SRINIVAS UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

MUKKA, SURATHKAL, MANGALURU-574146

OJT/INTERNSHIP
ON

“Aircraft Maintenance”
Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the 7th semester

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING

Submitted By,

MANISHA N RAI
10SU20AM008

Under the guidance of

INTERNAL GUIDE
Mr. Raveendran Chirayil
HOD & Accountable Manager
EXTERNAL GUIDE
Mr. XXXXXXXXX

2023-2024

DEPARTMENT OF AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING

SRINIVAS UNIVERSITY, MUKKA

 SRINIVAS UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
MUKKA, SURATHKAL, MANGALURU-574146

Department of Aircraft Maintenance Engineering

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the OJT/Internship on “Aircraft Maintenance” is a bonafide
work carried out by Ms. Manisha N Rai bearing the 10SU20AM008, in the partial fulfillment
for the 7th semsester Bachelor of Technology in Aircraft Maintenance Engineering of the
Srinivas University Institute of Engineering and Technology during the year 2023-2024. It
is certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated for internal assessment have been
incorporated in the report deposited in the department library. The project report has been
approved as it satisfies the academic requirements in respect of project work prescribed for
the said degree.

Name & Signature of the Guide Name & Signature of the H.O.D

Guide Name XXXXXXXXXX

Signature of the Dean

Dr. Thomas Pinto
Dean, SUIET, Mukka

External Viva

Name of the Examiners Signature with date

1. ------------------------------------

2. ------------------------------------
 SRINIVAS UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY
MUKKA, SURATHKAL, MANGALORE-574146

Department of Aircraft Maintenance Engineering

DECLARATION
I, Manisha N Rai the students of seventh semester, B.Tech in Aircraft Maintenance
Engineering, Srinivas University, Mukka, hereby declare that the OJT/Internship on “Aircraft
Maintenance ” has been successfully completed by me in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the 7th semester Bachelor of Technology in Aircraft Maintenance
Engineering of Srinivas University Institute of Engineering and Technology and no part
of it has been submitted for the award of degree or diploma in any university or institution
previously.

Date:

Place: Mukka
 AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
Hydraulic systems - Study of typical workable system - components – Hydraulic system controllers - Modes of
operation - Pneumatic systems - Advantages -Working principles - Typical Air pressure system – Brake system –
Typical Pneumatic power system - Components, Landing Gear systems - Classification – Shock absorbers -
Retractive mechanism. Anti skid system, wheels and brake, steering systems, indications.

INTRODUCTION
In the industry we use three methods for transmitting power from one point to another. Mechanical transmission
is through shafts, gears, chains, belts, etc. Electrical transmission is through wires, transformers, etc. Fluid power
is through liquids or gas in a confined space. In this chapter, we shall discuss a structure of hydraulic systems and
pneumatic systems. We will also discuss the advantages and disadvantages and compare hydraulic, pneumatic,
electrical and mechanical systems.

Hydraulic system
The word hydraulics is based on the Greek word for water, and originally meant the study of water at rest and in
motion. Today the meaning has been expanded to include the physical behavior of all liquids, including hydraulic
fluid. With the use of incompressible phenomenon of liquid we can easily make a hydraulic system.
As per Pascal’s law “Pressure applied to any part of a confined liquid is transmitted with undiminished intensity
to every other parts” .The basic idea behind any hydraulic system is very simple: Force that is applied at one point
is transmitted to another point using an incompressible fluid. The fluid is almost always an oil of some sort. The
force is almost always multiplied in the process. In this drawing, two pistons (red) fit into two glass cylinders
filled with oil (light blue) and connected to one another with an oil-filled pipe. If you apply a downward force to
one piston (the left one in this drawing), then the force is transmitted to the second piston through the oil in the
pipe. Since oil is in-compressible, the efficiency is very good — almost all of the applied force appears at the
second piston. The great thing about hydraulic systems is that the pipe connecting the two cylinders can be any
length and shape, allowing it to snake through all sorts of things separating the two pistons. The pipe can also
fork, so that one master cylinder can drive more than one slave cylinder if desired.

Hydraulic system in airplanes

There are multiple applications for hydraulic use in airplanes, depending on the complexity of the airplane. For
example, hydraulics is often used on small airplanes to operate wheel brakes, retractable landing gear, and some
constant speed propellers. On large airplanes, hydraulics is used for flight control surfaces, wing flaps, spoilers,
and other systems.

A basic hydraulic system

Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid for transmitting
energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish useful work.

A basic hydraulic system schematic diagram

 A basic hydraulic system
A basic hydraulic system consists
➢ Reservoirs
➢ Pumps
➢ Selector Valves
➢ Check Valves
➢ Hydraulic Fuses
➢ Accumulators
➢ Actuators

Functions of the components are as follows:

1. The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical power to do useful work.
The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder) or rotary type (e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide
linear or rotary motion, respectively. Actuators can be either single-acting or double-acting servos based on the
needs of the system. This means that the fluid can be applied to one or both sides of the actuators, depending on
the actuators type, and therefore provides power in one direction with a single-acting actuator/servo. A servo is a
cylinder with a piston inside that turns fluid power into work and creates the power needed to move an aircraft
system or flight control. The selector valve allows the fluid direction to be controlled. This is necessary for
operations like the extension and retraction of landing gear where the fluid must work in two different
directions.

2. The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the hydraulic circuit by
converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.

3. Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing through the circuit.

4. External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.

5. Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.

6. Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.

7. Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and efficient, as well as
avoid damage to the actuator and valves.

8. Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the hydraulic fluid. The piping
shown in Figure is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred from the storage tank to one side of the piston and
returned back from the other side of the piston to the tank. Fluid is drawn from the tank by a pump that produces
fluid flow at the required level of pressure. If
the fluid pressure exceeds the required level, then the excess fluid returns back to the reservoir and remains there
until the pressure acquires the required level.
Cylinder movement is controlled by a three-position change over a control valve.
1. When the piston of the valve is changed to upper position, the pipe pressure line is connected to port A and
thus the load is raised.
2. When the position of the valve is changed to lower position, the pipe pressure line is connected to port B and
thus the load is lowered.
3. When the valve is at center position, it locks the fluid into the cylinder (thereby holding it in position)
and dead-ends the fluid line (causing all the pump output fluid to return to tank via the pressure relief).

A hydraulic systems circuit diagram

In industry, a machine designer conveys the design of hydraulic systems using a circuit diagram. Above Figure
shows the components of the hydraulic system using symbols. The working fluid, which is the hydraulic oil, is
stored in a reservoir. When the electric motor is switched ON, it runs a positive displacement pump that draws
hydraulic oil through a filter and delivers at high pressure. The pressurized oil passes through the regulating valve
and does work on actuator. Oil from the other end of the actuator goes back to the tank via return line. To and fro
motion of the cylinder is controlled using directional control valve.

HYDRAULIC FLUID

The fluid used in aircraft hydraulic systems is one of the system’s most important parts.
➢ The fluid must flow with a minimum of opposition.
➢ Must be incompressible
➢ Good lubricating properties
➢ Inhibit corrosion and not attack seals
➢ Must not foam in operation Some characteristics that must be considered.
➢ Viscosity
➢ Chemical Stability
➢ Flash Point
➢ Fire Point
Viscosity

Viscosity is the internal resistance to flow.

➢ Gasoline flows easily (has a low viscosity)
➢ Tar flows slowly (has a high viscosity)
A satisfactory liquid for a hydraulic system must have enough body t give a good seal at pumps, valves and
pistons; but it must not be so thick that it offers excessive resistance to flow.

The average hydraulic liquid has a low viscosity.

Fire Point

Fire Point is the temperature at which a substance gives off vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite and continue to
burn when exposed to a spark or flame.
High fire point is required of desirable hydraulic fluids.

Flash Point

Flash Point is the temperature at which a liquid gives off vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite momentarily when
a flame is applied. High flash point is desirable for hydraulic fluids

Types of Hydraulic Fluid

Vegetable-base
Mineral-base
Synthetic Fluid

A mineral-based fluid is the most widely used type for small airplanes. This type of hydraulic fluid, which is a
kerosene-like petroleum product, has good lubricating Properties, as well as additives to inhibit foaming and
prevent the formation of corrosion. It is quite stable chemically, has very little viscosity change with temperature,
and is dyed for identification. Since several types of hydraulic fluids are commonly used, make sure your
airplane is serviced with the type specified by the manufacturer. The three types of gas-charged accumulators
you’ll encounter on hydraulic systems are bladder, piston and diaphragm. Accumulators are used to store the
fluid under given pressure. The most popular of these is the bladder type. Bladder accumulators feature fast
response (less than 25 milliseconds), a maximum gas compression ratio of around 4:1 and a maximum flow rate
of 15 liters (4 gallons) per second, although “high-flow” versions up to 38 liters (10 gallons) per second are
available. Bladder accumulators also have good dirt tolerance; they are mostly unaffected by particle
contamination in the hydraulic fluid.
 Piston accumulators, on the other hand, can handle much higher gas compression ratios (up to 10:1) and flow
rates as high as 215 liters (57 gallons) per second. Unlike bladder accumulators, who’s preferred mounting
position is vertical to prevent the possibility of fluid getting trapped between the bladder and the shell, piston
accumulators can be mounted in any position. But, piston accumulators also require a higher level of fluid
cleanliness than bladder units, have slower response times (greater than 25 milliseconds) – especially at lower
pressures – and exhibit hysteresis. This is explained by the static friction of the piston seal which has to be
overcome, and the necessary acceleration and deceleration of the piston mass. Diaphragm accumulators have
most of the advantages of bladder-type units but can handle gas compression ratios up to 8:1. They are limited to
smaller volumes, and their performance can sometimes be affected by gas permeation across the diaphragm.

Maintenance Considerations

When charging the gas end of a bladder or diaphragm accumulator, the nitrogen gas should always be admitted
very slowly. If the high-pressure nitrogen is allowed to expand rapidly as it enters the bladder, it can chill the
bladder’s polymeric material to the point where immediate brittle failure occurs. Rapid pre-charging can also
force the bladder underneath the poppet at the oil-end, causing it to be cut. If pre-charge pressure is too high or
minimum system pressure is reduced without a corresponding reduction in pre-charge pressure, the operation of
the accumulator will be affected and damage may also result. Excessive precharge of a bladder accumulator can
drive the bladder into the poppet assembly during discharge, causing damage to the poppet assembly and/or the
bladder. This is a common cause of bladder failure.

Accumulator

Low or no pre-charge also can have drastic consequences for bladder accumulators. It can result in the bladder
being crushed into the top of the shell by system pressure. This can cause the bladder to extrude into or be
punctured by the gas valve. In this scenario, only one such cycle is required to destroy the bladder. Similarly,
excessively high or low pre-charge of a piston accumulator can cause the piston to bottom out at the end of its
stroke, resulting in damage to the piston and its seal. The good news is that, if this happens, an audible warning
will result. Even though piston accumulators can be damaged by improper charging, they are much more
tolerant of it than bladder accumulators.
Artificial feel devices

With purely mechanical flight control systems, the aerodynamic forces on the control surfaces are transmitted
through the mechanisms and are felt directly by the pilot, allowing tactile feedback of airspeed. With hydro
mechanical flight control systems, however, the load on the surfaces cannot be felt and there is a risk of
overstressing the aircraft through excessive control surface movement. To overcome this problem, artificial feel
systems can be used. For example, for the controls of the RAF’s Avro Vulcan jet bomber and the RCAF’s Avro
Canada CF-105 Arrow supersonic interceptor (both 1950s-era designs), the required force feedback was achieved
by a spring device. The fulcrum of this device was moved in proportion to the square of the air speed (for the
elevators) to give increased resistance at higher speeds. For the controls of the American Vought F-8 Crusader
and the LTV A-7 Corsair II warplanes, a ‘bob-weight’ was used in the pitch axis of the control stick, giving force
feedback that was proportional to the airplane’s normal acceleration.

Stick shaker

A stick shaker is a device (available in some hydraulic aircraft) that is fitted into the control column, which
shakes the control column when the aircraft is about to stall. Also in some aircraft like the McDonnell Douglas
DC-10 there is/was a back-up electrical power supply that the pilot can turn on to re-activates the stick shaker in
case the hydraulic connection to the stick shaker is lost.

Boeing 737 Next Generation Hydraulic System

The Boeing 737 Next Generation has three 3,000 psi hydraulic systems: system A, system B, and standby. The
standby system is used if system A and/or B pressure is lost.
The hydraulic systems power the following aircraft systems:

• Flight controls

• Leading edge flaps and slats

• Trailing edge flaps

• Landing gear

• Wheel brakes

• Nose wheel steering

• Thrust reversers

• Autopilots
 Large aircraft hydraulic systems

Reservoirs

The system A, B, and standby reservoirs are located in the wheel well area. The reservoirs are pressurized by
bleed air through a pressurization module. The standby reservoir is connected to the system B reservoir for
pressurization and servicing. The positive pressure in the reservoir ensures a positive flow of fluid to the pumps.
The reservoirs have a standpipe that prevents the loss of all hydraulic fluid if a leak develops in the engine-driven
pump or its elated lines. The engine-driven pump draws fluid through a standpipe in the reservoir and the AC
motor pump draws fluid from the bottom of the reservoir.
 Hydraulic reservoirs on a Boeing 737.

Boeing 737 hydraulic system (simplified).

Pumps

Refer to above Figure for the following description. Both A and B hydraulic systems have an engine-driven pump
(EDP) and an ACMP. The system A engine-driven pump is installed on the number 1 engine and the system B
engine-driven pump is installed on the number 2 engine. The AC pumps are controlled by a switch on the flight
deck. The hydraulic case drain fluid that lubricates and cools the pumps return to the reservoir through a heat
exchanger.

Boeing 737 hydraulic case drain fluid heat exchanger installed in the fuel tank.

The heat exchanger for the A system is installed in the main fuel tank No. 1, and the heat exchanger for the B
system is installed in the main fuel tank No. 2. Minimum fuel for ground operation of electric motor-driven
pumps is 1,675 pounds in the related main tank. Pressure switches, located in the EDP and ACMP pump output
lines, sendPower Transfer Unit (PTU) signals to illuminate the related LOW PRESSURE light if pump output
pressure is low. The related system pressure transmitter sends the combined pressure of the EDP and ACMP to
the related hydraulic system pressure indicator.
Filter Units

Filter modules are installed in the pressure, case drain, and return lines to clean the hydraulic fluid. Filters have a
differential pressure indicator that pops out when the filter is dirty and needs to be replaced.

Power Transfer Unit (PTU)

The purpose of the PTU is to supply the additional volume of hydraulic fluid needed to operate the auto slats and
leading edge flaps and slats at the normal rate when system B EDP malfunctions. The PTU unit consists of a
hydraulic motor and hydraulic pump that are connected through a shaft. The PTU uses system A pressure to drive
a hydraulic motor. The hydraulic motor of the PTU unit is connected through a shaft with a hydraulic pump that
can draw fluid from the system B reservoir. The PTU can only transfer power and cannot transfer fluid. The PTU
operates automatically when all of the following conditions are met:
• System B EDP pressure drops below limits.
• Aircraft airborne.
• Flaps are less than 15° but not up.

Landing Gear Transfer Unit

The purpose of the landing gear transfer unit is to supply the volume of hydraulic fluid needed to raise the landing
gear at the normal rate when system A EDP is lost. The system B EDP supplies the volume of hydraulic fluid
needed to operate the landing gear transfer unit when all of the following conditions are met:
• Aircraft airborne.
• No. 1 engine rpm drops below a limit value.
• Landing gear lever is up.
• Either or both main landing gear not up and locked.

Standby Hydraulic System

The standby hydraulic system is provided as a backup if system A and/or B pressure is lost. The standby system
can be activated manually or automatically and uses a single electric ACMP to power: • Thrust reversers
• Rudder
• Leading edge flaps and slats (extend only)
• Standby yaw damper

Indications

A master caution light illuminates if an overheat or low pressure is detected in the hydraulic system. An overheat
light on the flight deck illuminates if an overheat is detected in either system A or B and a low-pressure light
illuminates if a low pressure is detected in system A and B

Boeing 777 Hydraulic System

The Boeing 777 is equipped with three hydraulic systems. The left, center, and right systems deliver hydraulic
fluid at a rated pressure of 3,000 psi (207 bar) to operate flight controls, flap systems, actuators, landing gear, and
brakes. Primary hydraulic power for the left and right systems is provided by two EDPs and supplemented by two
on-demand ACMPs. Primary hydraulic power for the center system is provided by two electric motor pumps
(ACMP) and supplemented by two on-demand air turbine-driven pumps (ADP). The center system provides
hydraulic power for the engine thrust reversers, primary flight controls, landing gear, and flaps/slats. Under
emergency conditions, hydraulic power is generated by the ram air turbine (RAT), which is deployed
automatically and drives a variable displacement inline pump. The RAT pump provides flow to the center system
flight controls.
 A Boeing 777 hydraulic system.
Left and Right System Description

The left and right hydraulic systems are functionally the same. The left hydraulic system supplies pressurized
hydraulic fluid to operate the left thrust reverser and the flight control systems. The right hydraulic system
supplies pressurized hydraulic fluid to operate the right thrust reverser, flight control systems, and the normal
brake system.
 Right hydraulic system of a Boeing 777. A left system is similar

Reservoir

The hydraulic system reservoirs of the left and right system contain the hydraulic fluid supply for the hydraulic
pumps. The reservoir is pressurized by bleed air through a reservoir pressurization module. The EDP draws fluid
through a standpipe. The ACMP draws fluid from the bottom of the reservoir. If the fluid level in the reservoir
gets below the standpipe, the EDP cannot draw any fluid any longer, and the ACMP is the only source of
hydraulic power. The reservoir can be serviced through a center servicing point in the fuselage of the aircraft. The
reservoir has a sample valve for contamination testing purposes, a temperature transmitter for temperature
indication on the flight deck, a pressure transducer for reservoir pressure, and a drain valve for reservoir draining

Pumps

The EDPs are the primary pumps for the left and right hydraulic systems. The EDPs get reservoir fluid through
the EDP supply shutoff valves. The EDPs operates whenever the engines operate. A solenoid valve in each EDP
controls the pressurization and depressurization of the pump. The pumps are variable displacement inline piston
pumps consisting of a first stage impeller pump and a second stage piston pump. The impeller pump delivers fluid
under pressure to the piston pump. The ACMPs are the demand pumps for the left and right hydraulic systems.
The ACMPs normally operate only when there is high hydraulic system demand.

Filter Module
Pressure and case drain filter modules clean the pressure flows and the case drain flows of the hydraulic pumps. A
return filter module cleans the return flow of hydraulic fluid from the user systems. The module can be bypassed
if the filter clogs, and a visible indicator pops to indicate a clogged filter. The heat exchanger, which is installed
in the wing fuel tanks, cools the hydraulic fluid from ACMP and EDP case drain lines before the fluid goes back
to the reservoir.
Indication

The hydraulic system sensors send pressure, temperature, and quantity signals to the flight deck. A reservoir
quantity transmitter and temperature transducer are installed on each of the reservoirs, and a hydraulic reservoir
pressure switch is located on the pneumatic line between the reservoir pressurization module and the reservoir.
The ACMP and EDP filter modules each have a pressure transducer to measure pump output pressure. A
temperature transducer is installed in the case drain line of each filter module and measures pump case drain fluid
temperature. A system pressure transducer measures hydraulic system pressure. A pressure relief valve on the
EDP filter module protects the system against over pressurization. (above figure)

Center Hydraulic System

The center hydraulic system supplies pressurized hydraulic fluid to operate these systems:

• Nose landing gear actuation

• Nose landing gear steering

• Alternate brakes

• Main landing gear actuation

• Main landing gear steering

• Trailing edge flaps

• Leading edge slat

• Flight controls
Reservoir

The hydraulic system reservoir of the center system contains the hydraulic fluid supply for the hydraulic pumps.
The reservoir is pressurized by bleed air through a reservoir pressurization module. The reservoir supplies fluid to
the ADPs, the RAT, and one of the ACMPs through a standpipe. The other ACMP gets fluid from the bottom of
the reservoir. The reservoir also supplies hydraulic fluid to the landing gear alternate extension system. The
ACMPs are the primary pumps in the center hydraulic system and are normally turned on. The ADPs are the
demand pumps in the center system. They normally operate only when the center system needs more hydraulic
flow capacity. The RAT system supplies an emergency source of hydraulic power to the center hydraulic system
flight controls. A reservoir quantity transmitter and temperature transducer are installed on the reservoir. A
hydraulic reservoir pressure switch is installed on the pneumatic line between the reservoir and the reservoir
pressurization module.

Filter

Filter modules clean the pressure and case drain output of the hydraulic pumps. A return filter module cleans the
return flow of hydraulic fluid from the user systems. The module can be bypassed. The heat exchanger cools the
hydraulic fluid from the ACMP case drains before the fluid goes back to the reservoir. ADP case drain fluid does
not go through the heat exchangers. The ACMP and ADP filter modules each have a pressure transducer to
measure pump output pressure. A temperature transducer in each filter module measures the pump case drain
temperature. A system pressure transducer measures hydraulic system pressure. Pressure relief valves in each
ADP filter module prevent system overpressurization. A pressure relief valve near ACMP C1 supplies
overpressure protection for the center hydraulic isolation system (CHIS).

Center Hydraulic Isolation System (CHIS)

The CHIS supplies engine burst protection and a reserve brakes and steering function. CHIS operation is fully
automatic. Relays control the electric motors in the reserve and nose gear isolation valves. When the CHIS
system is operational, it prevents hydraulic operation of the leading edge slats. ACMP C1 gets hydraulic fluid
from the bottom of the center system reservoir. All other hydraulic pumps in the center system get fluid through a
standpipe in the reservoir. This gives ACMP C1 a 1.2 gallon (4.5 liter) reserve supply of hydraulic fluid. The
reserve and nose gear isolation valves are normally open. Both valves close if the quantity in the center system
reservoir is low (less than 0.40) and the airspeed is more than 60 knots for more than one second. When CHIS is
active, this divides the center hydraulic system into different parts. The NLG actuation and steering and the
leading edge slat hydraulic lines are isolated from center system pressure. The output of ACMP C1 goes only to
the alternate brake system. The output of the other center hydraulic system pumps goes to the trailing edge flaps,
the MLG actuation and steering, and the flight controls. If there is a leak in the NLG actuation and steering or LE
slat lines, there is no further loss of hydraulic fluid. The alternate brakes, the trailing edge flaps, the MLG
actuation and steering, and the PFCS continue to operate normally If there is a leak in the trailing edge flaps, the
MLG actuation and steering, or the flight control lines, the reservoir loses fluid down to the standpipe level (0.00
indication). This causes a loss of these systems but the alternate brake system continues to get hydraulic power
from ACMP C1. If there is a leak in the lines between ACMP C1 and the alternate brake system, all center
hydraulic system fluid is lost.

Nose Gear Isolation Valve

The nose gear isolation valve opens for any of these conditions:
• Airspeed is less than 60 knots.
• Pump pressures for ACMP C2, ADP C1, ADP C2
Left and right engine rpm is above idle, left and right EDP pressure is more than 2,400 psi, and the NLG is not
up, the NLG doors are not closed, or the landing gear lever is not up for 30 seconds. The first condition permits
the flight crew to operate the LG steering when airspeed is less than 60 knots (decreased rudder control authority
during taxi). The second condition permits operation of the NLG actuation and steering if the hydraulic leak is in
the part of the center hydraulic system isolated by the reserve isolation valve. The third condition permits
operation of the NLG actuation and steering if there has not been an engine burst and the other hydraulic systems
are pressurized. The nose gear isolation valve opens when pressure is necessary at the NLG. If the NLG is not
fully retracted or the NLG doors are not closed, the nose gear isolation valve opens to let the NLG complete the
retraction. When the landing gear lever is moved to the down position, the nose gear isolation valve opens to let
the NLG extend with center system pressure.

Central Hydraulic System Reset

Both valves open again automatically when the center system quantity is more than 0.70 and airspeed is less than
60 knots for 5 seconds. Both valves also reset when the center system quantity is more than 0.70 and both
engines and both engine-driven pumps operate normally for 30 seconds.

Center hydraulic isolation system.

Advantages of Hydraulic system

1. Large load capacity with almost high accuracy and precision.

2. Smooth movement.
3. Automatic lubricating provision to reduce to wear.
4. Division and distribution of hydraulic force are easily performed.
5. Limiting and balancing of hydraulic forces are easily performed.

Disadvantages of Hydraulic system

1. A hydraulic element needs to be machined to a high degree of precision.

2. Leakage of hydraulic oil poses a problem to hydraulic operators.
3. Special treatment is needed to protect them from rust, corrosion, dirt etc.,
4. Hydraulic oil may pose problems if it disintegrates due to aging and chemical deterioration.
5. Hydraulic oils are messy and almost highly flammable.
Merits and Demerits

➢ Ease and accuracy of control: By the use of simple levers and push buttons, the operator of a hydraulic
system can easily start, stop, speed up and slow down.

➢ Multiplication of force: A fluid power system (without using cumbersome gears, pulleys and levers)
can multiply forces simply and efficiently from a fraction of a pound, to several hundred tons of output.

➢ Constant force and torque: Only fluid power systems are capable of providing a constant torque or
force regardless of speed changes.

➢ Simple, safe and economical: In general, hydraulic systems use fewer moving parts in comparison with
mechanical and electrical systems.

Thus they become simpler and easier to maintain. In spite of possessing all these highly desirable features,
hydraulic systems also have certain drawbacks, some of which are:

➢ Handling of hydraulic oils which can be quite messy. It is also very difficult to completely eliminate
leakage in a hydraulic system.

➢ Hydraulic lines can burst causing serious human injuries

. ➢ Most hydraulic fluids have a tendency to catch fire in the event of leakage, especially in hot regions.

PNEUMATIC SYSTEM

A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a fluid for transmitting
energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish useful work

Basic Pneumatic System Components

Pneumatic System Components

➢ Pneumatic actuator
➢ Compressor
➢ reservoir
➢ Valves
➢ Air filter
➢ Air cooler
➢ External power supply (Motor)

The functions of various components shown in Figure are as follows:

1. The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform useful work.

2. The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.

3. The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.

4. The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.

5. External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.

6. The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.

Air is drawn from the atmosphere through air filter and raised to required pressure by an air compressor. As the
pressure rises, the temperature also rises and hence air cooler is provided to cool the air with some preliminary
treatment to remove the moisture.

Then the treatment pressurized air needs to get stored to maintain the pressure. With the storage reservoir, a
pressure switch is fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reached the required level,
respectively.
The cylinder movement is controlled by pneumatic valve. One side of the pneumatic valve is connected to the
compressed air and silencers for the exhaust air and the other side of the valve is connected to port A and Port B
of the cylinder.

Position of the valve is as follows

1. Raise: To lift the weight, the compressed air supply is connected to port A and the port B is connected to the
exhaust line, by moving the valve position to the “Raise”

2. Lower: To bring the weight down, the compressed air line is connected to port B and port A is connected to
exhaust air line, by moving the valve position to the “lower”

3Off: The weight can be stopped at a particular position by moving the valve to position to “Off” position. This
disconnects the port A and port B from the pressurized line and the retrieval line, which locks the air in the
cylinder.
 Flight interiors

INTRODUCTION
Equipment and furnishings consist of miscellaneous installations throughout the airplane. In the flight deck
and passenger cabins, equipment and furnishings consist of crew and passenger accommodations, galleys,
lavatories and emergency equipment. In the cargo compartments, equipment and furnishings provide for the
storage of containerized and bulk cargo.

Equipment and furnishings are divided into six categories:

 Flight deck
 Passenger compartments (including main deck and upper deck)
 Galleys
 Lavatories
 Cargo compartments
 Emergency equipments.

AIRCRAFT CABIN EQUIPMENT AND FURNISHINGS

2. FLIGHT DECK EQUIPMENT AND FURNISHINGS

The flight deck equipment and furnishings provide stations for the captain, first officer and observers to perform
their duties. The captain’s seat is on the left and the first officer’s seat is on the right. Aft of the pilots’ seats are
two observers’ seats. Outboard of the pilots’ seats is space for flight kit stowage. A two bunk crew rest area is
located on the left aft side of the flight deck.
 FLIGHT DECK EQUIPMENT AND FURNISHINGS

FLIGHT DECK - LEFT SIDE COMPONENTS

Located on the left side of the flight deck are:

 Cup Holders
 Manuals
 Ash Tray
 Work Table
 Pencil Holder
 Hand Hold
 Approach Chart Holder
 Foot Rest
 Flight Kit
 Stowage (Door Aft)
 Suitcase Stowage
 Crew Rest Door
 FLIGHT DECK LEFT SIDE COMPONENTS (EXAMPLE B747)

FLIGHT DECK - RIGHT SIDE COMPONENTS

Located on the right side of the flight deck are: -

Approach Chart Holder
- Handgrip
- Pencil Holder
- Work Table
- Ash Tray
- Manuals
- Sun visor
- Coat/Hat Stowage
- Suitcase Stowage
- Flight Kit
- Stowage
- Pull-Out Table
- Cup Holders
- Waste Bag Clip
- Foot Rest
 FLIGHT DECK RIGHT SIDE COMPONENTS

PILOT’S SEAT

The captain’s and first officer’s seats are opposite assemblies. The seats can be moved horizontally or vertically.
This movement can be powered or manual. The pilots’ seats are comprised of two basic structures: the upper
assembly and the base structure. The base structure is a light alloy mounted on four tracks. The upper assembly
houses most mechanisms and controls for seat adjustment. The pilots’ seats are capable of 10 inches of travel
forward/aft and 3 1/2 inches of travel outboard.

Shown in a left view of the captain’s seat are:

 Life vest stowage: located on the aft side of the pilots seats which provides stowage for one life vest.

 Lumbar support up/down adjustment hand wheel: located on the outboard side of the pilots seats. Raises and
lowers the lumbar pad and back cushion through a range of 3 inches.

 Recline control lever: located on the outboard side of the pilots seats. Allows the seat back to recline through a
range of 33 degrees from upright position. Release of the control lever locks the seat back at any desired angle
within the limits.

 Electrical actuator and cover: located on outboard side of pilot’s seats. Contains motor and pinion. Used to
electrically move seat forward or aft.

 Seat power cable: located under seat near electrical actuator. Provides ll5V AC 3 phase power.

 Manual (override) vertical adjustment control lever: located on forward outboard side of pilot’s seat. Allows
seat to be manually raised or lowered.
 - PILOT’S SEAT – LEFT SIDE VIEW

PILOT’S SEAT – RIGHT SIDE VIEW

Shown in a right view of the captain’s seat are:

 Shoulder harness: located at the top of the seat back. Used to secure the pilot in the seat. Attaches into the
rotary buckle.

 Seat back cushion: provides a comfortable back platform.

 Recline control lever: located on the outboard side of the pilots seats. Allows the seat back to recline through a
range of 33 degrees from upright position. Release of the control lever locks the seat back at any desired angle
within the limits.

 Electrical actuator and cover: located on outboard side of pilot’s seats. Contains motor and pinion. Used to
electrically move seat forward or aft.

 Seat power cable: located under seat near electrical actuator. Provides ll5V AC 3 phase power.

 Manual (override) vertical adjustment control lever: located on forward outboard side of pilot’s seat. Allows
seat to be manually raised or lowered.

 Seat bottom cushion: provides a comfortable sitting platform.

 Thigh pad adjustment hand wheel: located on the inboard side of the pilots seat. Permits
movement of the forward edge of the seat bottom through an arc of 30 degrees.

Overrides to the down position when sufficient pressure is applied. Springs back to the original
setting when the pressure is removed.

 Manual (override) horizontal adjustment control lever: located on inboard forward side of seat.
Allows seat to be manually adjusted forward and aft.

 Electrical power vertical adjustment control switch: located on forward inboard side of seat.
Actuation of the switch to up or down position provides power to an electric motor which
operates to raise or lower the seat.

 Electric power horizontal adjustment control switch: located on the forward inboard side of seat.
Actuation of the switch to forward or aft position provides power to an electric motor which
operates to move the seat forward or aft.

 Bogie unit track fitting (four units): located at the base of the seat. Used to secure the seat
base to the seat tracks.

 Inertial reel lock control: allows inertial reel to function automatically (will restrain seat
occupant upon detection of rapid forward motion) or function in lock mode (locks the restraint
in position it was in when the lock was activated).

 Lumbar support in/out adjustment hand wheel: located on the inboard side of the pilots seats.
Repositions the lumbar pad forward and back through a range of 1 1/4 inches.

FIG. 6 – PILOT’S SEAT – RIGHT SIDE VIEW

 PILOT’S SEAT TRACKS
General

Pilot’s seat tracks provide a means of attaching the seat to the airplane while allowing limited
powered or manual horizontal movement. The tracks are mounted directly to the flight deck floor out
board of the control stand. Four tracks are provided for each pilots’ seat.

Characteristics

The aft end of each track curves outboard. This will place the seat in an outboard position when it is
in its full aft position. This facilitates pilot ingress and egress. The inboard aft seat track has a series of
lock holes which will engage with a seat mounted stop pin to provide various horizontal LOCKED
positions. At the forward and aft end of the forward tracks are limit stops. These stops will prevent
over travel.

On the forward-outboard seat track is a rack gear. This rack gear meshes with the pinion gear on the
horizontal electric actuator allowing powered forward and aft movement.

PILOT’S SEAT TRACK

2.1 PILOT’S SEAT AND BOGIE UNIT

General

Four bogie units attach each pilot’s seat to the seat tracks. The bogie units move on the tracks to
provide seat movement.

Maintenance Practices

Pilots’ seat installation is accomplished by removing the two forward stops on the seat tracks and
sliding the seat and bogie units aft onto the tracks until pinion gear on the electrical actuator
reaches track-mounted rack. Depress horizontal control handle (manual override) located on
forward inboard side of seat. Mesh pinion gear with rack gear. After installing the seat onto the
tracks the forward stops are re-installed. Connect seat electrical cable. The bogie units should
then be adjusted if necessary.

NOTE: All operational checks should be accomplished with a person sitting in the seat (170
pounds minimum weight). Seats should move freely without binding.

PILOT’S SEAT AND BOGIE UNIT

 2.2 PILOT’S SEAT CIRCUIT

Captain’s Seat

The captain’s seat is adjustable horizontally and vertically by two control switches. The FWD/AFT
control switch energizes the power relay and the forward or aft relay allowing the horizontal actuator
motor to move the seat. At the forward and aft end of the horizontal movement are limit switches
which stop further motor operation. A similar circuit is for the up/down movement.

First Officer’s Seat

The first officer’s seat horizontal and vertical adjustment is identical to the captain’s seat.

2.3 FIRST OBSERVER’S SEAT

The first observer’s seat is located behind the pilot’s seats on the right side of the flight deck. It has
the same comfort and adjustments as the pilots’ seats except for a more limited horizontal movement
and no thigh pad adjustment.

The first observer’s seat is mounted on a fixed pedestal and all movement of the seat is relative to the
pedestal. Seat movement is L shaped.
The seat can move 8 inches in the inboard/outboard direction and 8 inches in the forward/aft direction.
The seat must be in the full aft position to move outboard.

FIRST OBSERVER’S SEAT

2.4 SECOND OBSERVER’S SEAT

The second observer’s seat is located behind the captain’s seats on the left side of the flight deck.
It has the same comfort and adjustments as the pilots’ seat except for no horizontal or vertical
movement and no thigh pad adjustment.

The second observer’s seat is mounted on top of a stowage box that is bolted to the flight deck
floor. Access to the stowage box is from the aft side.

SECOND OBSERVER’S SEAT

2.5 PILOTS’ SUNVISOR

General

Both pilots have a sunvisor made of transparent green polycarbonate plastic. When installed they
protect the pilots’ eyes from glaring sunlight. The sunvisors are attached to a visor track bracket
by springs and three friction catch balls. The visors can either be rotated or moved sideways
along the track.

Maintenance Practices

The sunvisors are easily removed by simply pulling the visor from the track.

PILOT’S SUNVISOR
2.6 CRASH PAD INSTALLATION

General

Crash pads are provided to prevent injury to the flight deck crew during rapid deceleration. Crash
pads are installed on the upper sill and the window posts next to the captain, first officer and
observers. The crash pads are a preformed hard rubber material having a dull finish and solid
color for glare prevention.

Maintenance Practices

The crash pads are attached with metal screws.

CRASH PAD INSTALLATION

 2.7 FLIGHT DECK SIDEWALL LINING AND INSULATION

General

The flight deck sidewalls are insulated and acoustically lined. Fire and moisture resistant
insulation blankets are directly behind the sidewall linings in locations where drip shields are not
installed. Decorative lining panels cover the sidewall except in areas where equipment and
compartments are attached to the sidewall structure.

Sidewall Linings

Sidewall linings are made of honeycomb core with fire-resistant glass fabric on both sides and a
decorative laminate on the inboard finished surfaces. This surface is scratch-resistant and
washable.

The sidewall lining panels are fastened to support brackets by screws around their edges.

Insulation

Insulation blankets with moisture impervious coverings are installed behind some sidewall lining
panels. The flight deck forward bulkhead is also insulated. Insulation provides thermal, acoustical,
fire-retardant and moisture resistant properties in the flight deck. Insulation sections are shaped to
fit between frames and other structural components. A cap strip fits over the structural members
providing an attachment for the insulation with plastic stud retainers.
2.8 DRIPSHIELDS

General

The dripshields are located outboard of the flight deck sidewall linings. The dripshields are rigid,
formed fiberglass panels with insulation blankets cemented by a synthetic rubber adhesive.
Dripshields are installed to control condensate flow and insulate the flight deck. The dripshields
collect condensate formed on the inside of the airplane skin.

Condensate collected by the ceiling dripshields drains onto the sidewall dripshields. The
condensate flows to floor level where it is collected and routed to the airplane drain system.

Maintenance Practices
Dripshields are attached to the structure with screws. Adjacent dripshields have a 2 inch overlap
and are fillet sealed with synthetic rubber. Dripshields also overlap adjacent insulation.
Mounting brackets are installed at numerous locations on the inboard side of the dripshields to
provide attachments for sidewall linings, instrument panels and equipment.
 FIG.14 - DRIPSHIELDS

2.9 FLIGHT DECK FLOOR COVERING

General

The flight deck floor covering consists of sections of carpeting with separate carpet and foam pad.
Floor covering sections are shaped to butt-fit against seat tracks and other installed equipment.
The carpets are bound on all edges to prevent fraying.

Maintenance Practices

Floor covering sections are secured to the flight deck floor by double-backed tape. The tape is
applied to the bottom side of the floor covering around the perimeter, around all cut-outs, and
along the edges of elevated floor areas. The carpet edge at the flight deck door is secured with a
threshold.

FLIGHT DECK FLOOR COVERING

 2.10 FLIGHT DECK CREW REST

The flight deck crew rest is located aft of the second observers seat. The crew rest contains two
bunks. The upper bunk folds up to improve access to the lower bunk. Both bunks have a 3 inch foam
mattress with fire-blocking covers. An optional seat is attached to the aft wall of the crew rest. The
seat is not certified for takeoff and landing. Access to the crew rest is through a door which opens
into theflightdeck.
 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS – AIRCRAFT AND
WORKSHOP

PURPOSE

-Safety precautions involved in handling and servicing of aircraft on the ground.

-Consult the appropriate manufacturer’s manual.

GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTION

PERSONAL SAFETY

-Being safety conscious at all times.

-Involves movement (where you are, what you are doing, what others around you are doing).
-Should be aware (limitations, what can go wrong, what actions to take if gone wrong)

PERSONAL SAFETY EQUIPMENT

-Ear protectors – Prolonged exposure to excessive noise can result in permanent damage to
hearing. Interferes ability to work.
-Eye protectors – Goggles, eye shields, face shields. Should be used when working in areas
where high intensity lights like LASER or ARCING, and prevents entry of particles, solids or
fluids.
-Masks or breathing equipment – Protect against inhalation of dust, particles, spray or fumes.
-Hardhat – Prevent of minimize injury to head.
-Gloves – Should be worn when carrying hot/cold objects or materials that can react with skin or
absorbed.
-Safety shoes – Reinforced shoe caps to prevent injury to feet. The sole of the shoes prevent
slipperiness by increasing traction and resistance to deterioration from oil/hydraulic fluid.
-Safety harnesses – Attach safety harnesses when walking at high sections.

MANUAL HANDLING
-Lifting or moving objects manually is a major cause for injury.
-Life with the legs, not with the back. Don’t lift too heavy, get help. Before lifting, check if your
path is clear.
Procedure:
-Stand close to the object, feet slightly apart.
-Bend the knees, keep the back straight but not necessarily vertical.
-Position your elbows close to your body, so that the body takes the weight.
-Grip using the palm and the roots of the fingers, not the finger tips.
-Straighten the knees, allow the thigh muscles to the work.
SAFETY WITH MACHINES
-Do not misuse, use in a way which they are intended to use.
-Use familiar tools.
-Do not sacrifice safety for convenience. Safety covers and guards might be in the way of
operation but do not remove them.
-Guards are there to prevent you from accidently coming into contact with dangerous moving
parts.
-Cutting and drilling tools are properly sharpened, a dull can require excessive forces, the work
may be grabbed or thrown out of the machine.
-Make sure that the metal is securely clamped to the drill press table/block.
-Use eye protection always when drilling, grinding or sawing.
-Ensure that you know how to stop the machine before set it in motion.
-Maintain your concentration while the machine is in motion.
-Never leave your machine unattended while in motion, do not deactivate dead man handles or
pedals to prevent un-attendant operation.
-Try not to distract other machine operators.
-Never clean a machine while in operation.
-Never use compressed air to clean a machine, it may blow debris into your eyes.
-Never clean away swart with your bare hand, use a suitable rake.
-Keep your hair short or under a cap.
-Avoid loose clothing, do not wear rings or wristwatches.

GENERAL SAFETY PACTICES

-Should only operate with which they are familiar and can operate safely.
-Hand tools should be kept in proper working order.
-Should know the location of the first aid box and emergency equipment.
-Pedestrian lanes and fire lanes should be marked.
-Power cords and air hoses should be straightened, coiled and properly stored.
-Oil, grease and other substances spilled on hangar should be immediately cleaned or covered
and must be prevented to be emptied from floor drains.
-Drip pans should be placed beneath engines and engine parts wherever dripping exists.
-Gasoline spills on the hangar floor must be flushed away with water.
-Always use designated ladders, work stands and maintenance steps and prevent using unstable
piles of boxes or inadequate scaffolding.
-Always work, never run and never hurry.

SAFETY WITH ELECTRICITY

-Unique procedures should be followed, and precautions taken before, observed during, and
ensured after, using such a system.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SAFETY

-Primary harm to any living organism from electricity is due to electrocution. Might be fatal
depending on the voltage and duration of exposure.
-Electrical equipment especially faulty equipment can generate a lot of heat energy that can
cause burning if touched.
-An electrical spark or discharge can be a source of ignition increasing fire hazard.
-A small current at high voltage is all what it takes to cause fatalities, if the applied voltage is
high enough, an electrical current can flow through the human body.
-Domestic current 110/230V, affects our nerves in such a way we are unable to turn loose.
-If higher than 3000V, air can ionize and become a conductor.
-Resistance to the flow of electricity through the human body is inversely proportional to the
frequency of the current. The greater the frequency, the dangerous it gets. Aircraft has around
400Hz electrical supply.

WORKSHOP ELECTRICAL SUPPLY

SINGLE PHASE SUPPLY

3 WIRES
1 wire carries power (Live wire)
1 wire is connected to earth ground (Neutral wire)
1 wire connects the housing of the equipment to the earth ground (Earth wire)

SINGLE PHASE WIRE IDENTIFICIATION

Live wire – connected to right-hand connector of the “plug base”
Neutral wire - connected to left-hand connector of the “plug base”
Earth wire - connected to larger sized top center connector of the “plug base”

220V/240V 110V/120V
LIVE RED BROWN BLACK
NEUTRAL BLACK BLUE WHITE
EARTH GREEN GREEN/YELLOW GREEN

THREE PHASE SUPPLY

-To operate machinery that requires more power that could be afforded by a single-phase one.
-Is different in design and accept only compatible connectors, but safety concerns are the same.
-Except for a failure in one phase will result in isolation of power for all phases provided that
proper protective equipment (such as circuit breakers) are installed.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY THROUGH DESIGN

-If a 3 conductor cord is present, the return current passes through the earth wire instead of the
human body.
-Circuit breakers are installed to limit the current that is allowed to flow in an electrical circuit.
-The circuit breaker will trip and open the circuit if the current flow is higher than which it is
designed for.

AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL SYSYEMS

-It is either 115 Volts 400Hz single or 3-phase AC or 28 Volts DC.

-AC supply to equipment will consist of an individual wire for each phase, and an additional
wire to the ground (airframe structure)
-Care should be taken to prevent completing a conductive path between a phase wire and
airframe.

ELECTRICAL SAFETY PRACTICES

Before connecting any electrical equipment, make sure that:

-The user is well versed in the use and hazards involved.
-Wire cords are not frayed or not exposed, and be sure to replace any plugs.
-The operating voltage of the equipment is the same as that of the outlet.
-Power rating of base > Power requirement of the equipment.
-The equipment activation switch is in a deactivated position.
-The electrical outlet in OFF position.
-Electrical equipment connected with 3 wire extension, cords with adequate capacity.

-Do not use electrical equipment in areas where fire hazard risk exists unless authorized.
-At any moment if equipment shows signs of overheating, emits smokes, disconnect.
-During operation, if equipment protection devices such as over current, over temperature, circuit
breakers trip, do not reset.
-Before disconnecting, make sure the equipment is switched off.

REPAIR OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

-To know and obey electrical standard practices.

-To have a good knowledge on the processes involved.
-Before working on any equipment it is necessary to disconnect or isolate the electrical supply.
-Necessary to perform a tuning operation with covers open and the unit supplied with power, make sure
to follow the procedures stated in the repair manual.

FLIGHT LINE SAFETY

-De-activate electrical system according to AMM.

-If the circuit breakers had tripped or the fuse blown, failure has to be determined before reset.
-Take all precautions and follow the reactivation procedures described in the AMM.

TYPICAL DEACTIVATION PROCEDURE

When deactivating electrical systems the procedure given in the AMM should be followed.

1)DEACTIVATION BY CIRCUIT BREAKER

-If the electrical system is deactivated using a circuit breaker make certain the circuit breaker
will remain open during maintenance work as follows.
Install safety clamp under the open circuit breakers
Tag tripped circuit breakers (Do no close until maintenance is completed)

2)DEACTIVATION BY SWITCH

-Some critical system switches are guarded to prevent inadvertent selection, so the guard must be
removed before placing the switch in a deactivated position.
-A tag should be installed on the switch itself.

3)DEACTIVATION BY FUSE

-Any removed fuses are not reinstalled before maintenance is completed.

NOTE: Some electrical systems may be provided with alternate power sources in case of main
supply failure. These may become active when certain circuit breakers are tripped or switches
selected to open. Therefore ensure those systems are inhibited.

TYPICAL REACTIVATION PROCEDURE

-Before reactivation after maintenance make sure that all the controls are in such a position that
inadvertent operation of any component is not possible, always inform other personnel working
on or around aircraft before reactivating the electrical system.
-Follow the reactivation procedure described in the AMM.
-Install appropriate fuses and limiter fuses.
-Energize appropriate electrical system, ensuring external power parameters such as voltage,
frequency are within proper limits.
-Remove any circuit breakers safety clamps.

IN AN EMERGENCY – ELECTRICITY

FIRE – If fire occurs due to an electrical failure or in the vicinity of electrical circuitry always
cut off the power supply, if combustible liquid or gases are present isolate these in the process. If
power cannot be shut-off or unsure, use a CO2 or Halon fire extinguisher. Evacuate the area and
warn others.

PERSONAL – If a person is electrocuted, avoid physical contact with the victim until the
electrical supply is cut off. If the power supply cannot be switched off then try to move the
victim clear using a length of dry cloth, jacket without touching them, and call for medical help.

HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

-Categorized into:
1)Chemical agents
2)Physical hazards
3)Biological hazards

1)CHEMICAL AGENTS

Chemicals are categorized into four classes based on their properties

A)Flammable
B)Corrosive
C)Toxic
D)Reactive

-Flammable and reactive chemicals become hazardous primarily after some outside event, condition, or
substance interacts with them.
-Corrosive and toxins on the other hand, act directly on the human body when exposed. Toxic agents
cause poisoning.

A)FLAMMABLE

-Flammable materials that may easily ignite in the presence of a catalyst such as heat, sparks or
flame. They maybe in 3 forms: solid, liquid or gas. Combustible liquids are similar to flammable
liquids but they are not as easy to ignite. Eg: Fuels, Paint-related products, alcohols, some metal
fillings.

-Generally recommended personal safety equipment are:

Fire-retarding clothing and fire extinguisher.

-Handling and storage:

Limit access to open flames, sparks, hot surface.
Containers should be grounded, static electricity may produce sparks.
Limit quantities to a minimum
Store the materials in approved containers
Store flammable toxins and corrosive toxic materials separately.
-Typical emergency procedures:
Turn off electrical equipment or any other potential source of sparks.
Attempt to close shutoff valves.
Remove containers from the area, do not remove with compressed air
For large spills, leave the area and notify.
In case of direct contact with body or eyes, rinse with water.
If toxic substance inhaled, go to a fresh environment
If contact made through clothing, remove clothing and store in a container

B)CORROSIVES

-Corrosive materials are materials that can react with metallic surfaces and/or cause bumming of
the skin.
-Frequently found corrosives in aviation industry is acids and bases. Strong acids are normally
found in liquid form, bases tends to come in powdered form.

-Generally recommended personal safety equipment are:

Gloves, aprons, respirator, face shields or goggles and sometimes protective footwear.
-Handling and storage:
Containers must be corrosive resistant.
Goggles and skin protection must be always worn.
Never add water to acid (add acid to water to dilute acid)
Acids and bases should be stored separately
Eye washes and showers should be easily accessible
Flammable toxins and corrosive toxic materials should be stored separately

-Typical emergency procedures:

Remove any corrosives that have come in contact with your eyes or skin with fresh water with
15 mins.
Remove any contaminated clothing.
Go to an area of fresh environment if inhaled.
Ventilate the area.
Check safety equipment before attempting to stop the flow of spillage by creating a darn.
If swallowed do no induce vomiting, drink large amounts of water. Seek medical attention
immediately.

C)TOXINS

-Defined as any substance that can cause an illness or injury.

-The effects maybe acute (appear all at once) or chronic (build up over time).
-Some dissipate over time, while other remains in human system even after death.
-Frequently found toxins in aviation industry may be grouped into 8 categories
Solvents and thinners, paints, ketones, adhesives.
Solids such as metal dust or asbestos.
Machine lubricants, cutting fluids, and oils.
Gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
Polymers, epoxies and plastics. Not normally toxic, but during fabrication it is.
Sensitizers, such as epoxy systems. Although not toxic in their final form, maybe destroy
portions of the body’s immune system.
Carcinogens, can cause changes in the genetic makeup of a human cell, resulting in cancer.
Reproductive hazards, such as carcinogens. rare in aviation. May interfere with reproductive
process, or affect developing process of fetus.

-Generally recommended personal safety equipment are:

Be sure to use the environmental control systems that maybe already in place, such as ventilation
fans and filters.
Gloves, aprons, respirator, face shields or goggles and sometimes protective footwear.
-Handling and storage:
Minimize the release of toxic agents into the environment by capping all the containers, and
storing them in ventilated places. Containers surface areas should be kept to a minimum to
reduce the rate of evaporation into the surrounding.
Flammable toxins and corrosive toxic materials should be stored separately.
-Typical emergency procedures:
If there is any doubt regarding the degree of toxicity of the substance spilled, leave the area and
notify the authorities.
If it is less than 1 gal, it may be cleaned up by wiping with an absorbent material.

D)REACTIVE AGENTS

-Reactive materials are those materials that react violently with other materials (no necessarily
solids). May vary from violent explosions to emission of heat.
-Frequently found reactive agents in aviation industry:
Oxidizers, which add oxygen to situation where high levels of heat and burning are present
(Peroxides, Perchloric acid and chromic acid, Halogens)
Water reactive materials, such as lithium, react with water to form hydrogen gases, which are
very explosive.
-Examples of incompatible reactive materials include:
Cyanides (frequently used in plating) and acids
Chloric bleach and ammonia (high toxic chlorine gas)

-Generally recommended personal safety equipment are:

Be sure to use the environmental control systems that maybe already in place, such as ventilation
fans and filters.
Gloves, aprons, respirator, face shields or goggles and sometimes protective footwear.
-Handling and storage:
Store reactive materials in a location separate from other materials. Always review material
safety data sheet (MSDS)
Many reactive agents are both toxic and corrosive
-Typical emergency procedures:
If there is any doubt regarding the degree of reactivity and toxicity of the substance, leave the
area and notify the authorities.

SAFETY PRACTICES

-Identify the correct oil/chemical to be used, incorrect or improper may result damage as certain
chemicals when mixed together form highly combustible mixtures.
-Follow manufacturer’s instructions.
-Check for conditions for use as some chemicals may be forbidden to use.
-Use protective equipment.
-After use make sure by-products and leftover materials are disposed according to guidelines set
by manufacturer.
-Most of the oils and chemicals used in aviation are considered to be combustible in the presence
of Oxygen.
-Always keep working area free from spills and clean up as soon as possible if occurs.
-If combustible materials are to be used avoid taking large quantities.

IN AN EMERGERNCY – OIL AND CHEMICALS

-In case of fire with oil or chemicals, the type of chemical will be a factor of hose intense or how
fast the first may spread.
-Most chemicals are likely to give off toxic fumes at elevated temperatures, therefore it is most
advisable to vacate and isolate the area and let emergency services handle situation.
-If material that can react violently are present, vacate the area immediately and move to a safe
location.
-Designated person should perform roll call, to ensure all personnel have evacuated the area and
no one is missing.
-If possible, cut off supply of all other types of fluid and de-energize the electrical system in the
area of emergency.

2)PHYSICAL HAZARDS

-Usually caused by the use of some type of equipment not directly controllable by the technician.
-2 categories:
Hazards that can be detected by the human senses
Hazards that are not detected by the human senses including magnetic waves.
-According to labor rules, it is required that areas where such exposure exists be clearly marked
and that individuals exposed to these hazards are provided with the proper safety equipment.

SAFETY WITH GASES

A)COMPRESSED AIR
B)OXYGEN
C)NITROGEN
D)OTHER GASES

A)COMPRESSED AIR

-Used as a power source for maintenance equipment and tools. Also used for painting as a
pressure source for carrying out leak checks, for purging also.

-Safety measures incudes:

Handle cylinders of compressed gases as you would of high energy sources.
Always use safety eye-shields when handling compressed gases.
If a concentrated steam of compressed air is blown across a cut in the skin, it is possible for air to
enter the bloodstream and cause severe injury. For this reason, air dusting guns are usually
equipped with a restrictor that reduces the pressure discharge rate 30psi or less.
When using compressed air do not blow chips into the face.
Do not use compressed air to clean hands; it can force debris into your skin.
Never use a cylinder that cannot be positively identified.
When storing or moving a cylinder, have the cap securely in place to protect the valve.
When large cylinders are moved, strap them to properly designed wheeled cart to ensure
stability.
Use the appropriate regulator on each gas cylinder.
Release compressed air slowly, rapid release might cause the hose to whip dangerously and may
also build static charges.
Inspect air hoses regularly for breaks and worn spots.
Inline oilers, if installed, should be maintained in operating conditions.
The system should have water sumps/traps installed and these should be drained regularly.
Air hoses should be straightened, coiled, and properly stowed when not in use

B)OXYGEN

-Oxygen is available in the compressed form as Industrial Oxygen and Breathing Oxygen.
Industrial Oxygen is used for oxy-acetylene welding. Breathing Oxygen is used for
crew/passenger emergency oxygen system.
-Oxygen is a colorless, tasteless and odorless gas. Gaseous Oxygen is chemically stable and is
not flammable, but combustible materials ignite in oxygen rich areas. Oxygen combines with oil,
petroleum products, greases or bituminous to form an explosive mixture.
-Liquid Oxygen will cause severe “burns’ frostbite if it comes in contact with skin because of its
low temperature.
-Oxygen is often found in aviation shops stored in steel cylinders under a pressure of around
2000 psi.
-Oxygen marked “Aviators Breathing Oxygen” maybe used in aircraft breathing oxygen system,
lower water content.
-Two persons are required. One stationed at the control valves of the servicing equipment and
one man stationed where he can observe the pressure in the aircraft system.
-Oxygen servicing of aircraft should be accomplished outside the hangar.
C)NITROGEN

-Used to inflate aircraft wheel assemblies, pre-charge accumulators, as a pressure source for
testing a certain equipment and as a propellant.
-Nitrogen is colorless, tasteless, odorless gas that is used to pre-charge accumulators, pneumatic
reservoirs and tires and in some cases potable water systems.
-Nitrogen is supplied in compressed gaseous form in steel cylinder pressurized up to 2500 psi.

-Nitrogen is used in place of compressed air mainly due to:

Nitrogen is much cleaner than compressed air as it does not contain moisture or lubricants such
as oil.
Nitrogen is benign to most materials and reduces the fire hazard at high temperatures, which
gives way to be used in wheels.
-Nitrogen tends to displace oxygen in enclosed areas resulting in asphyxiation.
-It also causes frostbites when it comes into contact with skin.

D)OTHER GASES

-Gases such as Argon, Acetylene, CO2, etc. have limited application in the aviation industry.
Argon and Acetylene is used in welding, CO2 as a fire extinguisher and as a propellant.
-CO2 is used for inflating passenger life jackets and Slides/Rafts.
-Argon is used as the blanket medium in Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding, Argon is used
because it is an inert gas and does not react even at high temperatures.
-Nitrogen and Argon is not toxic to humans, but may replace Oxygen if released in large
quantities.
-Acetylene gas is a flammable, colorless gas that has a distinctive, disagreeable odor, readily
detectable. Acetylene is used as the fuel that is combined with oxygen in oxyacetylene welding.
Acetylene is stable at low pressure and normal temperature but dangerously unstable when
compressed to a pressure greater than 15psi.
-Acetylene is therefore supplied in cylinders containing asbestos and charcoal that is saturated
with acetone. Since acetone is capable of absorbing 25 times its own value of acetylene gas, this
mixture can be pressurized up to 250psi.
-When working with acetylene gas, proper ventilation must be provided.
3)BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS

-Living organisms that may cause illness or disease. Some biological hazards also have toxic by-products.
-Transmits through air droplets or spores and enter the body through contact.
-In Aviation, Cargo compartment is the main concern for biological hazards.

HAZARD COMMUNICATION

-Full compliance can be achieved by establishing a hazard communication program.

-There are five basic requirements of a hazard-communication program:
1-Invetory – An inventory list for all hazardous materials used.
2-Labeling – All hazardous chemicals shall be properly labeled.
3-Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) – MSDS must be obtained for all material stored or used.
4-Training – All employees must be provided training, detecting, handling, labeling.
5-Written Program – Each employer must establish a written program that will comply with the
four points mentioned above.

MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS

-It is a document provided by the material manufacturer or processor that contains information
related to its hazardousness, handling and disposal procedures.
-Normally, MSDSs are provided with each shipment of a hazardous material.

MATERIAL SAFETY SHEET DATA

-Divided into 9 sections

Section I – Product Identification (Manu name, address, contact no. emergency contact no.,
chemical name, trade name, chemical family, formula)
Section II – Hazardous Ingredients
Section III – Physical Data – BP, Specific gravity, vapor density.
Section IV – Fire and Explosive Data – Based upon the flash point
Section V – Reactivity Data – Ability of the material to react and release energy
Section VI – Health Hazard Information
Section VII – Spill leak and Disposal Procedures
Section VIII – Special Protection
Section IX – Special Precautions

LABELING

-Should have identifying labels and should never be removed.

-First, container should be clearly labeled. Second, once contained is used, it should never be
used for another hazardous material.
SAFETY WITH FIRE

NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE

-Fire essentials are:

Fuel – A combustible solid, liquid or gas in the presence of heat combine with oxygen, releasing
more heat.
Oxygen – Element that combines through the process of oxidation.
Heat – A form of energy to raise the temperature of fuel to its ignition, considered as the catalyst
that accelerates the combining of oxygen with fuel
CLASSES OF FIRE
CLASS A (green, triangle) – Solids -
CLASS B (red, square) – Liquids
CLASS C (blue, circle) – Energized or live electrical equipment
CLASS D (yellow, star)– Metals

SPONTANIOUS IGNITION

-Can be caused by lubricants and solvents, such as rags soaked with oil or solvents. These rags
should be disposed of in airtight cans.

PRINCIPLE IN EXTINGUISHING FIRES

-Suppression of fire includes:

1)Cooling the fuel below its kindling point
2)Excluding the oxygen supply
3)Separating the fuel from the oxygen

FIRE EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

CLASS A agents – Water, cool the fuel.

Most effective in Class A, Never use in D & C. Class B and C agents are effective but not equal.

CLASS B agents – CO2, halogenated hydrocarbons (halons), dry chemicals. Displace oxygen.
Foam is effective when used in large amounts. Water is ineffective and spreads more even.

CLASS C agents – Best responds to CO2, must be equipped with non-metallic horn because the
discharge or CO2 through metallic horn can generate static electricity, and might transmit the
current. Halogenated hydrocarbons are very effective too. Dry chemicals are effective but have
the disadvantage of contaminating the local area with powder.

CLASS D agents -.Dry powder, prevents oxidation and the resulting flame.

Water CO2 Halons Dry powder

A only B and C B and C B,C and D
INSTRUCTION INCASE OF A FIRE

-In case of an emergency, always sound the alarm first. Give name, location, type, no. of people
involved.
-Vacate the area.
-Isolate electrical and compressed air gas supplies.
-Identify the type of fire and extent before extinguishing.
-Put on protection clothing available.
-Stay low if not wearing any protection.
-Select the appropriate type of fire extinguisher.
-Use the back of the hand against the door to sense the temperature of the door.
-Fire in an enclosed area can be in a state of hibernation, because of the lack of oxygen so the
fire might intensify if the door is opened suddenly, so it is advised to open slowly.
-When using the extinguisher aim at the base of the flames, bottom first, then progress upward
and forward. The discharge nozzle should be moved rapidly with a side-to-side sweeping
motion.
-In case fire on person, never use fire extinguisher on a person, smother the flame with a blanket.