure, even though σmax < σc.
--causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
23
Fatigue Design Parameters
S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
unsafe steel (typ.)
--no fatigue if S < Sfat

safe
From Fig. 11.19(a),
Callister’s MSE
Adapted Version.
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
• Sometimes, the
fatigue limit is zero! S = stress amplitude
case for
unsafe Al (typ.)

safe From Fig. 11.19(b),

Callister’s MSE
Adapted Version.
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure 24
Fatigue Mechanism
• Crack grows incrementally
da typ. 1 to 6
= (∆ K )
m

dN
~ (∆ σ ) a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
• Failed rotating shaft
--crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
--crack grows faster as
• ∆σ increases
• crack gets longer
• loading freq. increases.
crack origin
From Fig. 11.21,
Callister’s Materials
Science and
Engineering, Adapted
Version.
(Fig. 11.21 is from D.J.
Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail,
American Society for 25
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)
Improving Fatigue Life
1. Impose a compressive
surface stress
(to suppress surface
cracks from growing)
From Fig. 11.24,
S = stress amplitude Callister’s Materials
Science and
Engineering, Adapted
Version.
Increasing
near zero or compressive σm
σm moderate tensile σm
Larger tensile σm

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing

shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better

concentrators. From Fig. 11.25,
Callister’s Materials
bad better Science and
26
Engineering, Adapted
Version.
Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress (σ) vs. time
σ
σ,ε

0 t

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope. From Fig. 11.28,
Callister’s Materials
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate) Science and
Engineering, Adapted 27
increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. Version.
Creep
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

From Figs. 11.29,

Callister’s Materials
Science and Engineering, 28
Adapted Version.
Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, σ
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
 Qc 
ε s = K 2σ exp −
n
 activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material parameter)
material const. applied stress

• Strain rate 200 Stress (MPa) From Fig. 11.31,

Callister’s Materials
427°C Science and
increases 100 Engineering, Adapted
538 °C Version.
for higher T, σ 40 (Fig. 11.31 is from
Metals Handbook:
20
649 °C Properties and
Selection: Stainless
10 Steels, Tool Materials,
and Special Purpose
10 -2 10 -1 1 Metals, Vol. 3, 9th ed.,

Steady state creep rate εs (%/1000hr)

D. Benjamin (Senior
29
Ed.), American Society
for Metals, 1980, p.
131.)
Creep Failure
• Estimate rupture time
• Failure: S-590 Iron, T = 800°C, σ = 20 ksi
along grain boundaries. From Fig. 11.32,
100 Callister’s Materials
g.b. cavities Science and
Engineering, Adapted

Stress, ksi
Version.
20
applied
10 (Fig. 11.32 is from F.R.
stress Larson and J. Miller,
Trans. ASME, 74, 765
data for (1952).)
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of S-590 Iron
Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
1
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon 12 16 20 24 28
Press, Inc.)
L(10 3 K-log hr)

• Time to rupture, tr T ( 20 + logt r ) = L

T ( 20 + logt r ) = L
1073K
temperature function of
applied stress Ans: tr = 233 hr 30
time to failure (rupture)
SUMMARY
• Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
• Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and stress:
- for noncyclic σ and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- for cyclic σ:
- cycles to fail decreases as ∆σ increases.
- for higher T (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to fail decreases as σ or T increases. 31