INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND

CITIZENSHIP
(GEED 20023)

John Carlo Colot

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

July 2020

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 4
Course Outcomes 4
Learning Outcomes 4
Grading System 4
Course Materials 4
MODULE 1 Concept of Politics and Governance 5
Politics in General 5
Definition of Politics 5
Basic Concepts: Order, Power, and Justice 7
Approaches to the Study of Politics 8
Governance in General 9
Definition of Governance 9
Importance of Governance 10
Exercises 10
MODULE 2 Political Ideologies 11
Basic Political Ideologies 11
Anarchism 11
Liberalism 11
Conservatism 11
Socialism 12
Nationalism 12
Fascism 12
Differentiate Political Ideologies 12
Effects of Political Ideologies and Impact to Social and Political Life of Filipino 13
Exercises 13
MODULE 3 Topic 1 The State and Government 14
Concept of State and Government 14
Elements of State 14
Origin of States 15
State Distinguish from Nation 15
State Distinguish from Government 16
Purpose and necessity of Government 16
Forms of Government 16
Exercises 17
MODULE 3 Topic 2 Governance and Government 18
Processes and Actors in Governance 18
Actors and Structures 19
Informal Actors and Bad Governance 20
Eight Indicators of Good Governance 20
Exercises 23
MODULE 4 Topic 1 Democracy and Citizenship 24
The Meaning of Democracy in a Changing World 24
Democracy in Theory 24
Citizens as “Makers and “Shapers” 25
History of Citizenship Concepts 26
Citizenship and Political Power 26
Exercises 27

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 Module 4 Topic 2 Dimensions and Models of Citizenship 28
Dimension of Citizenship 28
Two Models of Citizenship: Republican and Liberal 29
Exercises 30
MODULE 5 The 1987 Philippine Constitution 31
Article III Bill of Rights 31
Article IV Citizenship 33
Article VI The Legislative Department (Basic Provisions) 33
Article VII The Executive Department (Basic Provisions) 34
Article VIII The Judicial Department (Basic Provisions) 36
MODULE 6 National and Local Government Units 39
The Role and Purpose of Local Government 39
Provinces 39
Municipalities 40
Cities 40
Barangays 41
Exercises 41

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Introduction

The Philippine Politics, Governance, and Citizenship is a three-unit course that is basically
focused on understanding how politics works in the Philippines. It is a combination of self-
realization as a citizen and the application of theories to make governance work. The practice of
citizenship is considered governance itself. This course includes the basic concepts, historical
beginnings, functions of the government, and the dynamics of Philippine politics. It will provide
the students as a citizen to critically examine and evaluate the political system in a democratic
governance which is not limited to academic discipline, but also its application in reality.

This course also includes some special key points and provisions of the 1987 Constitution
that will enable the learners to be familiarize. The Constitution being the Supreme Law of the land
is the basis of this entire module as it relates on how the government works and what are the
duties and responsibilities of citizens.

Course Outcomes

At the end of this course, the students should be able to understand the basic concepts of
politics and governance as well as how the government works through acquired learning in the
basic of the Philippine Constitution. And to apply all of these learning in reality as a productive
individual and practice good citizenship living in a democratic country and participate in the
society.

Grading System

Major Examinations- 40%

E-Portfolio- 15%
Summative Test - 15%
Final Project- 30%
TOTAL- 100%
Course Materials

1. Text Book on Philippine Constitution by Hector S. De Leon, 2008

2. Parts I and II of Jon Pierre and Guy Peter’s Governance, Politics and the State,
London: MacMillan, 2000
3. Karina Constantino David’s “Intra-Civil Society Relations” in Civil Society Making Civil
Society, Miriam Coronel Ferrer (ed.), Quezon City: Third World Studies Center, 1997.
4. Randolf David’s Nation, Self and Citizenship, Pasig City: Anvil, 2004.
5. Democracy and Citizenship in Filipino Political Culture. Quezon City: Third World
Studies Center, Diokno, Maria Serena (1997).
6. “Nation-State Formation in the Philippines: An overview”. In: Noel M. Morada and
Teresa S. Encarnacion-Tadem (Eds.), Philippine Politics and Governance: An
introduction/PPG Vol. 1 Quezon City: Department of Political Science,University of the
Philippines and Commission on Higher Education, Quilop, Raymund G. 2006
7. Ideologies in the Philippines: A Comparative Analysis, Buendia Rizal G.

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 MODULE 1

The Concept of Politics and Governance

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the students will be able to:

1. Define Politics and Governance.

2. Discuss the concepts of Politics.
3. Define and Discuss the approaches to the study of politics.
4. Appreciate the Importance of Governance

Politics in General

The word “politics” comes from the Greek word “polis” which means “city-state.” In the
ancient world, city-states are small countries regarded as centers of culture and civilization where
people interact under a unified government. What transpires in the polis is politics. The origin of
the word therefore suggests that politics is a term encompassing the totality of human activities
transpiring within the city-state. As it is applied now, it denotes everything that transpires in the
state as well as among states.

It denotes a social activity. It is in essence the interaction of individuals. As the Greek

philosopher Aristotle explains, it is the master science through which individuals collectively set
structure, purpose, and ideals in their lives. Politics, therefore, does not emerge from the activities
of a single individual but from that of many.

Politics is about conflict and cooperation. On the one hand, conflict is caused by the
diversity among individuals. People differ in the way they perceive things, and disagree in almost
every conceivable aspect of life. On the other hand, cooperation is motivated by men’s common
goal of achieving a happy life. While it is true that men argue and fight, it is also undeniable that
they desire for peace. The process of overcoming conflict to attain order and thereafter maintain
that order is politics. In other words, politics is essentially conflict resolution.

Politics is the creation, maintenance, and amendment of societal norms or rules. While
politics as conflict resolution aims at establishing order in the society, the basis of order today is
law. Undeniably, religion and other archaic institutions have already lost their central role as
sources of order. It is law now that serves as the undisputed order-establishing institution. Modern
states and international organizations rely on the adequacy and efficacy of their laws to meet the
demands of the people to attain domestic and international peace. Politics therefore, in its broad
sense means conflict resolution through the creation, maintenance, and amendment of societal
norms or rules.

Definition of Politics

It must first be pointed out that politics is a vague term. As a matter of fact, scholars and
authorities in the field cannot agree on a common definition of politics. The term includes so many
concepts that it could mean almost anything (or everything). The descriptions above, for example,
are overly broad and may overlap with the meaning of other sciences. Even worse, its vagueness
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made it readily associable to “deception, manipulation and corruption” so that its modern day
connotation is simply everything that is “dirty.” From this perspective, the definition of politics will
always be contestable. The following definitions therefore will only serve as starting points, and
the meaning of politics will eventually be understood in the details of later discussions. Politics is
the science of government. As a science, it is a systematic body of knowledge (for the most part,
practical) that deals with the government and regulation, maintenance and development, and
defense and augmentation of the state. It also deals with the protection of the rights of its citizens,
safeguarding and enhancement of morals, and harmony and peace of human relations.

However, other political scientists prefer to define politics as the art, rather than the
science, of government. It is an art because it involves the exercise of control or authority within
the society through the creation and enforcement of consensus arrived at by the leaders. It
involves the process through which the government skillfully addresses the needs of the society
by carefully allocating benefits, rewards, and penalties. This is what David Easton means when
he defined politics as the “authoritative allocation of values.” Under this definition, politics takes
place only within the polity or the machinery of the government. In other words, only the processes
and events that happen in the government bureaus, departments, and offices are said to be
“political” while those outside, like businesses, religion, and family, are “non-political.” It is in this
sense also that politicians and political parties are said to be “political” while civil society is said
to be non-political. Politics is the realm of public affairs or the state. Traditionally, “public” refers
to the institution of the state which is funded by the people at large through their taxes to satisfy
their common interest. This is contrasted to “private” which refers to the civil society that is
privately funded to support their own interest. As the Greek used the term, state transactions
(public) characterize the term political. When the Greek philosopher Aristotle said “man by nature
is a political animal,” he means that man is naturally inclined to live in a society. Aside from his
private life, man must have a public life, for this perfects his essence and gives him the “good
life.” In addition, the social theorists even argued that the common good could only be attained
through the active participation of the citizens. Education as well as moral and intellectual
enlightenment, are among the few things that result from the public life. It must be noted that while
there is a dichotomy of public life and private life, these two are intimately connected in that they
mutually depend on each other. And under this traditional sense, politics (realm of the public/state)
is intertwined with ethics (realm of the private/individual).

Politics is who gets what, when, and how. This is the famous definition of Harold Lasswell.
The definition underscores the reality of “scarcity” in the society. While human needs and wants
are so diverse and numerous, the resources are always limited. The struggle involved in allocating
the scarce resources, and determining what to produce, how to distribute, and use them is said
to be politics. Modern political theories conform to this definition as it establishes the unique
connection of politics and power. Power creates structures and explains the struggle among
individuals or groups of individuals. It is in this sense that politics deviates from ethics inasmuch
as any means could be used to get whatever is desired and whenever it is desired for as long as
it serves the purpose. According to Ponton and Gill, politics is the way in which social affairs are
understood and ordered, and by which people acquire greater control over the situation. The
definition puts to light the different political ideologies and philosophies that underlie societal
structures. “Order” and the “understanding of reality” are shaped by the political orientation of the
people. That by which people view and organize the world is said to be politics. Without politics,
there is anarchy and a state of constant war. But its existence establishes order in various forms.
It gives rise to different kinds of governments: monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. That the
society should be ruled by a single individual, by a selected few, or by all is a matter of preference
that depends on the temperament of the affected group of people. What is important is that politics
helps the people acquire greater control over the vagaries of their existence.
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 From the foregoing definitions, it could be seen that politics could be defined in either of
two senses: first, as associated to an “arena” or place, and second, as a “process.” In the first
sense, something is said to be political if it transpires in any of the apparatuses of the government.

Basic Concepts: Order, Power, and Justice

To explain further the meaning of politics it is very helpful to dwell on

political concepts, models, and theories. Concepts are general or universal ideas shared by
people. Models refer to networks of ideas that seek to explain political realities. And theories refer
to series of models which aim to systemically and empirically explain political realities. These are
intimately connected because one leads to another – concepts lead to the formation of models,
and models to theories.

Order
1. Order is central to the study of politics because it shows the different components of
human societies. Politics after all exists in diverse forms or levels of societal structures.
These structures or orders are community, government, and state:

(a) Community is one kind of social order which refers to an association of individuals who
share a common identity. This identity is formed by the unique circumstances
surrounding the group of individuals like geography, history, philosophy, religion,
ideology, language, race, and allegiance. The cause of its existence is primarily
protection of individuals. Economic prosperity, cultural enrichment and other social
functions are only offshoots of the same.

(b) Government is a higher level of social order that exists primarily for the maintenance
and perpetuation of the community. It is said to possess “sovereignty” if it can
successfully assert its claim to rule. And it is said to “legitimate” if its claim to rule
(authority) is willingly accepted. It has the following forms: Monarchy, Aristocracy, and
Democracy. Monarchy is a kind of government in which one man (king) noted for his
noble lineage and honor is vested with the right to rule and control the society. If this
man pursues his own selfish interest instead of the common good, this form of
government may turn into a “Tyranny.” Aristocracy is another kind of government in
which a selected few who are known for their wealth and education have the right to
rule. If this selected few pursue their own personal interests, it becomes an “Oligarchy.”
And lastly, democracy is the rule by the people, for the people, and of the people. If
this form of government downgrades into the rule of people’s passions instead of
reason and law, it becomes “Demagoguery” or “Mobocracy.” Philippines has a
democratic government.

(c) State is the largest social order today and in which the term politics is originally
derived. It refers to a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently
occupying a definite portion of territory, having a government of their own to which the
great body of inhabitants render obedience, and enjoying freedom from external
control. As a political concept, it has undergone many developments and its discussion
still occupies the very heart of the study of politics. A separate chapter will be devoted
for its discussion.

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Power

The different social orders cannot be maintained without power. Their creation and
perpetuation are brought about by the exercise of power and the concomitant establishment of
structures. It is elementary to know that power has many sources aside from physical force. These
include wealth, culture, diplomatic relations and intelligence, to name a few. The basic rule is that
the more abundant the power source, the greater the capabilities of the government. In a narrower
sense, power implies “power over” people rather than the “power or ability to” do something. This
includes influence over the behavior of others, making them do things which they would not
otherwise have done. Under such meaning of power, politics involves manipulation through the
popular methods of reward and punishment.

Political scientists and philosophers, like Niccolo Machiavelli and Friedrich Nietzsche,
grounded their political treatises on the concept of power. They explained the nature of politics by
studying the essence of power.

Justice

It is said that the correct exercise of power produces justice. If in the exercise of its power
and authority, the government gives what the people need, protect and respect their rights, and
put the common good over and above the personal interest of the leaders, then there is said to
be justice. It must be highlighted that the embodiment of order and power in this modern times
is law, whether written or customary. Thus, law is said to be the approximation of justice. Justice
is that on which law is anchored.
However, since law is a mere “approximation” of the ideal concept of justice, it is never
perfect. Sometimes the law becomes unjust because it can no longer capture perfect justice. An
innocent person, for instance, may be convicted, or a perpetrator may be acquitted of a crime
because of the technicalities and restrictions of the law on evidence. Nevertheless, law must still
be upheld since it is still the best medium of justice and by which power may be exercised correctly
for the promotion of societal order.

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF POLITICS

There are two basic approaches to study politics: political philosophy and political science.
On the one hand, political philosophy is the traditional approach in which the primary goal is to
understand the essence or truth about politics. This approach aims to establish what politics ought
to be. As such, it is normative or prescriptive, analytical, speculative, and essentially ethical. It is
normative or prescriptive because it prescribes standards or rules of conduct; it establishes what
“ought to be” the nature of politics and not “what it simply is.” Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are
among the proponents of this approach. It is analytical because the approach is to a large extent
an examination and literary analysis of the various classic writings of intellectuals and
philosophers such as Confucius, Lao tzu, Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas,
Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and Marx, to name some. It is speculative because it
entails abstract, theoretical and not scientific explanations of the varied subjects of politics. And it
is essentially ethical because the approach basically presumes that ethics is the foundation of
politics; the ethical formation of the individual is a condition precedent the society’s political
formation. The questions raised under this approach are “what is the essence of politics?”, “what
is the ideal type of government?”, “who should be and what are the attributes of a ruler?”, “what
are the limits of the government?”, and “what are rights and limits of individual freedom?”
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 On the other hand, political science is the empirical approach in which it places little
emphasis on abstract and normative questions, and concentrates on a dispassionate and
objective description of the realities of politics. As such, it is descriptive, empirical, objective, and it
avoids ethics. It is descriptive because it simply establishes “what politics is” and not “what it ought
to be;” it describes the political phenomenon but does not prescribe standards or rules of conduct.
It is empirical because it studies only observable facts, and not abstract values and concepts. It
is objective because it adheres strictly to the methods of the natural sciences; it considers only
the observable (quantifiable) facts that can be measured through the scientific method. It avoids
ethics, in that values are not within its scope; only directly observable facts are studied.

It is nevertheless wrong to ask which of the two approaches is better. They complement
each other. While political philosophy provides the aim, purpose, and guidelines of politics,
political science gives a realistic account of what is actually happening in politics. Political science
concretizes the abstract concepts of political philosophy, while political philosophy provides a
basis or direction to political science. As one writer aptly puts it, political philosophy without
political science is lame, and political science without political philosophy is blind

Governance in General
The word “governance” came from the Latin verb “gubernare,” or more originally from the
Greek word “kubernaein,” which means “to steer.” Basing on its etymology, governance refers to
the manner of steering or governing, or of directing and controlling, a group of people or a state.
Governance is essentially related to politics, in that politics is often defined as the art of
governance. Just as politics talks about governments, institutions, power, order, and the ideals of
justice, governance also deals with the public sector, power structures, equity, and ideals of public
administration. Nevertheless, they are distinct from each other in the sense that politics is broader
than governance. Traditionally, the study of politics entails the concept of the “good life” and the
“ideal society,” which are so broad they include a web of subjects and every possible form of
government. The study of governance, on the contrary, is generally attuned to the concept of
democracy, and on how the government and the civil society arrive at a decision in meeting their
needs.

Definition of Governance
Governance is commonly defined as the exercise of power or authority by political leaders
for the well-being of their country’s citizens or subjects. It is the complex process whereby some
sectors of the society wield power, and enact and promulgate public policies which directly affect
human and institutional interactions, and economic and social development. The power exercised
by the participating sectors of the society is always for the common good, as it is essential for
demanding respect and cooperation from the citizens and the state. As such, a great deal about
governance is the proper and effective utilization of resources.

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Importance of Studying Governance
From the information learned in the discussion of governance, the people, most especially
the citizens, will be aware of the need for good governance. Consequently, such awareness
should move them to action. For their continued empowerment and sustainable development,
they have to know how to fight for their rights by knowing what to expect from Philippine
governance. Thus, what will follow is an exposition of the basic concepts of governance, the ideal
type of governance, and the status of the Philippines vis-à-vis the indicators of good governance.

EXERCISES:
1. What does politics have to do with conflict and cooperation?
2. Discuss briefly and distinguish from each other the basic concepts of politics.
3. How do political philosophy and political science as approaches in studying politics
differ?
4. Discuss briefly the importance of Governance.

References:
https://tamayaosbc.wordpress.com/2014/08/21/introduction-to-politics-2/
https://tamayaosbc.wordpress.com/2014/08/21/what-is-governance/
Thomas M. Magstadt & Peter M. Schoten, “Understanding Politics: Ideas, Institutions, & Issues.
(New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1988), p. 4.
Yap Kioe Sheng, What is good governance?, (pdf version,
< http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/good-governance.pdf&gt;)
Anne Mette Kjaer, “Governance,” (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004), p. 3.

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 MODULE 2

POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the students will be able to:

1. Identify different political ideologies

2. Differentiate political ideologies
3. Discuss how political ideologies affects life of a Filipino

Basic Political Ideologies

These political ideologies are, for the most part, mutually exclusive. So, a liberal
government does not usually practice socialism, nor does an absolute ruler follow liberalism. The
five major political ideologies have played a key role in history by shaping governments and
political movements.
Anarchism
The belief that the best government is absolutely no government is known as anarchism.
This ideology argues that everything about governments is repressive and therefore must be
abolished entirely. A related ideology known as nihilism emphasizes that everything—both
government and society—must be periodically destroyed in order to start anew. Nihilists often
categorically reject traditional concepts of morality in favor of violence and terror. Anarchism and
nihilism were once associated with socialism because many anarchists and nihilists supported
the socialists’ call for revolution and the complete overhaul of government and society in the early
to mid-twentieth century.

Liberalism
In the early modern age of the Western world (beginning roughly in the early 1500s and
running for about 200 years), a number of changes occurred that led to new ideologies: The
European discovery of the Americas, the rise of Protestantism, the beginnings of the free-market
economy, and the early stages of the scientific revolution fundamentally altered Europe. People
began developing different ways of thinking to take account of these changes.

Conservatism
Conservatism (also known as classical conservatism) began as a reaction against the
liberal ideas taking hold of Europe during the French Revolution in the late eighteenth century.
This type of conservatism differs from American conservatism. Edmund Burke, a British member
of Parliament, observed the early stages of the French Revolution with great distress and
predicted the violence and terror that would ensue. His book, Reflections on the Revolution in
France (1790), is one of the founding texts of classical conservatism.

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Socialism
Socialism arose as a response to the Industrial Revolution, which was the emergence of
technologies such as the steam engine and mass production. The Industrial Revolution started in
England in the last years of the eighteenth century and had spread to much of Europe and
America by the end of the nineteenth century. It caused major upheavals: In a very short time,
many people were forced to abandon agricultural ways of life for the modern mechanized world
of factories.

Nationalism
Nationalism, a strong belief that one’s nation is great (and, usually, better than others),
also arose during the modern era. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, nationalism
emerged as a powerful force that caused a number of revolutions. People began to identify with
and take pride in their particular nation-state. The French Revolution and the subsequent
Napoleonic Wars helped spread nationalism throughout Europe because many nations rallied
together to defeat Napoleon.

Fascism
Fascism is a highly nationalist, militaristic, totalitarian political ideology in which one
person has absolute power. World War I was the key event that spawned fascism. The war was
the first major war fought between industrialized nations, which were armed with technology such
as machine guns and chemical weapons. The result was utter devastation. Millions died, entire
countries collapsed, and those who survived were often profoundly disillusioned. For many
people, the war showed that modern ideas had failed and that a new way was needed.

Differentiate Political Ideologies

In social studies, a political ideology is a certain set of ethical ideals, principles, doctrines,
myths or symbols of a social movement, institution, class or large group that explains how society
should work, and offers some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order. A political
ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate power and to what ends it should be used.
Some parties follow a certain ideology very closely, while others may take broad inspiration from
a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them. The popularity of an
ideology is in part due to the influence of moral entrepreneurs, who sometimes act in their own
interests. Political ideologies have two dimensions:
Goals: how society should be organized.
Methods: the most appropriate way to achieve this goal
An ideology is a collection of ideas. Typically, each ideology contains certain ideas on
what it considers to be the best form of government (e.g. democracy or autocracy) and the best
economic system (e.g. capitalism or socialism). Sometimes the same word is used to identify both
an ideology and one of its main ideas. For instance, "socialism" may refer to an economic system,

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or it may refer to an ideology which supports that economic system. Political ideology is a term
fraught with problems, having been called "the most elusive concept in the whole of social
science", However, ideologies tend to identify themselves by their position on the political
spectrum (such as the left, the center or the right), though this is very often controversial. Finally,
ideologies can be distinguished from political strategies (e.g. populism) and from single issues
that a party may be built around (e.g. opposition to European integration or the legalization of
marijuana). There are several studies that show that political ideology is heritable within families.

Effects of Political Ideologies and its Impact to Social and Political Life of a Filipino

Here in the Philippines because we don't have just one political ideology the effect of it
brings different set of principles to each life of Filipinos. The impact of political ideology in political
life puts up set of different opinions and belief from group to individual political party and through
these the ideals of how a society should work varies on how the power will allocate. Political
ideologies also affect one’s social life as everyone fight for their right of understanding as each
opinion contain certain ideas to provide recommendation for the betterment of one country.
In reality, political ideologies have little to almost no effect over Filipino’s social and political
life. This reason is due to the fact that existing political parties in the Philippines have either
muddled or twisted different political ideologies that they were supposed to be built on.
Nevertheless, what currently drives Filipinos’ socio-political life is populism.

EXERCISES:
1. Differentiate and discuss the 5 political ideologies.
2. Pick at least 2 political ideologies and give an example that illustrates its practice.
3. As an individual, what political ideology/ies affect your beliefs? How can you apply it to the
present government?

REFERENCES
Ideologies in the Philippines: A Comparative Analysis, Buendia Rizal G.

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 MODULE 3

TOPIC 1

THE STATE AND GOVERNMENT

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Define the meaning of State

2. Enumerate and discuss the elements and origin of state
3. Define and understand the different forms of government

Concept of State and Government

A state is a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a
definite portion of territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants
render obedience, and enjoying freedom from external control.
Elements of State
The modern state has four (4) essential elements. They are:
People. – This refers to the inhabitants living within the state. Without people there can be
no functionaries to govern and no subjects to be governed. There is no requirement as to the
number of people that should compose a state. Ideally, it should be neither too small nor too large:
small enough to be well-governed and large enough to be self-sufficing.
Territory. – It includes not only the fixed portion of land over which the jurisdiction of the
state extends (territorial domain), but also the rivers and lakes therein, a certain area of the sea
which abuts upon its coasts (fluvial and maritime domain), and the air space above the land and
the waters. (Aerial domain). Thus the domain of the state may be described as terrestrial, fluvial,
maritime, and aerial.
Government. – It refers to the agency through which the will of the state is formulated,
expressed and carried out. The word is sometimes used to refer to the person or aggregate of
those persons in whose hands are placed for the time being the function of political control. This
“body of men” is usually spoken of as “administration”. The ordinary citizens of a country are a
part of the state., but are not part of the government; and
Sovereignty. – The term may be defined as the supreme power of the state to command
and enforce obedience to its will from people within its jurisdiction and corollarily, to have freedom
from foreign control. It has, therefore, two manifestations:
(a) Internal or the power of the state to rule within its territory; and
(b) External or the freedom of the state to carry out its activities without subjection to or
control by other states. External sovereignty is often referred to as independence.

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Origin of States
There are several theories concerning the origin of states, among which are:
(1) Divine right theory. – It holds that the state is of divine creation and the ruler is ordained
by God to govern the people. Reference has been made by advocates of this theory to
the laws which Moses received at Mount Sinai;
(2) Necessity or force theory. – It maintains that states must have been created through force,
by some great warriors who imposed their will upon the weak;
(3) Paternalistic theory. – It attributes the origin of states to the enlargement of the family
which remained under the authority of the father or mother. By natural stages, the family
grew into a clan, then developed into a tribe which broadened into a nation, and the nation
became a state; and
(4) Social contract theory. – It asserts that the early states must have been formed by
deliberate and voluntary compact among the people to form a society and organize
government for their common good. This theory justifies the right of the people to revolt
against a bad ruler.
It is not known exactly which of the above theories is the correct one. History, however,
has shown that the elements of all the theories have played an important part in the formation
and development of states.
State Distinguish from Nation
Nation should not also be confused with state as they are not the same.
(1) The state is a political concept, while nation is an ethnic concept. A nation is a group
of people bound together by certain characteristics such as common social origin,
language, customs, and traditions, and who believe that they are one and distinct from
others. The term is more strictly synonymous with “people”;
(2) A state is not subject to external control while nation may or may not be independent
of external control; and
(3) A single state may consist of one or more nations or peoples and conversely, a single
nation may be made up of several states. The United States is a melting pot of several
nationalities. On the other hand, the Arab nation is divided politically into several
sovereign states. Among them are: Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and
others. The Philippines is a state composed of one nation.
(4) In common usage, however, the two terms are often used synonymously. The
Constitution uses them interchangeably.

15
State Distinguish from Government
In common speech, they are usually regarded as identical. As ordinarily, the acts of the
government (within the limits of the delegation of powers) are the acts of the state, the former is
meant when the latter is mentioned, and vice versa.
The government is only the agency through which the states articulate its will. The former
is the agent, the latter is the principal. A state cannot exist without a government, but it is possible
to have a government without a state. Thus, we had various governments at different periods of
our history, from pre-Spanish times to the present. There was no Philippine state during those
periods when we were under foreign domination.
A government may change, its form may change, but the state, as long as its elements
are present, remains the same.
Purpose and necessity of government
(1) Advancement of the public welfare. – Government exists and should continue to exist for
the benefit of the people governed. It is necessary for (a) the protection of society and its
members, the security of persons and property, the administration of justice, the
preservation of the state from external danger, dealings of the state with foreign powers
(constituent functions) and (b) the advancement of the physical, economic, social, and
cultural well0being of the people. (ministrant functions)
(2) Consequence of absence. – Government exists to do these things which by their very
nature, it is better equipped to administer for the public welfare than any private individual
or group of individuals. It is obvious that without an organized structure of government,
anarchy and disorder, and a general feeling of fear and insecurity will prevail in society,
progress and development will not be possible, and values taken for granted in a free
modern society such as truth, freedom, justice, equality, rule of law, and human dignity
can never be enjoyed.
The need for government is so apparent that even the most primitive societies, history
shows, had some form of it.
Forms of Government
The principal forms are the following:
(1) As to number of persons exercising sovereign powers:
(a) Monarchy or one in which the supreme and final authority is in the hands of a single
person without regard to the source of his election of the nature or duration of his
tenure. Monarchies are further classified into:
1) Absolute monarchy or one in which the ruler rules by divine right; and
2) Limited monarchy or one in which the ruler rules in accordance with a
constitution;
(b) Aristocracy or one in which political power is exercised by a few privileged class which
is known as an aristocracy or oligarchy; and

16
 (c) Democracy or one in which political power is exercised by a majority of the people.
Democratic governments are further classified into:
1) Direct or pure democracy or one in which the will of the state is formulated or
expressed directly and immediately through the people in a mass meeting or
primary assembly rather through the medium of delegates or representatives
chosen to act for them; 22 and
2) Indirect, representative, or republican democracy or one in which the will of the
state is formulated and expressed through the agency of a relatively small and
select body of persons chosen by the people to act as their representatives. 23
(2) As to extent of powers exercised by the central or national government:
(a) Unitary government or one in which the control of national and local affairs is exercised
by the central or national government; and
(b) Federal government or one in which the powers of government are divided between
two sets of organs, one for national affairs and the other local affairs, each organ being
supreme within its own sphere. The United States is a federal government.
(3) As to relationship between the executive and the legislative branches of the government:
(a) Parliamentary government or one in which the state confers upon the legislature the power
to terminate the tenure of office of the real executive. Under this system, the Cabinet or ministry
is immediately and legally responsible to the legislature and immediately or politically responsible
to the electorate, while the titular or nominal executive – the Chief of State – occupies a position
of irresponsibility; and
(b) Presidential government or in one in which the state makes the executive constitutionally
independent of the legislature as regards his tenure and to a large extent as regards his policies
and acts, and furnishes him with sufficient powers to prevent the legislature from trenching upon
the sphere marked out by the constitution as executive independence and prerogative.
EXERCISES
1. In your own words, define and elaborate the meaning of state.
2. Enumerate and discuss the elements of state.
3. What type of government we have in the Philippines? Explain
4. Select at least 3 types of Government and give at least 5 advantages and disadvantages
of each.

References:
Textbook on Philippine Constitution By Hector De Leon, 2008

17
 TOPIC 2
GOVERNANCE AND GOVERNMENT
Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Identify the difference of Governance and Government

2. Identify and discuss the processes and actors of Governance
3. Enumerate and discuss the eight indicators of good governance
4. Explain the current situation of Philippine governance

Governance and Government

Governance is traditionally associated with government. In literatures, they are often used
interchangeably. But in the 1980s, political scientists broadened the meaning of governance as
including, not just government actors, but also civil-society actors. Today, governance includes
three sectors: the public sector (state actors and institutions), the private sector (households and
companies), and the civil society (non-governmental organizations). These three sectors are said
to work hand in hand in the process of governance. This new use of the term focuses on the role
of “networks” in the achievement of the common good, whether these networks are
intergovernmental, transnational, or international. In other words, governance is broader than
government in that other sectors are included in it.
Many authors also distinguish the two by associating government with “control and
domination,” and governance with “decentralization and relational management.” On the one
hand, government refers to a central institution which wields power over its subjects. It is the
instrument patterned after the model of “command and control,” the government being in
command over the affairs of the people. On the other hand, governance is closely associated with
the concept of decentralization of power and the need for inter-sectoral management.
Governance is based on the realization that the government cannot do everything for the people,
so that in order to survive the state should not only rely on government but also on the other
sectors of the society.
Thus, under the current trend, there is a need to move from the “traditional hierarchical
exercise of power by the government” to the new notion of a “dispersed and relational power in
governance” – from government to governance. To govern should now mean
to facilitate or regulate, not to dominate or command.

Processes and Actors in Governance

Governance entails two processes:

1. Decision-making and
2. Implementation of the decision.
In broad terms, decision-making refers the process by which a person or group of persons,
guided by socio-political structures, arrive at a decision involving their individual and communal
18
needs and wants. Implementation is the process that logically follows the decision; it entails the
actualization or materialization of the plan or decision. Governance is not just decision-making
because decision without implementation is self-defeating. Neither is it just implementation
because there is nothing to implement without a decision or plan. Thus, the two processes
necessarily go hand-in-hand in, and are constitutive of governance.
Actors and Structures
Understanding the two processes requires an analysis of the “actors” involved and
“structures” established for making and implementing a decision. An actor is a sector or group or
institution that participates in the process of decision-making and implementation. A structure
refers to an organization or mechanism that formally or informally guides the decision-making
process and sets into motion the different actors and apparatuses in the implementation process.
Having such a broad scope, governance has different facets and may be applied in different
contexts, such as corporate governance, international governance, and national and local
governance. In each context, governance has different actors and structures. Depending on the
kind of decision made and the structure implementing it, governance may be good or bad
governance.
The government is almost always the main actor in governance, whether it is in the
corporate, international, national or local level. The government is called the “public sector.” While
it is the biggest actor in governance, it is not the only actor. Modern complex societies, in order to
meet the growing demands of development, are managed in different levels by various actors.
Even communist governments work with other sectors, especially with international organizations
and multi-national corporations, in meeting their communist ends. The main role of the public
sector is to provide an enabling environment for the other actors of governance to participate and
respond to the mandate of the common good. All actors other than the government are called the
“civil society.” The civil society includes non-governmental organizations, and other community-
based and sectoral organizations, such as association of farmers, charitable institutions,
cooperatives, religious communities, political parties, and research institutes. These
organizations are private in nature but have public functions or objectives. The Philippine Red
Cross, for instance, is a non-governmental organization. It is a private charitable institution the
serves the community especially during disasters and emergencies by providing medical
assistance and disaster support services.
The study of Philippine governance, however, includes the business or private sector as
an indispensable partner in development. To cope with the ever growing demands of
development, the public sector must necessarily tie-up with the private sector most especially in
the financial
In the national and international level, decision-making is greatly influenced by actors like
the media, international organizations, multi-national corporations, and international donors.
Thus, from the foregoing, it should be clear that governance involves several actors in multi-level
structures.

19
Informal Actors and Bad Governance
Other informal actors also exist, such as organized crime syndicates and powerful
families. Their influence is felt more clearly in local governments, and in rural and urban areas.
Most often than not, these actors are the cause of corruption, in that legitimate government
objectives are distorted by their illegal and private interests. Worse, they manipulate government
officials and agencies, and cause widespread yet organized violence in the community. In urban
and rural areas, for example, the rich and powerful families control the economy by controlling
the local government officials. They bring about a controlled environment so that decisions must
always favor them. Allegedly, even government officials, both local and national, are not just
influenced but themselves members of organized crime syndicates with the purpose of using
public office and, consequently, public funds for personal aggrandizement.
When these actors and informal structures disrupt, corrupt and upset the legitimate
objectives and ideals of the society, bad governance will result which is considered as the chief
problem of the society. Problems deepen and multiply because of bad governance. Inasmuch as
economics and politics are interrelated, poor economy is caused by bad governance. International
aids and loans, for instance, are scarce in a badly governed country. International donors and
financial institutions are increasingly basing their aid and loans on the condition that reforms that
ensure “good governance” are undertaken. Recognizing these realities, current economic and
political goals of countries all over the world are aimed at “good governance.” It is an ideal so
broad and elusive the realization of which is yet to be achieved. More so, the contemporary
meaning of “development” is good governance, or more specifically a reform from faulty
governance to good governance.
Eight Indicators of Good Governance
Good governance is understood through its eight indicators or characteristics: (1)
Participatory; (2) Rule of Law; (3) Effective and Efficient; (4) Transparent; (5) Responsive; (6)
Equitable and Inclusive; (7) Consensus Oriented; and (8) Accountability. They are inextricably
related to each other. For instance, without active participation among the various actors in
governance, there would be a concomitant lack of responsiveness. Likewise, if decision-making
is not transparent, then inevitably there would be no participation, accountability, and decisions
are not consensus oriented. These indicators should, however, be understood in the context of
good “democratic” governance. Some of the indicators cannot be applied in other forms of
government. For example, good communist governance could never be consensus oriented or
genuinely participatory.
It must also be emphasized that good governance and development should not be based
exclusively on economic growth. Through global persuasion, good governance and development
signify a broader spectrum of things, such as protection of human rights, equitable distribution of
wealth, enhancement of individual capabilities and creation of an enabling environment to foster
participation and growth of human potentials. As it evolved today, sustainable development
necessitates “people empowerment” and “respect for human rights.” After all, economic
prosperity or the minimization of poverty and unemployment depends on how the state unleashes
the full potential of its human resource by recognizing their vital roles and according full respect
for human rights.

20
Participation
Good governance essentially requires participation of different sectors of the society.
Participation means active involvement of all affected and interested parties in the decision-
making process. It requires an enabling environment wherein pertinent information is effectively
disseminated and people could respond in an unconstrained and truthful manner. It also means
gender equality, recognizing the vital roles of both men and women in decision-making.
Participation is one of the strengths of Philippine governance. The 1987 Philippine Constitution is
replete of provisions dealing with relational and inter-sectoral governance. The Local Government
Act of 1989 was borne out of the need for decentralization in Philippine governance. As such,
these and other related legislations may be considered as normative standards for good
governance.
Rule of Law
Democracy is essentially the rule of law. It is through the law that people express their will
and exercise their sovereignty. That the government is of law and not of men is an underlying
democratic principle which puts no one, however rich and powerful, above the law. Not even the
government can arbitrarily act in contravention of the law. Thus, good democratic governance is
fundamentally adherence to the rule of law. Rule of law demands that the people and the civil
society render habitual obedience to the law. It also demands that the government acts within the
limits of the powers and functions prescribed by the law. The absence of rule of law is anarchy.
Anarchy happens when people act in utter disregard of law and when the government act
whimsically or arbitrarily beyond their powers. In more concrete terms, rule of law means “peace
and order,” “absence of corruption,” “impartial and effective justice system,” “observance and
protection of human rights,” and “clear, publicized, and stable laws.”
Effectiveness and Efficiency
Good governance requires that the institutions, processes, and actors could deliver and
meet the necessities of the society in a way that available resources are utilized well. That the
different actors meet the needs of the society means that there is effective governance. That the
valuable resources are utilized, without wasting or underutilizing any of them, means that there
is efficient governance. Effectiveness (meeting the needs) and efficiency (proper utilization of
resources) must necessarily go together to ensure the best possible results for the community.
Professionalism in Philippine bureaucracy requires competence and integrity in civil service.
Appointments to civil service must be depoliticized and must be based solely on merits.
Effectiveness and efficiency also demands that the programs and objectives of the various
government agencies are aligned with individual performance goals. The increases in
compensation are likewise necessary for the economic well-being, sustained competence and
boosted morale of the civil servants.
Transparency
As an indicator of good governance, means that people are open to information regarding
decision-making process and the implementation of the same. In legal terms, it means that
information on matters of public concern are made available to the citizens or those who will be
directly affected. It also means that transactions involving public interests must be fully disclosed
and made accessible to the people. It is anchored on the democratic right to information and right
to access of the same. Transparency is necessary not just from government transactions but also
21
in those transactions of the civil society and private sector imbued with public interests. The
reason why there should be transparency is to promote and protect democratic ideals. When
there is transparency, people are placed in a better position to know and protect their rights as
well as denounce corrupt or fraudulent practices in the public sector and in the private sector.
Responsiveness
Responsiveness means that institutions and processes serve all stakeholders in
a timely and appropriate manner. It also means that actors and structures of governance easily
give genuine expression to the will or desire of the people. In other words, the interests of all
citizens must be well protected in a prompt and appropriate manner so that each of them can
appreciate and take part in the process of governance. While responsiveness is also a
characteristic sought from the private sector and civil society, more is demanded from the
government or the public sector. Some of the important efforts made to attain responsive
governance in the Philippines are decentralization, creation of citizen’s charter in all frontline
agencies (as required by ARTA), and gender sensitivity programs. First, through decentralization,
local governments, which are more proximate to their constituents, serve more promptly the
people, who in turn become more involved in decision-making. Second, every government agency
now has it Citizen’s Charter, which provides timeframes for every step in attaining frontline
services. Agencies now must also respond to written queries sent by the stakeholders or
interested parties within a period of ten days, otherwise there will be delayed service. However,
this aspect of governance still remains to be one of the causes for the decline of public’s
confidence in the public sector. Although the ARTA has been passed, there is still so much delay
in public service delivery. The failure of the government agencies to explain the charters to the
stakeholders is one of the main reasons why there is still delay.
Equity and Inclusiveness
Equity and inclusiveness means that all the members of the society, especially the most
vulnerable ones or the grassroots level, must be taken into consideration in policy-making.
Everyone has a stake in the society and no one should feel alienated from it. Particularly, those
who belong to the grassroots level must not only be the subject of legislation but they must be
given the opportunity to participate in decision or policy making. The Philippine Government has
done extensive efforts in promoting equity and inclusiveness. The Constitution makes it as one of
its state policies the promotion of social justice. Pursuant to this, the Congress has enacted social
legislations like the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law which aims at freeing the farmer
tenants from the bondage of the soil. Also, representation in the Congress, under the party list
system, is constitutionally mandated to have sectoral representation of the underprivileged.
Gender and Development programs are in the process of being integrated with the various
structures and institutions in the country. But legislation is one thing; implementation is another.
It is in the faithful implementation of these laws that the country failed. Inequality is especially felt
in the justice system, electoral system, and even in the bureaucracy itself.
Consensus Oriented
Governance is consensus oriented when decisions are made after taking into
consideration the different viewpoints of the actors of the society. Mechanisms for conflict
resolution must be in place because inevitably conflict that will arise from competing interests of
the actors. To meet the consensus, a strong, impartial, and flexible mediation structure must be
established. Without such, compromises and a broad consensus cannot be reached that serves
22
that best interest of the whole community. Among the things done by the Philippines in promoting
a consensus oriented governance are: (1) creation of a wide-based of representation in the
Congress; (2) a two-tiered legislature or bicameralism which subjects legislation to the evaluation
of national and district legislators; and (3) necessity of public hearings or consultations of various
governmental policies and actions.
Accountability
Accountability means answerability or responsibility for one’s action. It is based on the
principle that every person or group is responsible for their actions most especially when their
acts affect public interest. The actors have an obligation to explain and be answerable for the
consequences of decisions and actions they have made on behalf of the community it serves.
The Philippines in the recent years had endeavored to comply with the requirements of
accountability. It had put in action the concept of political accountability as it held answerable
erring public officials involved in graft and corruption and for acts contrary to the mandate of the
constitution. It had also strengthened parliamentary scrutiny through legislative investigations and
creation of special committees exercising oversight functions. The Office of the Ombudsman,
considered as the public watchdog, has become ever so active in investigating and prosecuting
graft and plunders cases. Citizen’s Charter, as required by ARTA, was also an important tool in
promoting professional public service values. In this area, Philippine governance has done
relatively well.
EXERCISES:
1. Explain the difference of Government and Governance
2. Enumerate and discuss the process and actors of governance
3. Enumerate and explain the eight indicators of governance
4. Make a short article about the current situation of Philippine Governance

References:
https://tamayaosbc.wordpress.com/2014/08/21/what-is-governance/

23
 MODULE 4

TOPIC 1

DEMOCRACY AND CITIZENSHIP

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Define the meaning of Democracy and Citizenship

2. Enumerate and discuss the theories of democracy
3. Understand the History of Citizenship concepts

The Meaning of Democracy in a Changing World

The many changes occurring around the globe are stretching and reshaping forms of
social organization and decision making processes. To meet the challenges of the times,
advocates and organizers may find it helpful to revisit the meaning of democracy and citizenship
in their work. Throughout the world, many countries have undergone exciting reforms that have
opened up political processes to people. In countries such as the Philippines and South Africa,
authoritarian governments have been brought down. In others, governments have taken
significant measures to include women and other marginalized groups in public life. Countries
such as Brazil, Bolivia, and Thailand have institutionalized laws about people’s participation in
policymaking. Fairer elections have occurred without violence in dozens of countries where
people have voted for the first time. But there is a long road between successful elections and
accountable governments. Along this road civil society continues to struggle for a legitimate voice
and for honest, committed leaders to help guide the process. As economic globalization changes
the terrain of economic development and the power of national governments, the challenges for
improving political structures and relationships grow.
Democracy in Theory
Different concepts of democracy implicitly inform our approach to advocacy and
participation. The following definitions, taken from a dictionary on political theories, show some of
the basic conceptual differences.
Democracy is a form of government in which supreme power is held by the people and
exercised directly or through elected representatives. The word comes from the Greek for
“people’s rule.” Although democracy comes in many forms, nowadays the concept generally
implies majority rule, minority and individual rights, equality of opportunity, equality under the law,
and civil rights and liberties.
• Liberal democracy is government characterized by the twin pillars of democratic
institutions, on the one hand (e.g. elections, representative legislatures, checks and balances),
and democratic protections on the other (e.g. the personal freedoms guaranteed by the U.S. Bill
of Rights). Liberal democracies typically occur in capitalist economies and stress private property
rights. The approach emphasizes individual rights over the popular will.

24
 • Popular democracy stresses self-rule by a free and equal people, sees government as
an expression of the “people’s will,” and thus seeks to maximize citizen participation. It does this
both electorally and in other ways, as it recognizes that the outcomes of elections do not always
reflect the popular will.
• Representative (or indirect) democracy is the form of government in which legislation is
enacted by representatives who are elected by the citizenry. In contrast to direct democracy, the
majority delegates power to a minority nominated to act in their interest. The minority is mandated
to do this either in response to the majority’s express wishes or according to the representatives’
own judgment.
• Direct (or participatory) democracy is a form of government in which the citizenry itself
makes legislative decisions instead of delegating the power to elected representatives. This is
often considered the “purest form of democracy”. Referendums and petitions, in which all voters
can participate, are examples of direct democracy.
• Social democracy is based on the belief that economic equity and social equality—can
be achieved through democratic institutions via redistribution of wealth within a mixed-market
economy in a welfare state.”
Citizens as “Makers and Shapers”
A discussion of democracy inevitably reaches the subject of citizenship. And like
democracy, the meaning of citizenship is also open to debate. For example, some political
theorists argue that a good citizen is one who displays trust and obedience. Some believe that
ordinary people lack sufficient judgment and knowledge and should therefore rely on their leaders
to solve problems. Other theorists argue that the individual as active citizen is rapidly
disappearing, and is being replaced by the individual as consumer. In contrast, people concerned
about participation and advocacy say that the problem is not that people are politically
incompetent or distracted by the consumer economy. Rather, the problem is the continued
concentration of power in the hands of a few. They believe that more involvement by people in
decisions affecting them would improve both government and people’s quality of life. Some
believe that people’s participation is a basic right (regardless of whether one is a “legal citizen”),
and that constructive engagement with government, if possible, is the best way to address social
and economic problems and conflict. Below, scholars from the Institute of Development Studies
in the U.K. describe active visions of citizenship. Citizenship is learned through education,
socialization, exposure to politics, public life, and day-to-day experiences. Promoting active
citizenship among people who have been marginalized from politics is not a straightforward task.
Citizenship does not just happen naturally in response to increased public space or political
opportunity. Citizenship is more than voting or fulfilling public obligations. It is not only choosing
officials and using the system; citizenship involves making and shaping the system’s structures
and rules.
A common vision of citizenship is helpful for advocacy. It is also important to recognize
that the values of citizenship vary from context to context. For example, in South Africa, people
might define a good citizen as someone who actively fights racism. In Russia, being a good citizen
might be associated with economic liberalism, and individual self-reliance might be valued over
collective action. In countries that have emerged from years of conflict, often a good citizen is
seen as one who seeks peaceful resolutions and reconciliation. In older democracies, where a
significant portion of citizens are not exercising their right to vote, citizenship is often expressed
25
through participation in activities such as volunteer neighborhood crime watch and clean-up
efforts. In all contexts, the changing views of citizenship are marked by battles that determine
whose concerns get incorporated as legitimate and whose get excluded. The outcomes decide
who is considered a full citizen and who is not.
History of Citizenship Concepts
Civil citizenship took shape in the 18th century western world. It refers to the rights that
are necessary for individual freedom, such as the rights to free speech and assembly, property
rights, and equal rights before the law. Over the years, excluded groups have fought to have these
rights extended.
Political citizenship emerged from struggles in the 19th century. It emphasizes rights to
participate in the exercise of political power—whether as a voter, a candidate, or public official.
Women, minorities, and poor people waged battles well into the 20th century to gain universal
suffrage, which was previously granted only to male property owners. In some countries those
struggles continue into the 21st century.

Social citizenship emerged against the background of the growing inequities of the 20th
century. It focuses on minimum rights and standards of economic, cultural and social well-being.

26
Disadvantaged groups and their allies are currently still working to gain legitimacy for this view of
citizenship and rights.

EXERCISES:
1. Enumerate and discuss the theories of democracy
2. Enumerate and discuss the history of concepts of citizenship
3. Make an essay about your initiatives or contribution to the government as a good
citizen.
REFERENCES:
https://www.powercube.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/newweave_chapter2.pdf
Democracy and Citizenship

27
 TOPIC 2

DIMENSIONS AND MODELS OF CITIZENSHIP

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Identify the Dimensions of Citizenship

2. Differentiate the Models of Citizenship

Dimension of Citizenship
The concept of citizenship is composed of three main elements or dimensions (Cohen
1999; Kymlicka and Norman 2000; Carens 2000). The first is citizenship as legal status, defined
by civil, political and social rights. Here, the citizen is the legal person free to act according to the
law and having the right to claim the law’s protection. It need not mean that the citizen takes part
in the law’s formulation, nor does it require that rights be uniform between citizens. The second
considers citizens specifically as political agents, actively participating in a society’s political
institutions. The third refers to citizenship as membership in a political community that furnishes
a distinct source of identity.
In many ways, the identity dimension is the least straightforward of the three. Authors tend
to include under this heading many different things related to identity, both individual and
collective, and social integration. Arguably, this is inescapable since citizens’ subjective sense of
belonging, sometimes called the “psychological” dimension of citizenship (Carens 2000,
166), necessarily affects the strength of the political community’s collective identity. If enough
citizens display a robust sense of belonging to the same political community, social cohesion is
obviously strengthened. However, since many other factors can impede or encourage it, social
integration should be seen as an important goal (or problem) that citizenship aims to achieve (or
resolve), rather than as one of its elements. As we will see, one crucial test for any conception of
citizenship is whether or not it can be said to contribute to social integration.
Relations between the three dimensions are complex: the rights a citizen enjoys will partly define
the range of available political activities while explaining how citizenship can be a source of
identity by strengthening her sense of self-respect (Rawls 1972, 544). A strong civic identity can
itself motivate citizens to participate actively in their society’s political life. That distinct groups
within a state do not share the same sense of identity towards ‘their’ political community (or
communities) can be a reason to argue in favor of a differentiated allocation of rights (Carens
2000, 168–173).
As we will see, differences between conceptions of citizenship centre around four
disagreements: over the precise definition of each element (legal, political and identity); over their
relative importance; over the causal and/or conceptual relations between them; over appropriate
normative standards.

28
Two Models of Citizenship: Republican and Liberal
Discussions about citizenship usually have, as their point of reference, one of two models:
the republican or the liberal. The republican model’s sources can be found in the writings of
authors like Aristotle, Tacitus, Cicero, Machiavelli, Harrington and Rousseau, and in distinct
historical experiences: from Athenian democracy and Republican Rome to the Italian city-states
and workers’ councils.
The key principle of the republican model is civic self-rule, embodied in classical
institutions and practices like the rotation of offices, underpinning Aristotle’s characterization of
the citizen as one capable of ruling and being ruled in turn. Citizens are, first and foremost, “those
who share in the holding of office” (Aristotle Politics, 1275a8). Civic self-rule is also at the heart
of Rousseau’s project in the Contrat Social: it is their co-authoring of the laws via the general will
that makes citizens free and laws legitimate. Active participation in processes of deliberation and
decision-making ensures that individuals are citizens, not subjects. In essence, the republican
model emphasizes the second dimension of citizenship, that of political agency.
The liberal model’s origins are traceable to the Roman Empire and early-modern reflections on
Roman law (Walzer 1989, 211). The Empire’s expansion resulted in citizenship rights being
extended to conquered peoples, profoundly transforming the concept’s meaning. Citizenship
meant being protected by the law rather than participating in its formulation or execution. It
became an “important but occasional identity, a legal status rather than a fact of everyday life”
(Walzer 1989, 215). The focus here is obviously the first dimension: citizenship is primarily
understood as a legal status rather than as a political office. It now “denotes membership in a
community of shared or common law, which may or may not be identical with a territorial
community” (Pocock 1995, 37). The Roman experience shows that the legal dimension of
citizenship is potentially inclusive and indefinitely extensible.
The liberal tradition, which developed from the 17th century onwards, understands
citizenship primarily as a legal status: political liberty is important as a means to protecting
individual freedoms from interference by other individuals or the authorities themselves. But
citizens exercise these freedoms primarily in the world of private associations and attachments,
rather than in the political domain.
At first glance, the two models present us with a clear set of alternatives: citizenship as a
political office or a legal status; central to an individual’s sense of self or as an “occasional
identity”. The citizen appears either as the primary political agent or as an individual whose private
activities leave little time or inclination to engage actively in politics, entrusting the business of
law-making to representatives. If the liberal model of citizenship dominates contemporary
constitutional democracies, the republican critique of the private citizen’s passivity and
insignificance is still alive and well.
Republicans have problems of their own. First and foremost is a concern, often repeated
since Benjamin Constant, that their ideal has become largely obsolete in the changed
circumstances of the “grands États modernes” (Constant 1819). Aiming to realize the original
republican ideal in the present context would be a disaster, as was the Jacobins’ attempt during
the French revolution (Walzer 1989, 211). Today’s citizens will not be Romans: first, the scale
and complexity of modern states seem to preclude the kind of civic engagement required by the
republican model. If an individual’s chances of having an impact as an active citizen are close to
nil, then it makes more sense for him to commit himself to non-political activities, be they
29
economic, social or familial. His identity as citizen is not central to his sense of self and politics is
only one of his many interests (Constant 1819, 316). Second, the heterogeneity of modern states
does not allow the kind of “moral unity” and mutual trust that has been projected onto the
ancient polis, qualities deemed necessary to the functioning of republican institutions (Walzer
1989, 214). But if ancient virtue is irrecoverable, the republican model may still act today as “a
benchmark that we appeal to when assessing how well our institutions and practices are
functioning” (Miller 2000, 84). In essence, this involves a reformulation of the model, questioning
some of its original premises while holding onto the ideal of the citizen as an active political agent.
Instead of opposing the two models, we could reasonably see them as complementary.
Political liberty, as Constant pointed out, is the necessary guarantee of individual liberty. Echoing
Constant, Michael Walzer considers that the two conceptions “go hand in hand” since “the security
provided by the authorities cannot just be enjoyed; it must itself be secured, and sometimes
against the authorities themselves. The passive enjoyment of citizenship requires, at least
intermittently, the activist politics of citizens” (Walzer 1989, 217). There are times when individuals
need only be “private citizens” and others when they must become “private citizens” (Ackermann
1988). But can we expect passive spectators of political life to become active citizens should the
need arise? This is no easy question and may explain why Constant ended his famous essay by
insisting that the regular exercise of political liberty is the surest means of moral improvement,
opening citizens’ minds and spirits to the public interest, and to the importance of defending their
freedoms. Such habituation underpins their capacity and willingness to protect their liberties and
the institutions that support them (Constant 1819, 327–328).

EXERCISES:
1. Make an essay about the application of dimension of citizenship.
2. Differentiate the two models of citizenship.

REFERENCES:
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/citizenship/

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 MODULE 5

THE 1987 PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Understand the basic provisions and articles of the Constitution

2. Understand the functions of the three branches of the government

Article III Bill of Rights

Section 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor
shall any person be denied the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects
against unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever nature and for any purpose shall be
inviolable, and no search warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue except upon probable cause to
be determined personally by the judge after examination under oath or affirmation of the
complainant and the witnesses he may produce, and particularly describing the place to be
searched and the persons or things to be seized.
Section 3. (1) The privacy of communication and correspondence shall be inviolable except upon
lawful order of the court, or when public safety or order requires otherwise, as prescribed by law.
(2) Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the preceding section shall be inadmissible for
any purpose in any proceeding.
Section 4. No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press,
or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for redress of
grievances.
Section 5. No law shall be made respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without
discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed. No religious test shall be required for the
exercise of civil or political rights.
Section 6. The liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits prescribed by law shall
not be impaired except upon lawful order of the court. Neither shall the right to travel be impaired
except in the interest of national security, public safety, or public health, as may be provided by
law.
Section 7. The right of the people to information on matters of public concern shall be recognized.
Access to official records, and to documents and papers pertaining to official acts, transactions,
or decisions, as well as to government research data used as basis for policy development, shall
be afforded the citizen, subject to such limitations as may be provided by law.
Section 8. The right of the people, including those employed in the public and private sectors, to
form unions, associations, or societies for purposes not contrary to law shall not be abridged.
Section 9. Private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.
31
Section 10. No law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed.
Section 11. Free access to the courts and quasi-judicial bodies and adequate legal assistance
shall not be denied to any person by reason of poverty.
Section 12. (1) Any person under investigation for the commission of an offense shall have the
right to be informed of his right to remain silent and to have competent and independent counsel
preferably of his own choice. If the person cannot afford the services of counsel, he must be
provided with one. These rights cannot be waived except in writing and in the presence of counsel.
(2) No torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any other means which vitiate the free will
shall be used against him. Secret detention places, solitary, incommunicado, or other similar
forms of detention are prohibited.
(3) Any confession or admission obtained in violation of this or Section 17 hereof shall be
inadmissible in evidence against him.
(4) The law shall provide for penal and civil sanctions for violations of this section as well as
compensation to and rehabilitation of victims of torture or similar practices, and their families.
Section 13. All persons, except those charged with offenses punishable by reclusion perpetua
when evidence of guilt is strong, shall, before conviction, be bailable by sufficient sureties, or be
released on recognizance as may be provided by law. The right to bail shall not be impaired even
when the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus is suspended. Excessive bail shall not be required.
Section 14. (1) No person shall be held to answer for a criminal offense without due process of
law.
(2) In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall be presumed innocent until the contrary is
proved, and shall enjoy the right to be heard by himself and counsel, to be informed of the nature
and cause of the accusation against him, to have a speedy, impartial, and public trial, to meet the
witnesses face to face, and to have compulsory process to secure the attendance of witnesses
and the production of evidence in his behalf. However, after arraignment, trial may proceed
notwithstanding the absence of the accused provided that he has been duly notified and his failure
to appear is unjustifiable.
Section 15. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended except in cases of
invasion or rebellion when the public safety requires it.
Section 16. All persons shall have the right to a speedy disposition of their cases before all judicial,
quasi-judicial, or administrative bodies.
Section 17. No person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
Section 18. (1) No person shall be detained solely by reason of his political beliefs and aspirations.
(2) No involuntary servitude in any form shall exist except as a punishment for a crime whereof
the party shall have been duly convicted.
Section 19. (1) Excessive fines shall not be imposed, nor cruel, degrading or inhuman punishment
inflicted. Neither shall the death penalty be imposed, unless, for compelling reasons involving
heinous crimes, the Congress hereafter provides for it. Any death penalty already imposed shall
be reduced to reclusion perpetua.
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(2) The employment of physical, psychological, or degrading punishment against any prisoner or
detainee or the use of substandard or inadequate penal facilities under subhuman conditions shall
be dealt with by law.
Section 20. No person shall be imprisoned for debt or non-payment of a poll tax.
Section 21. No person shall be twice put in jeopardy of punishment for the same offense. If an act
is punished by a law and an ordinance, conviction or acquittal under either shall constitute a bar
to another prosecution for the same act.
Section 22. No ex post facto law or bill of attainder shall be enacted.

Article IV Citizenship
Section 1. The following are citizens of the Philippines:
[1] Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of this Constitution;
[2] Those whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the Philippines;
[3] Those born before January 17, 1973, of Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine citizenship upon
reaching the age of majority; and
[4] Those who are naturalized in accordance with law.
Section 2. Natural-born citizens are those who are citizens of the Philippines from birth without
having to perform any act to acquire or perfect their Philippine citizenship. Those who elect
Philippine citizenship in accordance with paragraph (3), Section 1 hereof shall be deemed natural-
born citizens.
Section 3. Philippine citizenship may be lost or reacquired in the manner provided by law.
Section 4. Citizens of the Philippines who marry aliens shall retain their citizenship, unless by their
act or omission, they are deemed, under the law, to have renounced it.
Section 5. Dual allegiance of citizens is inimical to the national interest and shall be dealt with by
law.

Article VI The Legislative Department (Basic provisions)

Section 1. The legislative power shall be vested in the Congress of the Philippines which shall
consist of a Senate and a House of Representatives, except to the extent reserved to the people
by the provision on initiative and referendum.
Section 2. The Senate shall be composed of twenty-four Senators who shall be elected at large
by the qualified voters of the Philippines, as may be provided by law.
Section 3. No person shall be a Senator unless he is a natural-born citizen of the Philippines and,
on the day of the election, is at least thirty-five years of age, able to read and write, a registered
voter, and a resident of the Philippines for not less than two years immediately preceding the day
of the election.
33
Section 4. The term of office of the Senators shall be six years and shall commence, unless
otherwise provided by law, at noon on the thirtieth day of June next following their election. No
Senator shall serve for more than two consecutive terms. Voluntary renunciation of the office for
any length of time shall not be considered as an interruption in the continuity of his service for the
full term of which he was elected.
Section 5. (1) The House of Representatives shall be composed of not more than two hundred
and fifty members, unless otherwise fixed by law, who shall be elected from legislative districts
apportioned among the provinces, cities, and the Metropolitan Manila area in accordance with the
number of their respective inhabitants, and on the basis of a uniform and progressive ratio, and
those who, as provided by law, shall be elected through a party-list system of registered national,
regional, and sectoral parties or organizations.
(2) The party-list representatives shall constitute twenty per centum of the total number of
representatives including those under the party list. For three consecutive terms after the
ratification of this Constitution, one-half of the seats allocated to party-list representatives shall be
filled, as provided by law, by selection or election from the labor, peasant, urban poor, indigenous
cultural communities, women, youth, and such other sectors as may be provided by law, except
the religious sector.
(3) Each legislative district shall comprise, as far as practicable, contiguous, compact, and
adjacent territory. Each city with a population of at least two hundred fifty thousand, or each
province, shall have at least one representative.
(4) Within three years following the return of every census, the Congress shall make a
reapportionment of legislative districts based on the standards provided in this section.
Section 6. No person shall be a Member of the House of Representatives unless he is a natural-
born citizen of the Philippines and, on the day of the election, is at least twenty-five years of age,
able to read and write, and, except the party-list representatives, a registered voter in the district
in which he shall be elected, and a resident thereof for a period of not less than one year
immediately preceding the day of the election.
Section 7. The Members of the House of Representatives shall be elected for a term of three
years which shall begin, unless otherwise provided by law, at noon on the thirtieth day of June
next following their election. No Member of the House of Representatives shall serve for more
than three consecutive terms. Voluntary renunciation of the office for any length of time shall not
be considered as an interruption in the continuity of his service for the full term for which he was
elected.
Section 8. Unless otherwise provided by law, the regular election of the Senators and the
Members of the House of Representatives shall be held on the second Monday of May.
Section 9. In case of vacancy in the Senate or in the House of Representatives, a special election
may be called to fill such vacancy in the manner prescribed by law, but the Senator or Member of
the House of Representatives thus elected shall serve only for the unexpired term.
Article VII Executive Department (Basic provisions)

Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in the President of the Philippines.

34
Section 2. No person may be elected President unless he is a natural-born citizen of the
Philippines, a registered voter, able to read and write, at least forty years of age on the day of the
election, and a resident of the Philippines for at least ten years immediately preceding such
election.
Section 3. There shall be a Vice-President who shall have the same qualifications and term of
office and be elected with, and in the same manner, as the President. He may be removed from
office in the same manner as the President.
The Vice-President may be appointed as a Member of the Cabinet. Such appointment requires
no confirmation.
Section 4. The President and the Vice-President shall be elected by direct vote of the people for
a term of six years which shall begin at noon on the thirtieth day of June next following the day of
the election and shall end at noon of the same date, six years thereafter. The President shall not
be eligible for any re-election. No person who has succeeded as President and has served as
such for more than four years shall be qualified for election to the same office at any time.
No Vice-President shall serve for more than two successive terms. Voluntary renunciation of the
office for any length of time shall not be considered as an interruption in the continuity of the
service for the full term for which he was elected.
Section 7. The President-elect and the Vice President-elect shall assume office at the beginning
of their terms.
If the President-elect fails to qualify, the Vice President-elect shall act as President until the
President-elect shall have qualified.
If a President shall not have been chosen, the Vice President-elect shall act as President until a
President shall have been chosen and qualified.
If at the beginning of the term of the President, the President-elect shall have died or shall have
become permanently disabled, the Vice President-elect shall become President.
Where no President and Vice-President shall have been chosen or shall have qualified, or where
both shall have died or become permanently disabled, the President of the Senate or, in case of
his inability, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, shall act as President until a President
or a Vice-President shall have been chosen and qualified.
The Congress shall, by law, provide for the manner in which one who is to act as President shall
be selected until a President or a Vice-President shall have qualified, in case of death, permanent
disability, or inability of the officials mentioned in the next preceding paragraph.
Section 8. In case of death, permanent disability, removal from office, or resignation of the
President, the Vice-President shall become the President to serve the unexpired term. In case of
death, permanent disability, removal from office, or resignation of both the President and Vice-
President, the President of the Senate or, in case of his inability, the Speaker of the House of
Representatives, shall then act as President until the President or Vice-President shall have been
elected and qualified.
The Congress shall, by law, provide who shall serve as President in case of death, permanent
disability, or resignation of the Acting President. He shall serve until the President or the Vice-
35
President shall have been elected and qualified, and be subject to the same restrictions of powers
and disqualifications as the Acting President.
Section 9. Whenever there is a vacancy in the Office of the Vice-President during the term for
which he was elected, the President shall nominate a Vice-President from among the Members
of the Senate and the House of Representatives who shall assume office upon confirmation by a
majority vote of all the Members of both Houses of the Congress, voting separately.
Section 17. The President shall have control of all the executive departments, bureaus, and
offices. He shall ensure that the laws be faithfully executed.
Section 18. The President shall be the Commander-in-Chief of all armed forces of the Philippines
and whenever it becomes necessary, he may call out such armed forces to prevent or suppress
lawless violence, invasion or rebellion. In case of invasion or rebellion, when the public safety
requires it, he may, for a period not exceeding sixty days, suspend the privilege of the writ
of habeas corpus or place the Philippines or any part thereof under martial law. Within forty-eight
hours from the proclamation of martial law or the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas
corpus, the President shall submit a report in person or in writing to the Congress. The Congress,
voting jointly, by a vote of at least a majority of all its Members in regular or special session, may
revoke such proclamation or suspension, which revocation shall not be set aside by the President.
Upon the initiative of the President, the Congress may, in the same manner, extend such
proclamation or suspension for a period to be determined by the Congress, if the invasion or
rebellion shall persist and public safety requires it.
Article VIII The Judicial Department (Basic provisions)

Section 1. The judicial power shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such lower courts as
may be established by law.
Judicial power includes the duty of the courts of justice to settle actual controversies involving
rights which are legally demandable and enforceable, and to determine whether or not there has
been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the part of any
branch or instrumentality of the Government.
Section 2. The Congress shall have the power to define, prescribe, and apportion the jurisdiction
of the various courts but may not deprive the Supreme Court of its jurisdiction over cases
enumerated in Section 5 hereof.
No law shall be passed reorganizing the Judiciary when it undermines the security of tenure of its
Members.
Section 3. The Judiciary shall enjoy fiscal autonomy. Appropriations for the Judiciary may not be
reduced by the legislature below the amount appropriated for the previous year and, after
approval, shall be automatically and regularly released.
Section 4. (1) The Supreme Court shall be composed of a Chief Justice and fourteen Associate
Justices. It may sit en banc or in its discretion, in division of three, five, or seven Members. Any
vacancy shall be filled within ninety days from the occurrence thereof.
(2) All cases involving the constitutionality of a treaty, international or executive agreement, or
law, which shall be heard by the Supreme Court en banc, and all other cases which under the

36
Rules of Court are required to be heard en banc, including those involving the constitutionality,
application, or operation of presidential decrees, proclamations, orders, instructions, ordinances,
and other regulations, shall be decided with the concurrence of a majority of the Members who
actually took part in the deliberations on the issues in the case and voted thereon.
(3) Cases or matters heard by a division shall be decided or resolved with the concurrence of a
majority of the Members who actually took part in the deliberations on the issues in the case and
voted thereon, and in no case without the concurrence of at least three of such Members. When
the required number is not obtained, the case shall be decided en banc: Provided, that no doctrine
or principle of law laid down by the court in a decision rendered en banc or in division may be
modified or reversed except by the court sitting en banc.
Section 5. The Supreme Court shall have the following powers:
(1) Exercise original jurisdiction over cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls, and over petitions for certiorari, prohibition, mandamus, quo warranto, and habeas
corpus.
(2) Review, revise, reverse, modify, or affirm on appeal or certiorari, as the law or the Rules of
Court may provide, final judgments and orders of lower courts in:
(a) All cases in which the constitutionality or validity of any treaty, international or executive
agreement, law, presidential decree, proclamation, order, instruction, ordinance, or regulation is
in question.
(b) All cases involving the legality of any tax, impost, assessment, or toll, or any penalty imposed
in relation thereto.
(c) All cases in which the jurisdiction of any lower court is in issue.
(d) All criminal cases in which the penalty imposed is reclusion perpetua or higher.
(e) All cases in which only an error or question of law is involved.
(3) Assign temporarily judges of lower courts to other stations as public interest may require. Such
temporary assignment shall not exceed six months without the consent of the judge concerned.
(4) Order a change of venue or place of trial to avoid a miscarriage of justice.
(5) Promulgate rules concerning the protection and enforcement of constitutional rights, pleading,
practice, and procedure in all courts, the admission to the practice of law, the integrated bar, and
legal assistance to the underprivileged. Such rules shall provide a simplified and inexpensive
procedure for the speedy disposition of cases, shall be uniform for all courts of the same grade,
and shall not diminish, increase, or modify substantive rights. Rules of procedure of special courts
and quasi-judicial bodies shall remain effective unless disapproved by the Supreme Court.
(6) Appoint all officials and employees of the Judiciary in accordance with the Civil Service Law.
Section 6. The Supreme Court shall have administrative supervision over all courts and the
personnel thereof.
Section 7. (1) No person shall be appointed Member of the Supreme Court or any lower collegiate
court unless he is a natural-born citizen of the Philippines. A Member of the Supreme Court must

37
be at least forty years of age, and must have been for fifteen years or more, a judge of a lower
court or engaged in the practice of law in the Philippines.
(2) The Congress shall prescribe the qualifications of judges of lower courts, but no person may
be appointed judge thereof unless he is a citizen of the Philippines and a member of the Philippine
Bar.
(3) A Member of the Judiciary must be a person of proven competence, integrity, probity, and
independence.
Section 8. (1) A Judicial and Bar Council is hereby created under the supervision of the Supreme
Court composed of the Chief Justice as ex officio Chairman, the Secretary of Justice, and a
representative of the Congress as ex officio Members, a representative of the Integrated Bar, a
professor of law, a retired Member of the Supreme Court, and a representative of the private
sector.
(2) The regular members of the Council shall be appointed by the President for a term of four
years with the consent of the Commission on Appointments. Of the Members first appointed, the
representative of the Integrated Bar shall serve for four years, the professor of law for three years,
the retired Justice for two years, and the representative of the private sector for one year.
(3) The Clerk of the Supreme Court shall be the Secretary ex officio of the Council and shall keep
a record of its proceedings.
(4) The regular Members of the Council shall receive such emoluments as may be determined by
the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court shall provide in its annual budget the appropriations for
the Council.
(5) The Council shall have the principal function of recommending appointees to the Judiciary. It
may exercise such other functions and duties as the Supreme Court may assign to it.
Section 9. The Members of the Supreme Court and judges of the lower courts shall be appointed
by the President from a list of at least three nominees prepared by the Judicial and Bar Council
for every vacancy. Such appointments need no confirmation.

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 MODULE 6

NATIONAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:

1. Understand the function of local government

2. Understand the limitations of National and Local Government

The Role and purpose of Local Government

The existence of local government has always been defended on the basis that it is a
crucial aspect of the process of democratization and intensification of mass participation in the
decision-making process. No political system is considered complete and democratic if it does
not have a system of local government. Local government serves a two-fold purpose. The first
purpose is the administrative purpose of supplying goods and services; the other purpose is to
represent and involve citizens in determining specific local public needs and how these local
needs can be met. Local representative government is a process that spans and connects
representation and administration at local levels within local government structures. In order to
understand the function and structure of local government, it is important to define local
government and understand the meaning of local government democracy and values. The
significance of local government will be addressed. With these aspects of local government in
mind, attention will be directed towards the typical structure of local government as the
administrative structure of local government forms the basic framework where in local public
policy is determined and implemented. Therefore, attention will be directed to the composition of
councils and their activities.
PROVINCES
The provincial government takes care of the functions which affect the people of a certain
province. The province is the largest political unit in the Philippines. It possesses the following
powers --- 1) to acquire and transfer real and personal properties, 2) to enter into contracts,
including those incurring obligations, which are expressly provided by law; and 3) to exercise such
other rights and incur such other obligations as are expressly authorized by law.
There are 77 provinces in the Philippines. They are classified according to their average
income for five consecutive years. The higher the income of the province, the higher is its
classification. The salaries that can be paid to the provincial officials depend upon the class to
which it belongs. Higher salaries are paid to the officials of the higher-class provinces. A province
elects its executives -- the governor, vice governor, and the members of the provincial board
(vocales). There are three vocales in the first, second, and third class provinces, and two in the
other classes of provinces. The rest of the provincial officials -- like the provincial treasurer,
provincial assessor, district auditor, judges of the Regional Trial courts, provincial fiscal, division
superintendent of schools, district health officer, district engineer, and register of deeds -- are all
appointed by the corresponding departments of the national government. However, under the
New Local Government Code, they are the administrative control of the provincial governor. The
election of the governor, vice governor, and members of the provincial board takes place on the
Second Tuesday of November of the election year. They hold office for three years. They cannot
39
serve for more than three consecutive terms. The provincial governor exercises general
supervisory powers over the entire province. He also makes known to the people of his province
all laws and orders of the government, especially those which directly concern them and sees to
it that they are faithfully carried out. He acquaints himself with the conditions of the municipalities
comprising the province and advises local officials in matters affecting their official work.
The provincial board is the law making body of the province, with the provincial governor
serving as the presiding officer. Some of its most important functions are as follows: a) it passes
laws for the welfare of the municipalities and cities within its jurisdiction; b) it prepares and
approves the provincial budget; c) it appropriates money for provincial purposes; d) it exercises
the power of eminent domain; and e) it provides for the maintenance of equipment and buildings
for provincial purposes. The board holds a regular weekly meeting upon a day fixed by it. Special
meetings, however, may be called by the provincial governor on any day.
MUNICIPALITIES
Each province is composed of municipalities commonly called towns. The municipality is
a public corporation created by an act of congress and is governed by the Municipality Law, which
defines its duties and powers. Being public corporations, municipalities can sue or be sued in
court; enter into contracts; acquire and hold real and personal properties for municipal purposes;
and exercise such other powers as are granted by law. Municipalities are classified according to
their average annual income for the last four fiscal years. There are 1,540 municipalities in the
Philippines. They are autonomous units of government and have elective and appointive officials.
The elective officials are the municipal mayor, vice mayor, and councilors. They are elected by
the qualified voters for a term of three years. They cannot serve for more than three consecutive
terms. The appointive officials are the municipal secretary, treasurer, justice of the peace, and
chief of police. The municipal mayor is the chief executive officer of the town. His main functions
are: 1) to execute all laws and municipal ordinances; 2) to supervise the administration of the
town; 3) to issue orders relative to the maintenance of peace and order; 4) to preside over the
meetings of the municipal council; and 5) to recommend measures to the municipal council aimed
at the improvement of the social and economic conditions of the people. The municipal councils
are the lawmaking body of the town and is composed of the mayor -- who is the chairman of the
council -- vice mayor, and the councilors. The number of councilors for each municipality depends
upon the class to which the municipality belongs. Each councilor is in-charge of a village or
barangay. Some of the more important mandatory powers of the municipal council are the
following: 1) to fix the salaries of all municipal offices and employees, except the treasurer,
teachers in the public schools, and staff of national government agencies assigned to the
municipality; 2) to provide for expenses necessary to carry out the functions of the municipality;
3) to provide for buildings adequate for municipal uses, including school houses; 4) to provide for
the levy and collection of taxes, fees, and charges as sources of municipal revenue; and 5) to
establish and maintain an efficient police department and an adequate municipal jail.

CITIES
The chartered city is also a unit of local administration. It is created by a special law which
serves as its charter. The charter is the constitution of the city. The charter creates the city, defines
its boundaries, provides its system of government, and defines the powers and duties of its
officials. A city or any of its officials cannot perform any official act which is not permitted by its
40
charter. The city elective officials are the mayor, vice mayor, and the members of the board of
councilors. They are elected for a term of three years. They cannot serve for more than three
consecutive terms. The mayor is the executive official of the city, aided by the appointive heads
of the various departments. The vice mayor is the presiding officer of the board. And the city
courts exercise judicial functions. The lawmaking body of the city is council. Among its important
functions are as follows: 1) to levy and collect taxes in accordance with law; 2) to enact
ordinances; 3) to provide for public works constructions and for the maintenance of a local police
force; 4) to establish fire zones within the city and to regulated the type of building which may be
constructed within each zone; and 5) to provide for the protection of the inhabitants from public
calamities and to provide relied in times of emergency. There are 67 chartered cities in the
Philippines.
BARANGAYS
Each municipality or city is composed of a number of villages or barangays. The
barangays are the smallest units of local government in the Philippines. They are governed by
the Barrio Charter. The elective officials of the barangays are the Barangay Captain and the
Barangay Councilors. As chief executive, the barangay captain is its recognized leader. He
enforces all the laws and ordinances applicable to his constituency. He may organize fire
brigades, preside over all meetings both of the barangay council and assembly, organize groups
of citizens to fight criminality and brigandage, and approve all payments from barangay funds. He
also sings all contacts in which the barangay is a party. There are 41, 945 barangays in the
Philippines. They are public corporations and so, they can sue and be sued in court; can enter
into contracts, can acquire and hold all kinds of property; and can exercise such powers or perform
such acts as are provided by law.

EXERCISES:
1. Discuss the limitations of power of local government units.
2. Discuss the similarities of functions of local government units.

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 PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE, AND CITIZENSHIP

NAME:______________________________________ DATE:________________________
COURSE/YR/SEC:____________________________ SCORE: _________

Part 1: Write T if the statement is true, and F if the statement is false then circle the word that
makes the statement false. (Right minus Wrong) 2pts. each

1. Politics is the creation, maintenance, and amendment of societal norms or rules. ______
2. Government is one kind of social order which refers to an association of individuals who
share a common identity.______
3. Traditionally, the study of politics entails the concept of the “good life” and the “ideal
society,” ________
4. Governance is commonly defined as the exercise of power or authority by political
leaders for the well-being of their country’s citizens or subjects. ___________
5. Nationalism is a highly nationalist, militaristic, totalitarian political ideology in which one
person has absolute power. _________
6. Fascism a strong belief that one’s nation is great (and, usually, better than others), also
arose during the modern era. __________
7. People This refers to the inhabitants living within the state. Without people there can be
no functionaries to govern and no subjects to be governed. ________
8. Internal sovereignty is often referred to as independence. _________
9. The government is one of the agency through which the states articulate its will. ______
10. Good governance is understood through its eight indicators or characteristics: (1)
Participatory; (2) Rule of Law; (3) Effective and Efficient; (4) Transparent; (5)
Responsive; (6) Equitable and Inclusive; (7) Consensus Oriented; and (8) Reliability.
_______
Part 2: Enumerate and/or discuss, and differentiate if applicable, the following items.
(Handwritten in a short bond paper). 10 points each.
a. Order, Power, and Justice
b. Liberalism, Fascism, and Nationalism
c. Governance and Government
d. Elements of State
e. Models of Citizenship
Part 3: ESSAY: How can you contribute to the development of your community as a “maker’ and
shaper” (Handwritten in not less than 150 words) 30pts.

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