ENERGY is provided by the nutrients in the food received by digestive system.

Food containing complex

carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars such as glucose.
The Producers in a food chain are the plants (AUTOTROPHS)
-which take water and minerals from the soil and CO2 from the air.
The Consumers (HETEROTROPHS)
-eat plants and other organisms.To produce energy from sugar (GLUCOSE) through cellular respiration,
they must take in oxygen, resulting in CO2 release, while animal wastes (undigested materials) return to
the environment. Fungi and bacteria decompose wastes and remains of dead animals.

 AUTOTROPHS can carry out photosynthesis

 HETEROTROPHS such as humans and animals are organisms not capable of photosynthesis
 Animals require energy from food by consuming other organisms.

The mitochondria

-small, specialized special organelle that produce energy from food by breaking down carbon-containing
molecules and releasing energy packets in the form of ATP (ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE)

AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC PATHWAYS.

-are two pathways by which energy is harvested from food, with or without oxygen.

AEROBIC PATHWAY

 Oxygen-dependent organisms harvest energy via Aerobic pathway.

 The aerobic pathway of obtaining energy also known as cellular respiration, consists of three
stages: GLYCOLYSIS, KREBS CYCLE, AND ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN.

 Inside the cells, these chemical reactions occur in specific locations and in a particular order.

THE AEROBIC PATHWAY: GLYCOLYSIS

 The first stage of aerobic pathway is glycolysis, glyco meaning sugar and lysis meaning to split.
 It is a series of enzyme-controlled reactions that occur inside the cytoplasm. This particular stage
does not require oxygen.
 Breaks down glucose from the food, but only produces small amount of energy in the form of
ATP molecules.
 The 6 carbon glucose molecule is broken down to TWO 3 CARBON molecules known as
GLYCERALDEHYDE 3-PHOSPHATE
  The process continues until the formation of TWO 3 carbon compound called PYRUVATE
(ionized pyruvic acid) molecules, which results in the release two ATP molecules.
 PYRUVATE that contains some stored chemical energy acts as an intermediate or a reactant for
the next part in the metabolic pathway.

 Some bonds holding the hydrogen atoms to the glucose molecules are broken down and picked
up by electron carrier molecules called NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE
(NAD+) to form NADH (NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE HYDROGEN)

 Hydrogen ions are used during this process forming two molecules of NADH. Transferring to a
series of electron transfer reactions called electron transport chain.

 The 3-carbon pyruvate leaves the cytoplasm and enters the mitochondrion .

THE AEROBIC PATHWAY : KREB’S CYCLE

 Next stage: Kreb’s Cycle or Citric Cycle
 Starts with the end product of GLYCOLYSIS
 Pyruvates converted into two-carbon acetyl molecules
 Two hydrogen atoms are attached to NAD+ to form NADH.
 The remaining carbon and oxygen atoms in the pyruvic acid molecules are reorganized and
released as CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)
 While acetyl molecule is attached to coenzyme-A (CoA), it proceeds through the Kreb’s cycle
and is completely oxidized.
 The two-carbon pyruvate is further broken down to individual carbon atoms by stripping off its
hydrogen, while capturing high-energy electrons.
  During these reactions, the remaining hydrogen are removed from the pyruvate and their
electrons are carried by electron carriers NAD+ to form NADH, while at one point in the process,
FLAVIN ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE (FAD) picks up electrons to form FADH2 for transport
to the electron transport chain.

 Only a small amount of energy (2 ATP) is formed during this cycle.

 At the end of krebs cycle, acetyl has been broken down or oxidized to carbon dioxide. The energy
has been carried and transferred to ATP, NADH, AND FADH2.

 For each acetyl molecule that enters the cycle, 1 ATP, 4 NADH, and 1 FADH2 are produced.
Because two pyruvates were produced as products of glycolysis, the krebs cycle must be
performed twice to complete the oxidation. In this reaction, electrons are lost from oxygen.

 The generalized equation to summarize Kreb’s cycle are:

 Therefore, the next products of Kreb’s cycle are 6 CO2, 8 NADH, 2 FADH2 and 2 ATP
molecules.

THE AEROBIC PATHWAY: ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

 Third part of the Aerobic pathway; the energy carried by NADH and FADH2 from glycolysis and
Kreb’s cycle is used to generate ATP. The energy carried by NADH and FADH2 from glycolysis
and Kreb’s cycle is used to generate ATP.
 In the membrane of mitochondrion are iron-containing enzymes called cytochrome. The energy-
rich electrons are transported from one cytochrome to the next, while the energy is used to pump
hydrogen-ions on one side of the membrane to the other.
 This results in a higher concentration of hydrogen ions on one side; thus, a proton gradient builds
up .
 Due to this concentration gradient, a membrane channel is opened. As hydrogen ions pass
through the channels, the enzyme ATP synthase speeds up the formation of ATP molecules. A
total of 32 ATP molecules are formed from the electrons , and hydrogen atoms are removed from
the glucose molecule. The hydrogen ions then bond to oxygen to form water.

SUMMARY OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION USING THE

AEROBIC PATHWAY:
 CARBON DIOXIDE produced from the breakdown of
pyruvate from Kreb’s cycle.
 WATER from the electron transport chain
 A net gain of 38 ATP molecules for every glucose molecule (2
from glycolysis, 2 from Kreb’s cycle and 34 from electron
transport chain)
ANAEROBIC PATHWAY

This pathway is followed at some point to supply immediate energy source. Cells in the body cannot
store large amounts of oxygen for cellular respiration.

The process involves GLYCOLYSIS and FERMENTATION, which allow glycolysis to continue in the
absence of oxygen.
ANAEROBIC PATHWAY: GLYCOLYSIS
 First part is glycolysis, which is the same in AEROBIC PATHWAY.
 Recall the end product: 3 carbon pyruvate

ANAEROBIC PATHWAY: FERMENTATION

 Recycles materials needed for glycolysis to continue.
 Enzymes speed up in the absence of oxygen.
 Fermentation needs a molecule of NAD+ TO PICK UP ELECTRONS.
 When high-energy electrons are being picked up, a eukaryotic cell can still breakdown glucose
even in the absence of oxygen and thus can produce even a small amount of energy.
 In muscles if oxygen is unavailable, a molecule of glucose can be split by glycolysis and lactic
acid fermentation can occur.
 Lactic acid (C3H6O3) causes muscles to feel burn or hurt during extreme exercise
 PYRUVATE and NADH from glycolysis enter the fermentation process. Two molecules of
NADH energize the process to convert pyruvate to form lactic acid. Two molecules of NAD+ are
recycled back to glycolysis for it to continue.
 The role of fermentation provides glycolysis with a steady supply of NAD+, and in fact does not
produce ATP
 It allows glycolysis to continue in order to produce at least a little amount of ATP.
 Fermentation produces lactic acid as a waste product which builds up in your muscles.
 Once you breathe in again, your cells will shift to cellular respiration, while lactic acid will be
broken down and removed from cells.
 Humans, Animals, bacteria, and yeasts in low oxygen environment obtain energy through
anaerobic pathway AT SOME POINT or all the time.
 FERMENTATION is useful in daily life.
 Yeast cells produce the alcohol present in wine and beer through fermentation. They also produce
ethanol, which is now useful in the rising of bread during baking. Some bacteria produce
lactiacid, which can yield cheese with sharp taste.
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