Unit-5: Introduction to Measurement and Mechatronics

Introduction to Measurement: Concept of Measurement, Error in measurements, Calibration, measurements

of pressure (Bourdon Tube Pressure and U-Tube Manometer), temperature (Thermocouple and Optical
Pyrometer), mass flow rate (Venturi Meter and Orifice Meter), strain (Bonded and Unbonded Strain Gauge),
force (Proving Ring) and torques (Prony Brake Dynamometer); Concepts of accuracy, precision and resolution.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Concept of Measurement:
Measurements are an integral part of living; we measure time, measure steps walked to know the calories
burnt, measure the materials added for cooking, and measure the size of clothes to know whether it fits
perfectly. Sometimes we fail to know the exact measurement, and the values vary, leading to errors.

Measurements are behind many of the daily actions that we take for granted, like buying food, filling
our vehicle’s gas tank, switching the lights on at home, or taking medicine.
Accurate measurements ensure that we get the right amount of food, fuel, and energy, and that our
medication is safe. They ensure communities can function well and provide the foundations for safer and
more sustainable businesses and societies.

Measurement is not limited to physical qualities like height and weight. Tests to measure abstractions
like intelligence and scholastic aptitude are commonly used in education and psychology

Definition: Measurement is the quantification of attributes of an object or event, which can be used to
compare with other objects or events.
In other words, measurement is a process of determining how large or small a physical quantity is as
compared to a basic reference quantity of the same kind.
“Measurement is the assignment of a numerical value to an attribute of an object, such as the length
of a pencil.”

Error in measurements: An error may be defined as the difference between the measured and true values.
For example, if the two operators use the same device or instrument for measurement. It is not necessary that
both operators get similar results. The difference between the measurements is referred to as an ERROR.
The true value is impossible to find by experimental means. It may be defined as the average value of an
infinite number of measured values.
The measured value is a single measure of the object to be as accurate as possible.
There are three types of errors that are classified based on the source they arise from; They are:
a. Gross Errors b. Random Errors c. Systematic Errors

Gross Errors: This category basically takes into account human oversight and other mistakes while reading,
recording, and readings. The most common human error in measurement falls under this category of
measurement errors. For example, the person taking the reading from the meter of the instrument may read
23 as 28.
Gross errors can be avoided by using two suitable measures, and they are written below:
• Proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also, the calculation of error should be
done accurately.
 • By increasing the number of experimenters, we can reduce the gross errors. If each experimenter takes
different readings at different points, then by taking the average of more readings, we can reduce the
gross errors.

Random Errors: The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are random.
These can arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions
(Example: unpredictable fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply, mechanical vibrations of
experimental set-ups, etc, errors by the observer taking readings, etc. For example, when the
same person repeats the same observation, he may likely get different readings every time

Systematic Errors:
Systematic errors can be better understood if we divide them into subgroups; They are:
• Environmental Errors
• Observational Errors
• Instrumental Errors
a. Environmental Errors: This type of error arises in the measurement due to the effect of the external
conditions on the measurement. The external condition includes temperature, pressure, and humidity
and can also include an external magnetic field. If you measure your temperature under the armpits
and during the measurement, if the electricity goes out and the room gets hot, it will affect your body
temperature, affecting the reading.
b. Observational Errors: These are the errors that arise due to an individual’s bias, lack of proper setting
of the apparatus, or an individual’s carelessness in taking observations. The measurement errors also
include wrong readings due to Parallax errors.
c. Instrumental Errors: These errors arise due to faulty construction and calibration of the measuring
instruments. Such errors arise due to the hysteresis of the equipment or due to friction. Lots of the
time, the equipment being used is faulty due to misuse or neglect, which changes the reading of the
equipment. The zero error is a very common type of error. This error is common in devices like Vernier
callipers and screw gauges. The zero error can be either positive or negative. Sometimes the scale
readings are worn off, which can also lead to a bad reading.

Calibration is the comparison of measurement values delivered by a device under test with those of
a calibration standard of known accuracy. Such a standard could be another measurement device of known
accuracy.
The outcome of the comparison can result in one of the following:
• no significant error being noted on the device under test
• a significant error being noted but no adjustment made
• an adjustment made to correct the error to an acceptable level
Calibration in its simplest terms, is a process in which an instrument or piece of equipment’s accuracy is
compared with a known and proven standard.
Although the exact procedure may vary from product to product, the calibration process generally involves
using the instrument to test samples of one or more known values called “calibrators.” The results are used to
establish a relationship between the measurement technique used by the instrument and the known values.

Measurements of pressure: Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge:

A bourdon tube pressure gauge is a mechanical pressure measuring instrument that reads the pressure
without requiring any electrical power. It is generally used for the measurement of pressure from 0.6 to 7000
bar (8 to 10000 psi).

Working: This pressure gauge is attached to a pipeline at the inlet pipe (A). The inlet pipe is held in place by
the socket block (B), which also holds the device to the process line. Pressure flows into the stationary end of
the Bourdon tube (C). The pressure is distributed through the C-shaped Bourdon tube (D). As a result of this
pressure, the C-shape straightens. A pivot and pivot pin (E) connect the straightening movement with the
sector gear (F) at the moving end of the Bourdon tube. Due to the gearing system, the movement at the
moving end of the Bourdon tube is amplified so that a very slight pressure change results in a considerable
motion of the indicator needle (G).

Generally, the indicator moves from left to right in a circular path over a calibrated scale. A decrease in
pressure will result in the Bourdon tube returning to its original position.
Bourdon tube pressure gauges are suitable for liquid or gaseous media for vacuum, low and high-pressure
applications.

U-Tube Manometer: A U-tube manometer is the simplest of the pressure measurement devices. Its name
comes from the U-shape formed when the two ends of a flexible tube full of liquid are raised to keep the
liquid from coming out the ends. A U-tube manometer is a ‘liquid’ balance.
It measures the pressure from the force caused by the fluid (air, gases, water, liquids, etc.) pushing against its
sensing surface. The manometer sensing surface needs to be connected to the fluid being measured.

Working: U-tube manometer features a vertical or inclined U-tube column that is filled with a reference liquid
(mercury) to display the pressure level. When the columns of the device are exposed to the atmosphere, the
levels of liquid in the limbs are equal and this indicates the atmospheric pressure. When one of the columns is
connected to the pressure vessel, there will be a difference in the level of the liquid in the limbs, which
signifies the pressure of the liquid in the vessel.

Fluid pressure is given by the following equation: P = ρgh

Temperature measurement: (Thermocouple and Optical Pyrometer)

Thermocouples are temperature measurement sensors that generate a voltage that changes over
temperature.
A thermocouple is comprised of at least two dissimilar metals joined together to form two junctions. One is
connected to the body whose temperature is to be measured; this is the hot or measuring junction. The other
junction is connected to a body of known temperature; this is the cold or reference junction. Therefore, the
thermocouple measures unknown temperature of the body with reference to the known temperature of the
other body.
See beck effect: The See beck effect states that when two different or unlike metals are joined together at
two junctions, an electromotive force (emf) is generated at the two junctions. The amount of emf generated is
different for different combinations of the metals.

The magnitude of the emf V produced between the two junctions depends on the material and on the
temperature ΔT through the linear relationship defining the Seebeck coefficient S for the material.
ΔV= S ΔT
The amount of EMF generated in the device is very minute (millivolts), so very sensitive devices must be
utilized for calculating the e.m.f produced in the circuit.

Pyrometer: Pyrometer is a device that is used to measure a relatively high temperature without being in contact
with any device. The pyrometer uses heat/radiation from the object’s body to measure the temperature.
The pyrometer offers the following features, such as:
⇒ Non-contact measurement of temperature
⇒ Easy measurement in places that are difficult to access
⇒ Very precise and Reliable temperature measurement technology
Working Principle of Pyrometer:
The basic principle of the pyrometer is, it measures the object’s temperature by sensing the heat/radiation
emitted from the object without making contact with the object. It records the temperature level depending
upon the intensity of radiation emitted.

Types of Pyrometer: a. Optical Pyrometer b. Infrared/Radiation Pyrometer.

Optical Pyrometer:

we can see the parts of the optical pyrometer.

⇒ An eyepiece or observer is on the left side and an optical lens on the right side.
⇒ A lamp that generates reference temperature using a power source and rheostat.
⇒ An ampere meter to measure the current to calculate the temperature.
⇒ An absorption screen is installed between the lens and a reference lamp.
⇒ A red filter between the reference lamp and eyepiece or observer.

An optical pyrometer uses this radiation to measure the temperature of the object. The brightness of the
measured object is compared with the brightness of the lamp at a reference temperature. The reference
temperature is produced by the lamp whose brightness can be adjusted using rheostat as shown in the above
figure.
Working: Any object whose temperature is absolute zero emits or generates radiation. This emission depends
on the temperature of the object. The radiation from the source is captured by the optical lens. The lens helps
in focusing the thermal radiation on the lamp. The observer starts observing the brightness of the lamp
filament. The filament of the reference lamp is superimposed on the temperature of the source. The observer
starts changing the rheostat value.
There may be three possibilities, such as
A. When the filament is “DARK“. Then the source object is hotter than the reference temperature or we can
say that the filament temperature is cooler than the source temperature.
B. When the filament is “BRIGHT“. Then the source object is cooler than the reference temperature or we can
say that the filament temperature is hotter than the source temperature.
C. When the filament “DISAPPEARS“. So we can say that the temperature of the source object and reference
temperature is the same.
At this time current can be measured to calculate the temperature.

Advantages
o Assembly is simple and portable.
o Provides a very high accuracy with the tolerance of ±5 ºC.
o No need to be in direct contact with the object whose temperature is being measured.
Disadvantage
o Measurement is completely based on the light intensity, it can be useful only to measure
relatively high temperature.
Infrared/Radiation Pyrometer:

Principle: Temperature of a body can be measured by measuring radiant energy emitted by that hot body.
Stefan Boltzman’s law Total Thermal radiation (Q)= σT4.

Working : When the total energy radiated by a hot body enters the pyrometer, it is collected and focused by
lens on to the receiving element (thermocouple). Due to hot radiations incident on thermocouple, an emf is
developed. This emf is measured by a mili-voltmeter Directly. Concabve mirros are used to avoid reflections in
unwanted directions.

As shown in the figure, the radiation pyrometer has an optical system such as it has an optical lens,
mirror, and adjustable eyepiece. The heat energy is transferred through the optical lens to the mirror. The
mirror focuses this energy on the detector. The detector may be either thermopile or photomultiplier tubes.
The detector converts the collected heat energy into an electrical current signal and drives it to the control
unit or temperature display.
Advantages
o It has a high performance and moderate cost.
o It has a fast speed response.
o It has good stability.
o No need to be in physical contact with the object being measured.
Disadvantage
o The design of the radiation pyrometer is complex.
o The emissivity of the target material may affect the measurement.
Application of Pyrometer
⇒ Blast Furnace temperature measurement.
⇒ Smelter Industry
⇒ Steam Boiler
⇒ Gas Turbine Engines
⇒ Hot Air Balloon.

Venturi meter : Venturi meter is a flow measurement device, which is based on the principle of Bernoulli's
equation. Inside the pipe pressure difference is created by reducing the cross-sectional area of the flow
passage. This difference in pressure is measured with the help of manometer and helps in determining rate of
fluid flow.
Principle: Bernoulli’s equation: It states that in a steady ideal flow of incompressible fluids ,the total energy at
any point of the fluid is constant. P.E + K.E + P.E = Const.
 𝟐𝝆𝒎 𝒈𝒉𝒎
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑸 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨𝟏 √ =
𝑨𝟏 𝟐
𝝆 (𝑨 ) − 𝟏)
𝟐

𝟐𝝆𝒎 𝒈𝒉𝒎
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝒅 𝑨𝟏 √
𝑨
𝝆 (𝑨𝟏 )𝟐 − 𝟏)
𝟐

Cd, called the Coefficient of discharge of venturimeter

Construction:
1.Short convergent part: It is that portion where fluid get converges i.e. radius decreases .
2. Throat : It is middle portion of venturi .Here the velocity of fluid increases and pressure decreases .It
possesses the least cross-section area .
3.Diverging part : In this portion the fluid diverges.

Working
1.Here we have considered two cross section , first at the inlet and the second one at the throat. The
difference in the pressure heads of these two sections is used to calculate the flow through Venturimeter.
2. As the water enters at the inlet section i.e. in the converging part it converges and reaches to the throat.
3.The throat has the uniform cross section area and least area in the venturimeter. As the water enter in the
throat its velocity gets increases and due to increase in the velocity the pressure drops to the minimum.
4. Now there is a pressure difference of the fluid at the two sections .at the section 1 i.e. at the inlet the
pressure of the fluid is maximum and the velocity is the minimum and at the section2 i.e. at the throat the
velocity of the fluid is maximum and the pressure is minimum.
5. The pressure difference at the two sections can be seen in the manometer attached at both the sections.
6. This pressure difference is used to calculate the rate flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe.

APPLICATIONS: 1. PLUMBING: 2.Flow of chemicals in pipelines: 3.Carburetors:

Advantages:
1.It can be installed in any direction . 2.It can be used for dirty fluids. 3.Smooth construction and low
cone angle. 4.High pressure recovery and low permanent pressure drop.
Disadvantages 1. Cannot be used in pipes having small diameter. 2.Size and cost is high. 3.Non linear
4. Maintenance is not easy.
Orificemeter: The orifice meter consists of an orifice plate placed in between the two flanges which
obstructs the passage of the flowing fluid. Due to this, there is a pressure drop in the fluid which is measured
by a differential pressure measuring device, and the flow is measured using the barnauli equation.

PRINCIPLE: When an orifice plate is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose rate of flow is to be measured,
the orifice plate causes a pressure drop which varies with the flow rate. This pressure drop is measured using
differential pressure sensor and when calibrated this pressure drop becomes a measure flow rate.

Same formula can be used to calculate the discharge rate:

2𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ𝑚
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴1 √
𝐴
𝜌 (𝐴1 )2 − 1)
2

But Co-efficient of discharge of the orifice meter will be quite small as compared to the co-efficient of
discharge of the venturi meter.

CONSTRUCTION:
1. A stainless steel orifice plate which is held between flanges of a pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is
being measured.
2. It should be noted that for a certain distance before and after the orifice plate fitted between the flanges,
the pipe carrying the fluid should be straight in order to maintain laminar flow conditions.
3.Openings are provided at two places 1 and 2 for attaching a differential pressure sensor

WORKING:
1. The fluid having uniform cross section of flow converges into the orifice plate’s opening in its upstream.
When the fluid comes out of the plate it’s cross section is minimum and uniform for a particular distance and
then the cross section of the fluid starts diverging in the down stream.
2. At the upstream of the orifice, before the converging of the fluid takes place, the pressure of the fluid (P1) is
maximum. As the fluid starts converging, to enter the orifice opening its pressure drops. When the fluid comes
out of the orifice, its pressure is minimum (p2) and this minimum pressure remains constant in the minimum
cross section area of fluid flow at the downstream.
3.This minimum cross sectional area of the fluid obtained at downstream from the orifice edge is called VENA-
CONTRACTA.
4.The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records the pressure difference (P1 – P2)
between these two points which becomes an indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when
calibrated. Applications of

Applications of Orifice Meter

1.The concentric orifice plate is used to measure flow rates of pure fluids and has a wide applicability as it has
been standardized.
2.The eccentric and segmental orifice plates are used to measure flow rates of fluids containing suspended
materials such as solids, oil mixed with water and wet steam.

Strain Gauges: The strain gauge is a transducer used to measure strain and associated stress in experimental
stress analysis. They converts the force, pressure, tension, and weight into electrical quantity which can be
measured.

Working Principle: We know, the resistance of the conductor depends on the length and cross-sectional area.
The resistance: R = ρ L/A
L = length of the conductor or semiconductor element.
A = Cross sectional area.
ρ = Resistivity.
When a metal wire (or conducting wire) is stretched or compressed, its length and diameter change due to
which the resistance and also the resistivity of the wire will change.
Gauge Factor: The sensitivity of the strain gauge is expressed in the terms of a characteristic called the Gauge
factor. Strain wire Gauge factor G is the ratio between relative change in resistance due to the change in
relative length.
∆𝑅⁄
𝐺= 𝑅
∆𝐿⁄
𝐿
A strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that converts the mechanical displacement into electrical
quantity.

Types of Strain Gauges:

Based on mounting, strain gauges are classified as:
Bonded strain gauges. Unbonded strain gauges.

Bonded strain gauge : These strain gauges are attached to the elastic element surface (i.e. thin sheet of paper
or a thin sheet of bakelite or Teflon). Then after these are connected to the Wheatstone bridge circuit. Bonded
strain are of following types:
Wire strain gauge:The resistance element is in the form of wire foil or film of the material.In a metal
bonded strain gauge a fine wire element, about 0.025 mm or less in diameter is looped back and forth on the
base carrier or mounting plate. The base is cemented to the member subjected to the stress.

The grid fine wire is cemented on a carrier which may be a thin sheet of paper bakelite or Teflon.
Metal Foil : The strain is detected by using a metal foil. The metal foil is pasted on one side of the plastic The
leads are soldered to the metal foil for connecting the Wheatstone bridge.The metal and alloys used for the foil
or wire are Constantan(Cu-Ni), Nichrome V(Ni-Cr), Isoelastic(Fe-Ni-Cr-Mn-Mo), Platinum-Tungsten(Pt-
W). Metal Foil strain gauges exhibit a higher gauge factor than wire foil strain gauges.

Rosette Strain gauges: Strains that are parallel to the strain axis are measured by a single strain
gauge.Whereas if there is a requirement of measurement of the strain in more than one direction, placing
more than one strain gauge in a number of directions at the proper locations.

Unbonded strain gauge: The unbonded resistance strain gauge uses strain-sensitive wire with one end fixed or
the other end attached to a movable element.

Working :When the strain gauge is connected to the Wheatstone bridge circuit, at initial preload, the strain
and resistance of the four arms are approximately equal. The resultant output voltage of the bridge is equal to
zero. Application of pressure causes a small displacement causes a change in resistance of the strain gauge.
This results in an unbalance in the output voltage of the Wheatstone bridge which is proportional to the small
displacement hence the pressure.
Uses:
• Strain gauges are used in measurement of force, pressure, torque etc. in structural member
• Strain measurement in concrete and metal structures.

•
Proving Ring: A proving ring is a device used to measure force based on the linear relationship between
stress and strain in an elastic material. It consists of an elastic ring made of steel alloy in which the deflection
of the ring when loaded along a diameter is measured by means of a micrometre screw and a vibrating reed.

Principle: In simplest form, for a thin ring under modest compression (or tension) of load F, the decrease (or
increase) in ring diameter(y) is proportional to FD3/EI, where D is the diameter of the ring, E is the modulus of
elasticity of the ring’s material, and I is the dependent on the ring’s cross-section Thus, for small loads, the
deflection is linearly related to the applied load.
Typical deflection of a proving ring under full-scale load is just a few millimeters, and that can be measured
with great accuracy and precision using micrometres and other gauges

Construction:
The proving ring consists of two main elements, the ring itself and the diameter-measuring system. Forces are
applied to the ring through the external bosses. The resulting change in diameter, referred to as the deflection
of the ring, is measured with a micrometre screw and the vibrating reed mounted diametrically within the
ring.
To read the diameter of the ring, the vibrating reed is set in motion by gently tapping it with a pencil.
As the reed is vibrating, the micrometer screw on the spindle is adjusted until the usa-button on the spindle
just contacts the vibrating reed, dampening out its vibrations. When this occurs a characteristic buzzing sound
is produced. At this point a reading of the micrometer dial indicates the diameter of the ring.

Prony Brake Dynamometer: A dynamometer is a device used for measuring the torque and brake power required
to operate a driven machine.
A Prony brake dynamometer is the simplest form of dynamometer that Prony developed at the beginning of
the first industrial revolution. It is made up of brake blocks that press against a rotating wheel attached to the
motor. The braking blocks create friction force to slow the velocity of the wheel.

Construction:
A pully which is connected to the engine's shaft to whose power is to be measured. It consists of two blocks of
wood, each of which embraces rather less than one half of the pulley rim. These blocks are clamped by two
nuts and bolts. A helical spring is provided between the nut and the upper block to adjust the pressure on the
pully to control the speed. A long lever is attached to the upper block and it carries suppose a weight 'W' at
the outer end. A counter weight is placed at the opposite side of the lever to balance the unbalanced break
power of the engine. Two stops 'S', S is used to limit the motion of the lever.

Working: When the brake is in operation, the lever is located with a load suppose 'W' see in the diagram and
the nuts are tightened until shaft runs at a constant speed and the lever is in horizontal position. This condition
weight 'W' must balance between the blocks and the pully.

The brake power is given by the formula:

Brake Power (Pb) = 2πNT/60 watts
Where T = Weight applied (W) × distance (l)
Concept of Accuracy, Precision and Resolution:
Accuracy: The ability of an instrument to measure the accurate value. Or In other words, it is the the closeness
of the measured value to a standard or true value.

Accuracy as Percentage of Scale Range: The uniform scale range determines the accuracy of a measurement.
This can be better understood with the help of the following example:
Consider a thermometer having the scale range up to 500ºC. The thermometer has an accuracy of ±0.5 percent
of scale range i.e. 0.005 x 500 = ± 2.5 ºC. Therefore, the reading will have a maximum error of ± 2.5 ºC.

Precision: The closeness of two or more measurements to each other is known as the precision of a substance.
It is the measure of spread of different reading. Precision is independent of accuracy.

Accuracy is the degree of closeness between a measurement and its true value.
Precision is the degree to which repeated measurements under the same conditions show the same results.

Resolution: It is a smallest change that a instrument can read. The specified resolution of an instrument has
no relation to the accuracy of measurement
Introduction to Mechatronic Systems: Evolution, Scope, Advantages and disadvantages of Mechatronics,
Industrial applications of Mechatronics, Introduction to autotronics, bionics, and avionics and their
applications. Sensors and Transducers: Types of sensors, types of transducers and their characteristics.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Introdution : Mechatronics was invented as a subdiscipline of mechanical engineering in 1969 by a Japanese
engineer and essentially refers to the combination of two terms, “Mechanical” and “Electronics” which means
that Mechatronics is the application of the fundamental principle of mechanical engineering in the field of
electronics and it relates to the creation of automated and advancingly mechanized engineering solutions for
different purposes.
What is mechatronics: It is a multidisciplinary approach to product and manufacturing system design. It
involves application of electronics, mechanical, electrical and computer engineering to develop products,
processes and systems with greater flexibility, ease in redesign and ability of reprogramming. It concurrently
includes all these disciplines.
Mechatronics can be described as the integration of mechanical, electrical, electronics, and control
engineering with computer technology.All of these features are combined to make the generation of simpler,
reliable and economical systems.

Evolution:
The evolution of mechatronics took place by four stages,

in the first stage devices such as sensors and actuators were developed which can integrate electrical signal
with mechanical action at the basic control level relay switches is an example for this.
In the second stage, micro-electronics were integrated into electrically controlled devices.
In the third stage of evolution, the mechatronics system is called a smart system because in this system they
use microprocessors and microelectronics for the control strategy.
In the fourth stage of evolution, the intelligence and fault detection isolation were added into the system.
The evolution of mechatronics has made some revolutions such as the industrial revolution and information
revolution.
Scope: Mechatronics engineers help in automating the processes. They create, operate, test, and maintain
different machines that are created for the purpose of automation specifically in the manufacturing industry.
They act as a link between technicians and engineers. Mechatronics has been proven as an essential
foundation for the expected growth in the automation and manufacturing industry.
Mechatronics professionals know both mechanical and electronic engineering fundamentals. They can
work with massive industrial robots, control systems for bottling and packaging of food and drink products,
drones, small robots in pick and place operations, designing control systems for the rides in the amusement
parks, etc.
Skilled mechatronics engineers are in high demand in the field of designing and operating internet control of
machines, autonomous robots, and engine management systems.

APPLICATIONS OF MECHATRONICS SYSTEM:

As mechatronics is an attractive research area. There are many applications of mechatronics, such as:
• Machine vision
• Automation and robotics
• Servo-mechanics
• Sensing and control systems
• Automotive engineering, automotive equipment in the design of subsystems such as anti-lock braking
systems
• Computer-machine controls, such as computer driven machines like IE CNC milling machines
• Consumer products
• Mechatronics systems
• Medical mechatronics, medical imaging systems
• Computer-aided design
• Engineering and manufacturing system

What are the examples of mechatronic system

the mechatronic system can be widely seen in our day to day life, mechatronics systems are used in homes,
offices, schools, and shops, major mechatronics systems are
• Domestic appliances such as fridges, microwave ovens, vacuum cleaner, mixers, televisions,
telephones, digital cameras…
• Security systems, and automatic gate control system
• Office equipment such as laser printers, hard drive positioning system, LCD, scanner…
• Banking equipment such as automatic teller machines, and cash registers
Advantages of Mechatronics system
1. It is cost effective and it can produce high quality products.
2. Mechatronics enhances functionality and features.
3. It brings more efficiency.
4. Mechatronics adds intelligence to design of the system.
5. Mechatronics solutions are less expensive when compared to mechanical, solutions.
6. A mechatronic solution improves design and reliability.
7. It is also more user-friendly and safer to use.
8. Production of parts and products of international standards gives better reputation and return.
9. It serves effectively for high dimensional accuracy requirements.
 10. It Results in automation in production, assembly and quality control.

Disadvantages Of Mechatronics System

• The initial cost is high.
• Maintenance and repair may workout costly.
• Multi-disciplinary engineering background is required to design and implementation.
• It needs highly trained workers to operate.
• Techno-economic estimation has to be done carefully in the selection of mechatronic system.
• It has complexity in identification and correction of problems in the systems.

Autotronics: It can be defined as the combination of automobile and electronics or we can say that the use of
electronics science in automobile vehicles is called autotronics.

Major Areas: The use of electronics in the automobile field makes the system safe, improved and efficient.
At present , in the new generation automobile almost 75%-85% of automobile parts are embedded with
electronics system.
• The main areas of automobiles using autotronics are engine controlling system. Airbags, antilock braking
system, lightening interiors, GPS , music systems etc.

ECU or Electronic Control Unit is a device that controls all the electronic features in a car. Some vehicles have
multiple ECU controlling different features while some have a single one controlling everything.
With vehicles having multiple electronic control units, they are divided on what tasks they perform.

Bionics: It is a field of technology that combines the study of biology in nature and its patterns , with
mechatronics , which combines mechanical , electronics and software.
Bionics consists of many different subject areas , but one of the most eye-catching and popular is bionic
implants.
• These implants aim to improve the standard of living for people who have damaged body parts such as
arms, legs , eyes, or even ears.

Avionics: Avionics are the electronics systems used in aircraft, artificial satellite and spacecraft. Avionic
systems include communications, navigation, the display and management of multiple systems and the
hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to perform individual functions.

Avionics grew in 1950’s and 1960’s as electronic devices which replaces the mechanical or analog equipments
in the aircraft.

Advantages:
• Increased safety
• Air traffic control requirements
• Air weather operation
• Reduction in fuel consumption
• Improved aircraft performance and control and handling and reduction in maintenance costs
Sensors and transducers are extensively used in the electrical and electronic instruments to measure different
physical quantities.

Sensor: A sensor is a device that detects any physical quantity such as pressure, light, heat, temperature,
humidity, etc. from the outside environment and responds according to the input to produce a desired output
(electrical, mechanical etc.) in a format that is easy to read for the user.
The output produced by a sensor is a signal that can be either converted to human readable form by a display
or transmitted over a network or supplied to a processing device,
Some common examples of sensors are temperature sensor, pressure sensor, humidity sensor, proximity
sensor, photo sensor, motion sensor, etc.

Real Time Application of Sensors:

The example we are talking about here is the Autopilot System in aircrafts. Almost all civilian and military
aircrafts have the feature of Automatic Flight Control system or sometimes called as Autopilot
An Automatic Flight Control System consists of several sensors for various tasks like speed control,
height monitoring, position tracking, status of doors, obstacle detection, fuel level, maneuvering and many
more. A Computer takes data from all these sensors and processes them by comparing them with pre-
designed values.
The computer then provides control signals to different parts like engines, flaps, rudders, motors etc.
that help in a smooth flight. The combination of Sensors, Computers and Mechanics makes it possible to run
the plane in Autopilot Mode.

Classification of Sensors
Based on type of signal:
Active And Passive: Active Sensors, do not require any external power signal and directly generates output
response. on the other hand, Passive Sensors are those which require an external excitation signal or a power
signal.
Means of Detection of Physical Quantity: Electric, Biological, Chemical, Radioactive etc.
Conversion Phenomenon:
Photoelectric, Thermoelectric, Electrochemical, Electromagnetic, Thermooptic, etc.

Type of output:
Analog and Digital Sensors. Analog Sensors produce an analog output i.e., a continuous output signal (usually
voltage but sometimes other quantities like Resistance etc.) with respect to the quantity being measured.
Digital Sensors, in contrast to Analog Sensors, work with discrete or digital data. The data in digital sensors,
which is used for conversion and transmission, is digital in nature.

Different Types of Sensors

The following is a list of different types of sensors that are commonly used in various applications. All these
sensors are used for measuring one of the physical properties like Temperature, Resistance, Capacitance,
Conduction, Heat Transfer etc.
1. Temperature Sensor
2. Proximity Sensor
3. Accelerometer
4. IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
5. Pressure Sensor
6. Light Sensor
7. Ultrasonic Sensor
8. Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor
9. Touch Sensor
10. Color Sensor
11. Humidity Sensor
12. Position Sensor
13. Magnetic Sensor (Hall Effect Sensor)
14. Microphone (Sound Sensor)
15. Tilt Sensor
16. Flow and Level Sensor
17. PIR Sensor
18. Strain and Weight Sensor
Transducer – a device that converts a primary form of energy into a corresponding signal with a different energy
form Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical, chemical, etc.
The process of conversion of energy from one form to another in a transducer is known as transduction.
Where, the transduction is complete in following two steps −
• It first senses the input signal,
• Strengthen the input signal for further processing to produce output.
there are three basic elements:
• Sensor
• Signal Conditioning Unit
• Data Representing Device

Sensor: Here sensor is a device that is used to detect changes in any physical quantity like Temperature,
Speed, Flow, Level, Pressure, etc. Any changes in the input quantity will be detected by a Sensor and reflected
as changes in output quantity.
Signal Conditioning Unit
The non-electrical output quantity of the Sensor makes it inconvenient to further process it. Hence, the Signal
Conditioning Unit is used to convert the physical output (or non-electrical output) of the sensor to an electrical
quantity.
Some of the best known Signal conditioning units are:
• Analog to Digital Converters
• Amplifiers
• Filters
• Rectifiers
• Modulators
Data Representation Device
A Data representation device is used to present the measured output to the observer. This can be anything
like
• A Scale
• An LCD Display
• A Signal Recorder

For example, a Microphone is a Sensor, which converts sound waves into electrical signals and a Loudspeaker
is an Actuator, which converts electrical signals into audio signals.

Both Microphone and Loudspeaker are Transducers in the sense that a microphone converts sound energy
into electrical energy and a loud speaker converts electrical energy into sound energy.
 Basis of
Sensor Transducer
Difference

A sensor is a device which converts the A transducer is a device that transforms

Definition physical parameter of a quantity into a energy from one form to another, such as
detectable output. speed into electrical signal.

A sensor does not have any other The components of a transducer are −
Main
component except itself. input device (sensor), processing device
components
(signal conditioning), and output device.

Dependency All the sensors are not transducers. A sensor is the part of all the transducers.

A sensor is less complicated in its Transducer is a relatively more complex

Complexity
construction and processing. device.

A sensor detects the change in the physical Transducer converts the energy into a
Function parameter of quantity to produce different form.
corresponding detectable output signal.

Sensor does not provide any feedback to the
system. Which means, it only measures the
Feedback
change in the physical quantity and cannot
give input to the system on its own.
Transducer generally provides a feedback
to the system through the output device
after processing.

Common examples of sensor are: Examples of transducers are: strain gauge,

Examples temperature sensor, photo sensor, proximity microphone, loud speaker, piezoelectric
sensor, etc. element, etc.

Classification of Transducers:

1. Classification based on Physical Effect

An example, is the change in resistance (physical quantity) of a copper element in proportion to the change in
temperature.
The following physical effects are generally used:
• Variation in Resistance
• Variation in Inductance
• Variation in Capacitance
• Hall Effect
• Piezoelectric Effect
• Photoelectric effect

2. Classification based on Physical Quantity

Following is small list of transducers classified based on the physical quantity and corresponding examples
 • Temperature Transducer – Thermocouple
• Pressure Transducer – Bourdon Gauge
• Displacement Transducer – LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
• Level Transducer – Torque Tube
• Flow Transducer – Flow Meter
• Force Transducer – Dynamometer

• Acceleration Transducer – accelerometer

3.Classification based on Source of Energy:

Active Transducer : Active transducer are those which do not require any power source for their operation.
For example , a thermocouple, Thermometer etc.
Passive Transducer: Transducer which require an external power source for their operation is called a s a
passive transducer. For example , a strain gauge

Characteristics of Transducers
The performance characteristics of a Transducer are key in selecting the best suitable transducer for a
particular design. So, it is very important to know the characteristics of transducers for proper selection.
Performance characteristics of transducers can be further classified into two types:
• Static Characteristics
• Dynamic Characteristics

1. Static Characteristics
The static characteristics of a transducer is a set of performance criteria that are established through static
calibration i.e. description of the quality of measurement by essentially maintaining the measured quantities
as constant values of varying very slowly.
Following is a list of some of the important static characteristics of transducers.
• Sensitivity
• Linearity
• Resolution
• Precision (Accuracy)
• Span and Range
• Threshold
• Drift
• Stability
• Responsiveness
• Repeatability
• Input Impedance and Output Impedance
2. Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic characteristics of transducers relate to its performance when the measured quantity is a function
of time i.e. it varies rapidly with respect to time.
For example , human eye can not detect any event whose duration is more than one -tenth of a second ; thus
the dynamic performance of human eye can not be said to be very satisfactory. Few important dynamics
characteristics are :
The following are some dynamic characteristics that may be considered in selection of a transducer.
• Dynamic Error Fidelity
• Speed of Response Bandwidth
Overview of Mechanical Actuation System – Kinematic Chains, Cam, Ratchet Mechanism, Gears and its type,
Belt, Bearing.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Mechanical Actuation System:

Devices which can be considered to be motion converters in that they transform motion from one form to
some other required form.
E.g: Transform linear motion into rotational motion and vice versa.
Mechanical elements can include the use of linkages, cams, gears, rack-and-pinion, chains, belt drives, etc.

The term kinematics is used for the study of motion without regard to forces. When we consider just the
motions without any consideration of the forces or energy involved then we are carrying out a kinematic
analysis of the mechanism.

Link: A rigid body or a group of rigid bodies which has no relative motion to each other but have relative
motion with other links.
Each part of a mechanism which has motion relative to some other part is termed a link.
A joint is a connection between the connected links at their nodes and which allows some motion between
the connected links.
Levers, cranks, connecting rods and pistons, sliders, pulleys, belts and shafts are all examples of links.
Kinematic Chain: Group of links connected in closed loop such that the first link is attached to last link and
each link moves relative to another link in a constrained manner.
Mechanism – It is a group of (link) assembled in such a way that the motion of one causes constrained
and predictable motion of others keeping one link fixed, it is known as mechanism
Types of kinematic chain
1.Four Bar Chain 2.Single Slider Crank 3.Double Slider Crank
It is possible to obtain from one kinematic chain a number of different mechanisms by having a different link
as the fixed one

The cam and follower is a device which convert rotary motion or reciprocating motion to desired (rotating,
reciprocating or oscillating motion)
The length of times spent for the rotation is depending on the shape of the cam.
Elements of Cam: Cam, Follower, Frame

Ratchet & Pawl Mechanism:

A rachet and pawl allows rotation in one direction only. As the ratchet rotates , the pawl drops each of the
steps on the ratchet rim, preventing the ratchet from turning backwards. Sometimes a spring is used to keep
the pawl in contact with the ratchet.
e.g. in yacht winches and fishing reels
Gear: It is a toothed member used to transmit motion by successfully engaging of teeth from one member to
another member. The teeth prevent slippage.

TYPES OF GEARS:
Spur: Teeth are parallel to shaft, most commonly used and available.
Simplest, least expensive,
Unable to accommodate shaft direction change.
Helical: Teeth at helical angle to axis.
Stronger and quieter than spur gears
Can handle non-parallel, non-intersecting (skew) gear shafts
Expensive,
Reaction force along gear axis requires thrust bearings.
Bevel: Based on rolling cones. Axes are intersecting
Transfer power between intersecting shafts
Arbitrary angle > 0º between shafts
Can’t handle parallel or non-intersecting shafts
Limited availability.
Worm: Helical gear (“worm”) with one tooth, like a screw
High gear ratio in small package
Non-back-drivable
Low efficiency (40-85%) due to sliding/thrust

Gear trains are the combination of two or more gears are made to mesh with each other to transmit power
from one shaft to another. The nature of the train used depends upon the velocity ratio required and the
relative position of the axes of shafts.
For example, the car gearbox enables the driver to match the speed and torque requirements of the terrain
with the engine power available.
Belt & Pulleys Drives: Pair of rolling cylinders with the motion of one cylinder being transferred to the
other by a belt. Belt drives use the friction that develops between the pulleys attached to the shaft and the
belt around the arc of contact in order to transmit a torque. The transmitted torque is due to the differences
in tension that occur in the belt during operation. This difference results in a tight side and a slack side for the
belt.

Power Transmitted P =(T1-T2).v, 𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑇1=𝑒 𝜇𝜃

2
• As a method of transmitting power between two shafts, belt drives have the advantage that the length
of the belt can easily be adjusted to suit a wide range of shaft distance and the system is automatically
protected against overload because slipping occurs if the loading exceeds the maximum tension that
can be sustained by frictional forces.
• If the distance between shafts is large, a belt drive is more suitable than gears, but over small distances
gears are to preferred.
• Different size pulleys can be used to give a gearing effect . However the gear ratio is limited to about 3
because of the need to maintain an adequate arc of contact between the belt and pulleys.

Types of Belt:
Flat: Has rectangular cross section.
• Has an efficiency about 98% and produces little noise.
• No need of grooves. Work best with crowned pulley.
Round: Has a circular section and used with grooved pulley.
• Used where twisting or turning of belts are possible
• These are used in line shaft, industrial conveyors,
V-belts : V-shaped cross section and used with v-grooved pulleys .
Less efficient that flat belts due to wedging effect.
• More power transmission at high belt speeds.
Timing: Require toothed wheels.
• Timing belt does not stretch or slip and consequently transmit power at a constant angular velocity ratio.
• The teeth make it possible for the belt to be run at slow or fast speeds.
• Used in CNC machines.

Bearings: Whenever there is relative motion of one surface in contact with another, either by rotating or
sliding, the resulting frictional forces generate heat which wastes energy and results in wear. The function of
bearing is to guide with minimum friction and maximum accuracy the movement of one part relative to another.
Give suitable support to rotating shaft.
• Ex. Drawer of your computer table, Bicycle.
Plain or Journal Bearing: Used to support rotating shafts which are loaded in a radial direction (journal –
shaft). Consists of an insert of some suitable material which is fitted between the shaft and the support. Rotation
of the shaft results in its surface sliding over that of the bearing surface. The bearing may be a dry rubbing
bearing or lubrication.

Ball & Roller Bearing: It consists of small metal balls that are located between two metal rings which are
known as Races. Balls are also kept in position using an assembly called Cage. Since sliding friction is very high
compare to rolling friction ball bearing provides less energy loss. The inner Races and balls are free to rotate
and the outer races is stationary. The shaft is fitted inside the inner races and the outer races is fixed to a motor
Advantages of Ball bearings:
• Give less resistance
• Easily replaceable parts
• Less costly
• Handle high loads
• Long life
Disadvantages of Ball bearings:
• It may break due to shocks
• Little noisy

4 main elements :
• An inner race, an outer race, the rolling element either balls or rollers, and a cage

Thrust Bearing: The term thrust bearing is used for bearings that are designed to withstand forces along the
axis of a shaft when the relative motion is primarily rotation.
• Tapered roller used to bear axial loads.
• Automobile helical gear .
• Turbine rotor
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuation Systems: Overview: Pressure Control Valves, Direction Control Valves,
Rotary Actuators, Accumulators and Pneumatic Sequencing Problems.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Hydraulic & Pneumatic Actuation System:
Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are responsible for transforming the output of a
microcontrollers or microprocessor or control system into a controlling action on machine or device .
Pneumatic deals with air pressure ; Hydraulic deals with fluid motion and pressure
Ex. An electrical output from the controller which has to be transformed into a linear motion to move a load.

Typical Hydraulic Power System:

• With a hydraulic system, pressurized oil (fluid) is provided by a pump driven by an electrical motor.
• The pump pumps oil from a sump through a non return valve and an accumulator to the system, from
which it return to the sump.
• The pressure relief valve is to release the pressure if it rises above a safe level,
• The accumulator is to smooth out any short term fluctuations in the output oil pressure

Accumulator: Accumulator is a container in which the oil is held under pressure against an external force, which
involves gas within a bladder in the chamber containing the hydraulic fluid.
If the oil pressure rises then the bladder contracts increase the volume the oil can occupy and so reduces the
pressure.
If the oil pressure falls the bladder expands to reduce the volume occupied by the oil and so increases its
pressure.
Typical Pneumatic Power System:
Directional Control valves: • Directional control valves to direct the flow of fluid through a system;
Its ON/OFF devices either completely open or closed
• They might be activated to switch the fluid flow direction by means of mechanical, electrical or fluid pressure
signal
Directional control valve are of following types:
Spool Valve: These are cylinder inside a sealed outer case.
• They are used to control the flow direction of the energy source by combining or switching the paths
through which the oil or air can travel.
• Move horizontally within the valve body to control flow.

In fig. a the air supply is connected to port 1 and port 3 is closed. Thus the device connected to port 2 can be
pressurised. When the spool is moved to the left (Fig. b) the air supply is cut off and port 2 is connected to
port 3. Port 3 is a vent to atmosphere and so the air pressure in the system attached to port 2 is vented. Thus ,
movement of the spool has allowed the air firstly to flow into the system and then be reversed and flow out of
the system.
Rotary spool valve: have the same idea, when rotates opens and closes ports

Poppet valve: This valve is normally in closed condition. In this valve, balls, discs or cones are used in conjunction
with valve seats to control the flow. When the pushbutton is pressed, the ball is pushed out of its seat and flow
occurs as a result of port 1 being connected to port 2.
When the button is released, the spring forces the ball back up against its seat and so closes off the flow.
Pressure Control Valve:
The pressure control valves are used to protect the hydraulic components from excessive pressure.
Primary function is to limit the system pressure within a specified range.
• These are used in hydraulic systems to control actuators force and to determine and select pressure
levels at which certain machine operations must occur.
Actuator force= P X A.

Types of Pressure Control Valve:

1. Pressure Relief Valve
2. Pressure reducing valve
3. Unloading valve
4. Counterbalance valve
5. Pressure sequence valve

Actuator: An actuator is a device that makes something move or operate. It receives a source of energy and
uses it to move something.
• Both hydraulic and pneumatic actuators have the same principles
• – Hydraulic actuators use a variety of liquids as a source of energy.
• – Pneumatic actuators are operated by compressed air.
Hydraulic Actutaors are of two types: Cylinders and Rotary
• The cylinder consists of a cylindrical tube along which a piston/ram can slide
• They are further classified as :
• Single acting and double acting

Single acting: the control pressure is applied to one side of the piston .
• The spring being used to provide the opposition to the movement of the piston.
• The other side of piston is open to atmosphere.
• The fluid is applied to one side of the piston
• When a current passes through the solenoid, the valve switches position and pressure is applied to
move the piston along the cylinder.
• When current ceases, the valve reverts to it is initial position and the air is vent from the cylinder.
• As a consequence the spring returns back along the cylinder.
Double Acting: Are used when control pressure are applied to both side of the piston.
A different in pressure between the two sides results in motion of the piston (No spring).

Rotary Actuators:
• A linear cylinder with suitable linkages can be used to produce rotary movement through angles less
than 360 o. nm
• Another alternative is a semi-rotary actuator involving a vane.
• A pressure difference between the two ports causes the vane to rotate and so give a shaft rotation
which is a measure of the pressure difference. Depending on the pressures , so the vane can be
rotated clockwise or anticlockwise.
• For rotation greater than 360o a pneumatic motor can be used . (eg. Vane pump)
• An eccentric rotor has slots in which vanes are forced outwards against the walls of the cylinder by the
rotation.
• The vanes divide the chamber into separate compartments which increases in size from the inlet port
round to the exhaust port. The air entering such a compartment exerts a force on a vane and causes
the rotor to rotate. The motor can be made to reverse its direction of rotation by using a different inlet
port.