Magnetic moment - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 1/2/10 7:22 PM

Magnetic moment
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The magnetic moment of a system is a measure of the magnitude and the direction of its magnetism. For example, a loop of electric current, a bar magnet, an electron, a Electromagnetism
molecule, and a planet all have their own magnetic moments. Magnetic moment usually refers to its magnetic dipole moment, and quantifies the contribution of the system's
internal magnetism to the external dipolar magnetic field produced by the system (that is, the component of the external magnetic field that drops off with distance as the
inverse cube). Any dipolar magnetic field pattern is symmetric with respect to rotations around a particular axis, therefore it is customary to describe the magnetic dipole
moment that creates such a field as a vector with a direction along that axis. For quadrupolar, octupolar, and higher-order multipole magnetic moments, see Multipole
expansion. Electricity · Magnetism
Electrostatics
Electric charge · Coulomb's law · Electric field ·
Contents Electric flux · Gauss's law · Electric potential ·
Electrostatic induction · Electric dipole moment ·
1 Units Polarization density
2 Two kinds of magnetic sources Magnetostatics
3 Magnetism and angular momentum
4 Examples of magnetic moments Ampère’s law · Electric current ·
4.1 Magnetic moment of circular coils Magnetic field · Magnetization · Magnetic flux ·
4.2 Magnetic moment of solenoids Biot–Savart law · Magnetic dipole moment ·
4.3 Magnetic dipoles Gauss's law for magnetism
4.3.1 Magnetic moment of atoms
4.3.2 Magnetic moment of electrons Electrodynamics
4.3.3 Magnetic moments of nuclei Free space · Lorentz force law · emf ·
4.3.4 Magnetic moments of molecules Electromagnetic induction · Faraday’s law ·
4.3.4.1 Examples of molecular magnetism
Lenz's law · Displacement current ·
5 Formulas for calculating and values of magnetic moments Maxwell's equations · EM field ·
5.1 Planar loop Electromagnetic radiation ·
5.2 Arbitrary closed loop
5.3 Arbitrary current distribution Liénard-Wiechert Potential · Maxwell tensor ·
5.4 Elementary particles Eddy current

6 Magnetic field produced by a magnetic moment Electrical Network

7 Effects of an external magnetic field on a magnetic moment Electrical conduction · Electrical resistance ·
7.1 Forces between two magnetic dipoles Capacitance · Inductance · Impedance ·
8 Magnetic poles, analogy with the electric dipole moment Resonant cavities · Waveguides
9 See also
Covariant formulation
10 References and notes
Electromagnetic tensor ·
EM Stress-energy tensor · Four-current ·
Units Electromagnetic four-potential
Scientists
In the International System of Units (SI), the dimension of magnetic dipole moment is Area×current, or L2 I (see examples below). This is the basis on which the unit of Ampère · Coulomb · Faraday · Gauss ·
magnetic dipole moment is defined. The SI unit of magnetic dipole moment has two equivalent representations:
Heaviside · Henry · Hertz · Lorentz · Maxwell ·
Tesla · Volta · Weber · Ørsted
1 m 2 ·A = 1 J/T.

In the CGS system, there are several different sets of electromagnetism units, of which the main ones are ESU, Gaussian, and EMU. Among these, there are two alternative (non-equivalent) units of magnetic dipole moment
in CGS:

(ESU CGS) 1 statA·cm² = 3.33564095×10 -14 (m 2 ·A or J/T)

and (more frequently used)

(EMU CGS and Gaussian-CGS) 1 erg/G = 1 abA·cm² = 10-3 (m 2 ·A or J/T).

The ratio of these two non-equivalent CGS units (EMU/ESU) is equal exactly to the speed of light in free space, expressed in cm/s.

All formulas in this article are correct in SI units, but in other unit systems, the formulas may need to be changed. For example, in SI units, a loop of current with current I and area A has magnetic moment I×A (see below),
but in Gaussian units the magnetic moment is I×A/c.

Two kinds of magnetic sources

Fundamentally, contributions to any system's magnetic moment may come from sources of two kinds: (1) motion of electric charges, such as electric currents, and (2) the intrinsic magnetism of elementary particles, such as
the electron.

Contributions due to the sources of the first kind can be calculated from knowing the distribution of all the electric currents (or, alternatively, of all the electric charges and their velocities) inside the system, by using the
formulas below. On the other hand, the magnitude of each elementary particle's intrinsic magnetic moment is a fixed number, often measured experimentally to a great precision. For example, any electron's magnetic
moment is measured to be −9.284764×10 −24 J/T. [1] The direction of the magnetic moment of any elementary particle is entirely determined by the direction of its spin (the minus in front of the value above indicates that
any electron's magnetic moment is antiparallel to its spin).

The net magnetic moment of any system, is a vector sum of contributions from one or both types of sources. For example, the magnetic moment of an atom of hydrogen-1 (the lightest hydrogen isotope, consists of a proton
and an electron), is a vector sum of the following contributions: (1) the intrinsic moment of the electron, (2) the orbital motion of the electron around the proton, (3) the intrinsic moment of the proton. Similarly, the
magnetic moment of a bar magnet is the sum of the intrinsic and orbital magnetic moments of the unpaired electrons of the magnet's material.

Magnetism and angular momentum

There exists a close connection between angular momentum and magnetism, expressed on a macroscopic scale in the Einstein-de Haas effect "rotation by magnetization" and its inverse, the Barnett effect or "magnetization
by rotation". [2]

At the atomic and sub-atomic scales, this connection is expressed by the ratio of magnetic moment to angular momentum, the gyromagnetic ratio.

Examples of magnetic moments

Magnetic moment of circular coils
Magnetic moment of a current-carrying loop depends on its area and current. For example, the magnitude of magnetic moment for a single-turn circular coil of radius 5 cm carrying 1 A of current is determined as:

The vector of this moment is pointing perpendicular to the plane of the loop, in the direction of the magnetic field at the center of the loop (see right-hand rule). Knowing this value of the loop's magnetic moment can be
used to establish the following facts:

At distances R much larger than the radius of the loop r = 0.05 m, the magnetic field produced by this loop will drop off as:

(along the loop's axis)

and

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_moment Page 1 of 5
Magnetic moment - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 1/2/10 7:22 PM

(in the loop's plane). Minus indicates the field direction opposite to the axial case.

In the Earth's magnetic field of 0.5 G (5×10 −5 T) perpendicular to the loop's axis, the loop (as well as the Earth) will experience a torque in newton-meters of

This torque can be used to make an electric compass.

If such compass is allowed to orient its axis parallel to the Earth's field, the amount of energy in joules released from the compass-Earth system is given by:

This energy can be dissipated into heat to overcome friction in the compass suspension system.

Magnetic moment of solenoids

Magnetic moment of a multi-turn coil (or solenoid) is determined as the vector sum of the moments of individual turns. In the case of identical turns (single-layer winding), it is equal simply to the individual turn's moment
multiplied by the total number of turns in the solenoid. Once the value of the total magnetic moment is found, it can be used to establish the far field, the torque, and the stored energy in the external field in the same way as
for the single-turn loop.

Magnetic dipoles
See also: Spin magnetic moment and Micromagnetism

The magnetic field of an ideal magnetic dipole is depicted on the right. As discussed below, however, due to the inherent connection between angular momentum and magnetism, magnetic
dipoles in actual materials are not ideal magnetic dipoles. (As mentioned above, the connection between angular momentum and magnetism is the basis of the Einstein-de Haas effect
"rotation by magnetization" and its inverse, the Barnett effect or "magnetization by rotation". [2] )

The magnetic field of permanent magnets and of all magnetic material originate at the atomic level. The total magnetic moment of an atom is due to a combination of 'currents' of electrons
'orbiting' the nuclei of the magnetic material plus a spin component of the magnetic moment of the electrons and the nucleus. (The true nature of the internal magnetic field of the electrons
and of the nucleons that make up the nucleus is relativistic in nature.) [3] The orbital component of these tiny magnets can be modeled as tiny loops of current with associated magnetic
dipoles. [4] The dipole moment of that dipole is defined as the current times the area of the loop and represents the strength of that magnet (magnetic dipole). In magnetic materials; such as
alloys of iron, cobalt and nickel; however, the magnetism is almost entirely spin magnetism, not orbital magnetism. [5][6]
Magnetic field lines around a
The magnetic dipole originating in an atom, electron, or nucleus is not a true dipole, as is an electric dipole. Viewing a magnetic dipole as a rotating charged sphere brings out the close
”magnetostatic dipole” the
connection between magnetic moment and angular momentum. Both the magnetic moment and the angular momentum increase with the rate of rotation of the sphere. The ratio of the two is magnetic dipole itself is in the
called the gyromagnetic ratio, usually denoted by the symbol γ.[5][7] center and is seen from the
side.
Magnetic moment of atoms

For an atom, individual electron spins are added to get a total spin, and individual orbital angular momenta are added to get a total orbital angular momentum. These two then are added using angular momentum coupling to
get a total angular momentum. The magnitude of the atomic dipole moment is then:[8]

where J is the total angular momentum quantum number, gJ is the Landé g-factor, and μB is the Bohr magneton. The component of this magnetic moment along the direction of the magnetic field is then:[9]

where m is called the magnetic quantum number or the equatorial quantum number, which can take on any of 2J+1 values: -J, −(J-1), … , (J−1), J. [10] The negative sign occurs because electrons have negative charge.

Because of the angular momentum, the dynamics of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field differs from that of an electric dipole in an electric field. The field does exert a torque on the magnetic dipole tending to align it
with the field. However, torque is proportional to rate of change of angular momentum, so precession occurs: the direction of spin changes. This behavior is described by the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation: [11][12]

where γ =gyromagnetic ratio, m = magnetic moment, λ = damping coefficient and H eff = effective magnetic field (the external field plus any self-field), and '×' = vector cross product. The first term describes precession of
the moment about the effective field, while the second is a damping term related to dissipation of energy caused by interaction with surroundings.

Magnetic moment of electrons

Electrons and many nuclei also have intrinsic magnetic moments, an explanation of which requires a quantum mechanical treatment and relates to the intrinsic angular momentum of the particles as discussed in the article
electron magnetic dipole moment. It is these intrinsic magnetic moments that give rise to the macroscopic effects of magnetism, and other phenomena, such as electron paramagnetic resonance.

The magnetic moment of the electron is

where

is the Bohr magneton, S is electron spin,

and the electron g-factor is

in Dirac mechanics, but is slightly larger,

in reality due to quantum electrodynamics effects.

Again it is important to notice that is a negative constant multiplied by the spin, so the magnetic moment is antiparallel to the spin. This can be understood with the following classical picture: if we imagine that the spin
angular momentum is created by the electron mass spinning around some axis, the electric current that this rotation creates circulates in the opposite direction, because of the negative charge of the electron; such current
loops produce a magnetic moment which is antiparallel to the spin.

Magnetic moments of nuclei

See also: Nuclear magnetic moment

The nuclear system is a complex physical system consisting of nucleons, i.e., protons and neutrons. The quantum mechanical properties of the nucleons include the spin among others. Since the electromagnetic moments of
the nucleus depend on the spin of the individual nucleons, one can look at these properties with measurements of nuclear moments, and more specifically the nuclear magnetic dipole moment.

Most common nuclei exist in their ground state, although nuclei of some isotopes have long-lived excited states. Each energy state of a nucleus of a given isotope is characterized by a well-defined magnetic dipole moment,
the magnitude of which is a fixed number, often measured experimentally to a great precision. This number is very sensitive to the individual contributions from nucleons, and a measurement or prediction of its value can
reveal important information about the content of the nuclear wave function. There are several theoretical models that predict the value of the magnetic dipole moment and a number of experimental techniques aiming to
carry out measurements in nuclei along the nuclear chart.

Magnetic moments of molecules

Any molecule has a well-defined magnitude of magnetic moment, which may depend on the molecule's energy state. Typically, the overall magnetic moment of a molecule is a combination of the following contributions, in
the order of their typical strength:

magnetic moments due to its unpaired electron spins (paramagnetic contribution), if any
orbital motion of its electrons, which in the ground state is often proportional to the external magnetic field (diamagnetic contribution)
the combined magnetic moment of its nuclear spins, which depends on the nuclear spin configuration.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_moment Page 2 of 5
Magnetic moment - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 1/2/10 7:22 PM

Examples of molecular magnetism

Oxygen molecule, O2 , exhibits strong paramagnetism, due to unpaired spins of its outermost two electrons.
Carbon dioxide molecule, CO 2 , mostly exhibits diamagnetism, a much weaker magnetic moment of the electron orbitals that is proportional to the external magnetic field. In the rare instance when a magnetic isotope,
such as 13C or 17O, is present, it will contribute its nuclear magnetism to the molecule's magnetic moment.
Hydrogen molecule, H2 , in a weak (or zero) magnetic field exhibits nuclear magnetism, and can be in a para- or an ortho- nuclear spin configuration.

Formulas for calculating and values of magnetic moments

Planar loop
In the simplest case of a planar loop of electric current, its magnetic moment is defined as:

where

is the magnetic moment, a vector measured in ampere–square meters, or equivalently in joules per tesla,
is the vector area of the current loop, measured in square meters (x, y, and z coordinates of this vector are the areas of projections of the loop onto the yz, zx, and xy planes), and
is the current in the loop (assumed to be constant), a scalar measured in amperes.

By convention, the direction of the vector area is given by the right hand grip rule (curling the fingers of one's right hand in the direction of the current around the loop, when the palm of the hand is "touching" the loop's
outer edge, and the straight thumb indicates the direction of the vector area and thus of the magnetic moment).

Arbitrary closed loop

In case of an arbitrary closed loop of constant current I, the magnetic moment is given by

where is the element of the vector area of the current loop.

Arbitrary current distribution

In the most general case of an arbitrary current distribution in space, the magnetic moment of such a distribution can be found from the following equation:

where

is the volume element, is the position vector pointing from the origin to the location of the volume element, and J is the current density vector at that location.

The above equation can be used for calculating a magnetic moment of any assembly of moving charges, such as a spinning charged solid, by substituting

where ρ is the electric charge density at a given point and is the instantaneous linear velocity of that point.

For example, the magnetic moment produced by an electric charge moving along a circular path is

where is the position of the charge q relative to the center of the circle and is the instantaneous velocity of the charge.

For a free point charge moving in an external magnetic field the magnetic moment is a measure of the magnetic flux set up by the gyration of the charge in the magnetic field. The moment is opposite to the direction of
magnetic field (i.e. it is diamagnetic) and is equal to the kinetic energy of the rotary motion divided by the magnetic field.

For a spinning charged solid with a uniform charge density to mass density ratio, the ratio of its magnetic moment to its angular momentum, also known as gyromagnetic ratio, is equal to half the charge-to-mass ratio.
This implies that a more massive assembly of charges spinning with the same angular momentum will have a proportionately weaker magnetic moment, compared to its lighter counterpart. Even though atomic particles
cannot be accurately described as spinning charge distributions of uniform charge-to-mass ratio, this general trend can be sometimes observed in the atomic world, where intrinsic angular momenta of most particles are
fairly constant: a small half-integer (spin) times the reduced Planck constant . This is the basis for defining the magnetic moment units of Bohr magneton (assuming charge-to-mass ratio of the electron) and nuclear
magneton (assuming charge-to-mass ratio of the proton).

Elementary particles

In atomic and nuclear physics, the symbol μ represents the magnitude of the magnetic moment, often measured in Bohr magnetons or nuclear magnetons, associated with the intrinsic spin of the particle and/or with the
orbital motion of the particle in a system. Values of the intrinsic magnetic moments of some particles are given in the table below:

Intrinsic magnetic moments and spins of some elementary particles [13]

Particle Magnetic dipole moment in SI units (10 −27 J/T) Spin quantum number (dimensionless)
electron -9284.764 1/2
proton +14.106067 1/2
neutron -9.66236 1/2
muon -44.904478 1/2
deuteron +4.3307346 1
triton +15.046094 1/2

For relation between the notions of magnetic moment and magnetization see magnetization.

Magnetic field produced by a magnetic moment

Any system possessing a net magnetic dipole moment will produce a dipolar magnetic field (described below) in the space surrounding the system. While the net magnetic field produced by the system can also have
higher-order multipole components, those will drop off with distance more rapidly, so that only the dipolar component will dominate the magnetic field of the system at distances far away from it.

Choosing a frame of reference in which the system center is at the origin, and the z axis is pointing in the direction of the system's magnetic moment simplifies the description of the magnetic field. In such frame of
reference, the components of the dipolar magnetic field produced by the system, at any point (x,y,z) in space, are (in teslas):

, as well as the 'transverse' component:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_moment Page 3 of 5
Magnetic moment - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 1/2/10 7:22 PM

where μ 0 is the magnetic constant, π is the number Pi, μ is the magnitude of , and x, y, and z are coordinates measured in metres.

A more general notation without assuming the magnetic moment being restricted to the z direction is:

where mnp are the components in xyz direction of the magnetic moment .

The field described above can be written in vector notation as follows:

Both the curl and the divergence of this field vanish. When more than one magnetic moment is present, the total magnetic field is simply the sum of the fields of each magnetic moment.

Effects of an external magnetic field on a magnetic moment

The magnetic moment of an object can be defined as a vector relating the aligning torque on the object from an externally applied magnetic field to the field vector itself. The relationship is given by

where

is the torque, measured in newton-meters,

is the magnetic moment, measured in ampere meters-squared, and
is the magnetic field, measured in teslas or, equivalently in newtons per (ampere-meter).

A magnetic moment in an externally-produced magnetic field has a potential energy U:

In a case when the external magnetic field is non-uniform, there will be a force, proportional to the magnetic field gradient, acting on the magnetic moment itself. There has been some discussion on how to calculate the
force acting on a magnetic dipole. There are two expressions for the force acting on a magnetic dipole. Each expression varies depending on the model used for the dipole [14] , i.e. a current loop or two monopoles
(analogous to the electric dipole). The force obtained in the case of a current loop model is

In the case of a pair of monopoles are used (i.e. electric dipole model)

and one can be put in terms of the other via the relation

In all these expressions is the dipole and is the magnetic field at its position. Note that if there are no currents or time-varying electrical fields and the two expressions agree.

An electron, nucleus, or atom placed in a uniform magnetic field will precess with a frequency known as the Larmor frequency. See Resonance.

Forces between two magnetic dipoles

See also: Magnetic dipole-dipole interaction

If in the previous equations is replaced with the expression of the field of a magnetic dipole under the approximation for distances bigger than the
characteristic length of the dipole [15] . Namely,

where the variables r and θ are measured in a frame of reference with origin in and oriented in such a way that lies in the x-axis. This frame is
Frames of reference for calculating the forces between two dipoles
called Local coordinates and is shown in the Figure on the right.

The final formulas are shown next. They are expressed in the global coordinate system,

In the Cartesian coordinate system, using vector notation, the above equations can be written as,

where is the distance-vector from dipole moment to dipole moment , with , and where is the force acting on . The force acting on is in opposite direction.

The torque is straightforward to obtain from the formula

which gives

Magnetic poles, analogy with the electric dipole moment

Magnetic moment can be visualized as a bar magnet which has magnetic poles of equal magnitude but opposite polarity. Each pole is the source of magnetic force which weakens with distance. Since magnetic poles always
come in pairs, their forces partially cancel each other because while one pole pulls, the other repels. This cancellation is greatest when the poles are close to each other i.e. when the bar magnet is short. The magnetic force
produced by a bar magnet, at a given point in space, therefore depends on two factors: on both the strength p of its poles, and on the distance d separating them. The force is proportional to the product , where
describes the "magnetic moment" or "dipole moment" of the magnet along a distance R and its direction as the angle between R and the axis of the bar magnet.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_moment Page 4 of 5
Magnetic moment - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 1/2/10 7:22 PM

Although these equations are completely analogous to the case of electric dipole moment, it should be noted that magnetic dipoles are associated with angular momentum, as demonstrated by the Einstein-de Haas effect and
the Barnett effect, for example. Therefore, they do not behave like ideal magnetic dipoles. In particular, although a magnetic dipole is subject to a torque in a magnetic field that tends to align its magnetic moment with the
applied magnetic field, as a consequence of the associated angular momentum, the magnetic dipole precesses, that is, its direction rotates about the the axis of the applied field.

See also
Magnetism
Magnetic dipole models
Dipole
Electric dipole moment
Magnetization
Magnetic field
Magnetic susceptibility
Magnetic dipole-dipole interaction
Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation

References and notes

1. ^ NIST μe (http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?muem)
2. ^ a b B. D. Cullity, C. D. Graham (2008). Introduction to Magnetic Materials (http://books.google.com/books?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC&pg=PA103) (2 ed.). Wiley-IEEE. p. 103. ISBN 0471477419. http://books.google.com/books?
id=ixAe4qIGEmwC&pg=PA103.
3. ^ Uwe Krey, Anthony Owen (2007). Basic Theoretical Physics (http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ_QelBmkxYC&pg=PA151) . Springer. p. 151. ISBN 3540368043. http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ_QelBmkxYC&pg=PA151. and H.
Haken, Hans Christoph Wolf, William D Brewer (2000). The physics of atoms and quanta (http://books.google.com/books?id=SPrAMy8glocC&pg=PA187) (6 ed.). Springer. ISBN 3540672745. http://books.google.com/books?
id=SPrAMy8glocC&pg=PA187.
4. ^ A. E. Siegman (1986). Lasers (http://books.google.com/books?id=1BZVwUZLTkAC&pg=PA1234#PPA1215,M1) . University Science Books. pp. 1215–1216. ISBN 0935702113. http://books.google.com/books?
id=1BZVwUZLTkAC&pg=PA1234#PPA1215,M1.
5. ^ a b Uwe Krey & Anthony Owen (2007). Basic Theoretical Physics (http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ_QelBmkxYC&pg=PA151) . Springer. pp. 151–152. ISBN 3540368043. http://books.google.com/books?
id=xZ_QelBmkxYC&pg=PA151.
6. ^ Ferromagnetic materials contain many atoms with unpaired electron spins. When these tiny atomic magnetic dipoles are aligned in the same direction, they create a measurable macroscopic field.
7. ^ Richard B. Buxton (2002). Introduction to functional magnetic resonance imaging (http://books.google.com/books?id=6XVu0NKzgekC&pg=PA136) . Cambridge University Press. p. 136. ISBN 0521581133. http://books.google.com/books?
id=6XVu0NKzgekC&pg=PA136.
8. ^ RJD Tilley (2004). Understanding Solids (http://books.google.com/books?id=ZVgOLCXNoMoC&pg=PA368) . John Wiley and Sons. p. 368. ISBN 0470852755. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZVgOLCXNoMoC&pg=PA368.
9. ^ Paul Allen Tipler, Ralph A. Llewellyn (2002). Modern Physics (http://books.google.com/books?id=tpU18JqcSNkC&pg=PA310) (4 ed.). Macmillan. p. 310. ISBN 0716743450. http://books.google.com/books?id=tpU18JqcSNkC&pg=PA310.
10. ^ JA Crowther (2007). Ions, Electrons and Ionizing Radiations (http://books.google.com/books?id=H_sft9-zm5AC&pg=PA277) (reprinted Cambridge (1934) 6 ed.). Rene Press. p. 277. ISBN 1406720399. http://books.google.com/books?
id=H_sft9-zm5AC&pg=PA277.
11. ^ Stuart Alan Rice (2004). Advances in chemical physics (http://books.google.com/books?id=wK3Vhq-VnBQC&pg=PA208) . Wiley. pp. 208 ff. ISBN 0471445282. http://books.google.com/books?id=wK3Vhq-VnBQC&pg=PA208.
12. ^ Marcus Steiner (2004). Micromagnetism and Electrical Resistance of Ferromagnetic Electrodes for Spin Injection Devices (http://books.google.com/books?id=tnX1edkCB-wC&pg=PA6) . Cuvillier Verlag. p. 6. ISBN 3865371760.
http://books.google.com/books?id=tnX1edkCB-wC&pg=PA6.
13. ^ See NIST's Fundamental Physical Constants website http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Results?search_for=+magnetic+moment
14. ^ Boyer, Timothy H. (1988). "The Force on a Magnetic Dipole". American Journal of Physics 56 (8): 688–692. doi:10.1119/1.15501 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1119%2F1.15501) .
15. ^ Schill, R. A. (2003). "General relation for the vector magnetic field of a circular current loop: A closer look". IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 39 (2): 961–967. doi:10.1109/TMAG.2003.808597
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1109%2FTMAG.2003.808597) .
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_moment"
Categories: Magnetostatics | Magnetism | Electric and magnetic fields in matter | Physical quantities

This page was last modified on 2 January 2010 at 07:14.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Contact us

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_moment Page 5 of 5