Journal of Electronic Materials (2024) 53:571–595

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11664-023-10809-9

REVIEW ARTICLE

A Review of Metamaterial‑Based Microwave Absorbers and Sensors

Shashi Kumar Ranjan1 · Swagatadeb Sahoo1

Received: 3 June 2023 / Accepted: 31 October 2023 / Published online: 19 December 2023
© The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 2023

Abstract
Metamaterial-based microwave absorbers and sensors are challenging and promising topics for scientists and engineers.
In this work, we categorically review microwave absorption mechanisms, different simulation techniques, various types of
metamaterial-based microwave absorber and sensor structures, and factors affecting the microwave absorption. This review
provides an overall summary of the state-of-the-art progress on various promising and interesting metamaterial absorbers
(MTMA) and sensors. Finally, some new prospects are highlighted on advanced MTMA and sensors from theoretical and
experimental results.

Keywords Metamaterial · wideband absorber · bandwidth · electromagnetic wave · simulation · sensor

Introduction Metamaterials (MTMs) have been specifically devel-

In order to limit the transmission and electromagnetic
wave reflection for a specific range of frequencies, absorb-
ers are widely utilized in wireless technology for numer-
ous applications, including antenna reduction for radar
cross sections,1,2,3,4,5,6 electromagnetic interference(EMI)/
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) applications,7,8,9,10
antenna side lobe reduction,11 and sensing.12,13,14,15,16 Elec-
tromagnetic radiation-absorbing materials, and in particular
microwave-absorbing materials, have been of great research
interest because of the increasingly stringent government
standards during the 1990s to monitor and control electro-
magnetic radiation. For a material to act as an absorber, it
must meet two basic requirements.17
• Relies on the electrical conductivity, as well as the per-
mittivity and permeability, of the material utilized
• Low reflection from the air-absorber contact
* Swagatadeb Sahoo
swagatadebsahoo@gmail.com
Shashi Kumar Ranjan
2021rsec013@nitjsr.ac.in
1
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
National institute of Technology Jamshedpur, Jamshedpur,
Jharkhand 831014, India
oped to display characteristics that are not seen in natural
materials, including reverse clocking, backward propa-
gation, negative refraction index, and Doppler effect.18
The composite materials with distinctive properties have
been described by the Greek word "meta" which signi-
fies qualities beyond those that are found in nature.19 In
recent years, metamaterial-based applications have grown
exponentially. Antennas and other communication-related
electrical technologies have benefited greatly from the
metamaterial design, including artificial magnetic con-
ductor (AMC), 20,21,22,23,24 frequency-selective surface
(FSS), electromagnetic band gap (EBG),25,26,27,28 radio fre-
quency identification (RFID),29,30,31,32,33,34,35 and absorber
applications.35,36,37,38,39,40
A metamaterial absorber is an artificially built surface
composed of several periodic unit cells with a low profile,
light weight, and a range of absorption capabilities. Con-
sequently, metamaterial absorbers have been the subject
of in-depth research in the last few decades. The operating
guidelines are primarily determined by the impedance match
between metamaterial absorber and free space. We can
characterize the electromagnetic properties of metamaterial
absorbers based on effective permittivity (𝜖eff ) and perme-
ability (𝜇eff ). For effective impedance matching,
√ the imped-
ance value of a metamaterial must be Z = 𝜇0 𝜇eff ∕𝜀0 𝜀eff
which is equal√to the free-space impedance derived by the
formula Z0 = 𝜇0 ∕𝜀0 . Calculations are typically done on
the S-parameters of metamaterial absorbers to determine

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572 S. K. Ranjan, S. Sahoo

their effective permittivity and permeability.41 A significant absorber (MTMA), the effective permittivity and permeabil-
development is observed in MTM structures which allow for ity of a metamaterial can be adjusted to achieve the imped-
the utilization of ultrathin structures consisting of periodic ance matching with free space.65 In this case, the interface
unit cells in the subwavelength regime to achieve almost does not allow reflection by giving the full incoming wave
unity absorption through ohmic and dielectric loss.42 MTM an opportunity to be absorbed by MTMA. Interference the-
absorbers of various designs have been developed, includ- ory assumes that many inner reflections with the dielectric
ing single-band,43,44 dual-band,45,46,47 triple-band48,49,50 substrate cause destructive interference of multiple-order
bandwidth-enhanced,51,52 and even broadband.53,54,55 Each reflection.
design contributes different characteristics.
Sensor research is one of the most captivating areas
of metamaterial development. Metamaterial sensors, as a Impedance Matching Theory
potential form of sensing mechanism, may break the resolu-
tion limit of conventional sensors and provide the advantage An MTMA is generally a sandwiched structure consisting
of quick response, high sensitivity and simple measurement. of an array of certain metallic patterns on one side while
By optimizing the microstructure (single split-ring, double the other side is backed with a highly conductive metallic
split-ring, nested split-ring, asymmetric split-ring, three- ground plane of substrate as illustrated in Fig. 1. The elec-
dimensional split-ring, etc.), remarkable advancements in tric permittivity and magnetic permeability of the material
the sensing properties of metamaterial sensors have been is given by
realized. Metamaterial sensors are further validated by 𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀r (𝜔) and 𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇r (𝜔)
the utilization of ultrathin substrate or low-index substrate where 𝜀0 and 𝜇0 are the free-space permittivity and perme-
material and integrating microfluidics to predict material ability, and 𝜀r (𝜔) and 𝜇r (𝜔) are the frequency-dependent
characteristics across a wide range of frequencies. The meta- permittivity and permeability of the medium.
material is suitable for understanding and predicting mate- Due to the existence of a ground plane, there can be no
rial properties under various frequency regions.56,57 Also, transmission on the other side of the metamaterial. As a
sensing metamaterials can be utilized in various types of result, we turn our attention to the reflection. According
substances, both s­ olids58,59 and liquids.60,61 A chiral meta- to the Fresnel formula of reflection, the reflectivity R of
material sensor is used to determine humidity, thickness, MTMA ­is66
and permittivity values.62 Microfluid-sensing applications √
are developed for adulteration detection of fuels and oils.63 � �2
� 𝜇r cos 𝜃 − n2 − sin 𝜃 �
There are still many problems related to microwave sensors RTE = ��rTE �� = �� √ �
� (1)
� 𝜇 cos 𝜃 + n2 − sin 𝜃 �
that need to be addressed, such as accuracy, cost, size, and � r �
real-time measurements.
� √ �2
� 𝜀r cos𝜃 − n2 − sin 𝜃 �
RTM � � �
= �rTM � = � √ �
� (2)
Physics Mechanism for Microwave � 𝜀 cos𝜃 + n2 − sin 𝜃 �
� r �
Absorption
TE: transverse electric polarized wave
The mechanism of absorption in a metamaterial can be eas- TM: transverse magnetic polarized wave
√
ily understood by impedance matching and interference n = 𝜀r 𝜇 r → effective refractive index
theory.64 In impedance matching theory, due to the develop-
ment of electric and magnetic resonance in the metamaterial

Fig. 1  Layout of a metamaterial absorber.53

13
A Review of Metamaterial‑Based Microwave Absorbers and Sensors 573

�√ √ �2 2jk d
− cos2𝛼
� Z − Z0 �2 � 𝜇r − 𝜀r � t12 t21 e t
R = �� � =�√
� � √ �� (3) = r12 − 2jk d (6)
� Z + Z0 � � 𝜇 + 𝜀r � 1 + r21 e
− cos2𝛼
� r � t

√
Z = 𝜇𝜀 ∶ impedance of the metamaterial where r = |r|ej𝜙 , t = |t|ej𝜃
√𝜇 𝛼 ∶ incident angle
Z0 = 𝜀 0 : impedance of free space 𝛼t ∶ refraction angle
0 √
Because no transmission occurs, the absorption profile k2 =
2𝜋 𝜀2
𝜆0
becomes
The highly conductive lower surface region provides a
� √𝜇 − √𝜀 � 2 phase shift of 180◦ to the EM wave reflecting on it, so that
� Z − Z0 � 2 � r � r23 = −1
A = 1 − R = 1 − �� � =1−�√ r
� � √ �� (4)
� Z + Z0 � � 𝜇 + 𝜀r �
� r � Φ21 + 2𝛽 → 𝜋 + 2n𝜋, N = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … which can be
explained by the theory of electromagnetic wave tunneling
Equation 4 suggests that impedance matching Z = Z0 or 𝜇r = effect.
𝜀r is the condition for obtaining perfect absorption. It should
be noted that simultaneous electric and magnetic resonance Absorption Phenomenon
is necessary for impedance matching in MTMA.
The mathematical expression for the absorption phenomena
of a metamaterial is denoted by the equation given below:
Interference Theory
2 2
A(𝜔) = 1 − ||S11 (𝜔)|| − ||S21 (𝜔)|| (7)
Magnetic resonance induced due to antiparallel current
exists between the front and back metallic layers. This In Eq. 7, S11 represents reflected power while S21 is transmit-
magnetic response is insufficient for providing imped- ted power
ance matching or absorption, 67 and hence to explain the The bottom layer of a metamaterial absorber (MMA) con-
absorption mechanism, interference theory is used.68 A sists of copper material, which prevents the transmission of
certain metallic pattern on the front layer is considered as EM waves through this layer. Hence, S21 becomes zero and
a partial reflection surface that may be used to alter the absorption depends upon theS11 parameter. Now the absorp-
complex reflection and transmission coefficient. Figure 2 tivity can be defined as:
shows that the multilayer reflection occurs from the dif- 2
A(𝜔) = 1 − ||S11 (𝜔)|| (8)
ferent layers, so that overall reflection can be calculated
by the superposition principle from classical electromag- A lower value for S11 indicates that the absorption value
netic (EM) theory.69 of the metamaterial absorber is close to unity, which sug-
RTotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + … gests that an increasing number of waves are being absorbed.
2jK d 4jk d (5) It is possible to provide an explanation for the absorption
− cos 2𝛼 − cos2𝛼
= r12 + t12 r23 t21 e t + t12 r223 r21 t21 e t +…

Fig. 2  A classical model for interference theory.67

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574 S. K. Ranjan, S. Sahoo

mechanism by carrying out an evaluation of the effective the unit cell are crucial for the performance of the
electromagnetic parameters (𝜖eff and 𝜇eff ) using the equa- absorber. Split rings (MHz to GHZ), patches (THz),
tions as follows: fishnets (optical range), and Jerusalem crosses are
√ examples of common unit cell forms. The dimensions
√( )
√ 1 + S 2 − S2
√ will be determined by the selection of the frequency
Z=
11 21
(9) range of interest and the material employed.
2 2
( 1 − S11 ) − S21
4. Simulation and optimization: Utilize electromagnetic
⌈ ⌉ simulation software to simulate and examine the meta-
1 1 ( ) material absorber’s behavior. This process aids in unit
cos−1 (10)
2 2
𝜂= 1 − S21 − S11
kd 2S21 cell parameter optimization to provide the appropriate
absorption properties.
where 𝜂 = refractive index, Z = impedance, d = thickness of 5. Tunning and adjustment: In order to obtain maximal
the MMA, k = wave number. absorption at the specified frequency, fine-tuning of the
It is possible to determine the effective electromagnetic metamaterial structure is required. This could involve
parameters by using the relation described in Eqs. 11 and adjusting the unit cell sizes, spacing, and orientation.
12, and the normalized impedance can be determined by 6. Broadband versus narrowband absorption: A nar-
Eq. 13. rowband MTMA provides very sharp resonance and
𝜂 acquires limited bandwidth, whereas a broadband
𝜀eff =
z
and 𝜇eff = 𝜂z (11) MTMA provides a wider frequency range. It is up to
the researcher to determine whether they need a nar-
√
𝜇0 𝜇eff
√
𝜇eff rowband or broadband absorber.
Z(𝜔) = = 𝜂0 (12) 7. Polarization and incident angle sensitivity: Practical
𝜀0 𝜀eff 𝜀eff
applications require an absorber whose performance
√ remains constant regardless of incidence or polari-
𝜂 Re(𝜇eff ) − jIm(𝜇eff ) zation angle. As a result, microwave absorbers with
Normalized Impedance = 0 = incidence and polarization angle stability are a key
z Re(𝜀eff ) − jIm(𝜀eff )
development objective within the research community.
(13)
The physics behind polarization- and incident-angle-
insensitive MTMA includes special design strategies
and principles such as symmetry in unit cell design,
phase matching, bi-anisotropic or chiral metamaterial,
Design and Simulation of MTMA Structure engaging multiple resonance, magnetic and electric
coupling, and multilayer or graded structures.
Design 8. Thickness and compactness: Determine the absorber’s
thickness and total size, as they are essential for practi-
Designing a metamaterial absorber requires careful con- cal applications where space is restricted.
sideration of several aspects in order to obtain the desired 9. Fabrication consideration: Feasibility and practicality
absorption qualities for specified wavelengths or frequency should be considered for MTMA fabrication. Details
ranges. Some crucial factors and considerations for devel- of the fabrication process are described in section (7).
oping a metamaterial structure are as follows: 10. Material losses: The overall absorption of the MTMA
can be affected by inherent absorption loss of some
1. Selection of frequency/wavelength range: Determine material, which should be taken into account regarding
the frequency or wavelength range of interest for which the selection of material for MTMA.
the absorber can perform. The complete design process 11. Environmental factor: The chosen material should
will be guided by this selection. resist the environmental variation if the absorber will
2. Material selection: Select the best material for the be used in different climate scenarios (such as high
metamaterial construction. Metamaterials are man- humidity or high temperatures).
made composites with non-natural qualities and are 12. Validation and testing: Validate the metamaterial
often composed of periodic subwavelength unit cells absorber performance with the use of a testing mecha-
that interact with electromagnetic radiation in certain nism when the fabrication is complete. The setup for
ways. the testing or measurement is shown in Fig. 3.
3. Unit cell design: The unit cell is the metamaterial’s
primary repeating structure. The shape and size of

13
A Review of Metamaterial‑Based Microwave Absorbers and Sensors 575
Fig. 3  Free-space measurement setup for (a) normal incidence,54 (b) oblique incidence.54
Simulation
Because of the fast growth of the contemporary antenna sec-
tor, computational technologies for modeling the interaction
between electromagnetic waves and materials with complex
structures are quite advanced and may thus enable accurate
prediction of the MTMA performance. Many metamate-
rial experts are using commercial software to predict the
behavior of their devices before the start of manufacturing.
One advantage of MTMA simulation is that it allows for
the design of an optimized structure and the prediction of
behavior without the need for extra fabrication iterations.
Furthermore, if the material characteristics are well estab-
lished, there is often a good match between simulated and
experimental results due to the precision of the simula-
tion approaches. CST Microwave Studio,70 Ansys HFSS,71
and ­COMSOL72 are a few of the most popular simulation
programs. The most essential measurement for MTMAs
is undoubtedly absorptivity, and as discussed earlier, the
absorption is calculated using Eq. 7. Reflectivity and trans-
missivity are obtained by setting proper boundary condi-
tions and excitation in the simulation. Here, a plane wave
either with periodic boundary conditions or with the pres-
ence of waveguide port perfect electric (PE) or perfect mag-
netic (PM) boundary conditions can be applied. Using the
finite difference time domain (FDTD) mathematical tool,
one can simulate the interaction between the periodic struc-
ture and EM waves. A transverse electromagnetic (TEM)
wave is excited on the designed structure in the presence
of waveguide ports on either side of the structure, while for
the periodic boundaries, a certain polarized plane wave is
incident on the structure. The complex scattering param-
eters are the output of all simulation setting listed above.
This parameters include the transmission coefficient ( S21)
and reflection coefficient (S11). Simulation also characterizes
the phase of S11 and S21 at different angles of incidence for
different types of polarization. Figure 4a shows the values
of R(𝜔), T(𝜔) and A(𝜔) obtained from the MTMA.73 The
MTMA is also characterized by the extracted permittivity,
permeability, and refractive index as an efficient homogene-
ous material as illustrated in Fig. 4b.74 Simulation can be
used to investigate specific properties of MTMA which can-
not be determined experimentally, such as electric (E) and
magnetic (H) field distribution and surface current distribu-
tion inside and outside the MTMA. This distribution may
also reveal the main absorption mechanisms in the MTMA.
Most simulation programs can retrieve these parameters
by inserting corresponding field monitors at the frequency
of interest. Figure 4c, d e and f depict several examples of
monitoring the electric field, magnetic field, surface current
distribution,75 and power loss density.76
Classification of MTMA
Initially, it was expected that metamaterial absorbers
would have a restricted bandwidth and function at certain
frequencies. Depending on absorptivity, various MMA have
been designed and formulated including single-, double-,
triple-, quad-, penta- and multi-band absorbers.
13
576
Fig. 4  (a) Absorption (green), reflection (blue), and transmission
(red) for MTMA backed by a metallic plane.73 (b) Real and imaginary
value of 𝜖 , 𝜇, and n.74 (c) E-field distribution. Figure reprinted with
permission from Ref. 75. (d) H-field distribution. Figure reprinted
Single‑Band Metamaterial Absorber
Soheilifar et al.77 presented a single-band MTMA which
belongs to the class of electric field-driven LC (ELC) reso-
nators. Its first resonance is excited by an electric field com-
ponent parallel to one of its crossed wires. Unit cell dimen-
sions are 10 mm × 10 mm × 1 mm using the conventional
13
S. K. Ranjan, S. Sahoo
with permission from Ref. 75. (e) Surface current distribution on the
front side. Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 75. (f) Power
loss density of MTMA (Color figure online).76
procedure on an FR-4 dielectric substrate. The proposed
configuration and the absorptivity curve are shown in Fig. 5.
Singh et al.78 proposed a single absorber band MMA
operating at a frequency of 77 GHz. The structure consists of
a C-shaped split-ring resonator. They demonstrated a meta-
material absorber capable of working at millimetre wave
frequency of 77 GHz on the polyimide substrate of thickness
A Review of Metamaterial‑Based Microwave Absorbers and Sensors 577
Fig. 5  Proposed absorber design and absorptivity curve. Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 77.
Fig. 6  Proposed absorber design and absorptivity curve. Figure
reprinted with permission from Ref. 78.
125 𝜇m which was introduced for the first time as flexible
substrate. The proposed configuration and the absorptivity
curve are shown in Fig. 6.
Landy et al. 79 proposed an MTM absorber for high
absorbance at 11.5 GHz. This narrowband absorber was
designed with two common split-ring resonators which are
connected by an inductive ring parallel to the split-wire
dimensions of G = 0.6, t = 0.6, H = 11.8,a1 =4.2, a2 = 12,
W = 4, L = 1.7 (in mm). Each component of the absorber
was built on an FR-4 substrate of 0.2 mm thickness. They
validated the proposed structure by conducting a study on
complex S-parameters of a broad planar array of pixel loca-
tions (outer dimensions of 15 ×15 cm). The MMA structure
and absorptivity curve are shown in Fig. 7.
Cheng et al.80 designed and simulated a metamaterial
absorber with dimensions (in mm) of d = 0.2, g = 0.6,
t = 0.6, w = 0.3, a = 12, b = 4.2, along with single copper
wire of dimensions h = 11.8 mm and l = 1.6 mm. An FR-4
lossy substrate of 0.3 mm thickness was used to manufacture
each metallization. Measurement of the fabricated structure
provides an absorptivity of around 98% at 10.4 GHz. The
final configuration and the absorptivity curve are illustrated
in Fig. 8.
Dual‑Band Metamaterial Absorber
Wen et al.81 developed a dual-band metamaterial absorber
and studied the characteristics at two different absorptions
of 80.8% and 63.4% near the frequencies of 0.45 THz and
0.9 THz. The whole structure is built on a 500 𝜇m SI-GaAs
substrate, as illustrated in Fig. 9. The proposed resonator
dimensions (in mm) are as follows:
t4 = 13, t3 = 14, t2 = 4, t1 = 6, l = 28.6, h = 55, b = 120,
a = 60 . Sputtering and spin coating with 10 mm polyim-
ide was used to create the device. Reactive ion etching was
used to form it into the desired electric split-ring resona-
tor (ESRR) shape. Au film of 200 nm is deposited on the
top of the polyimide film. The overall dimensions of the
13
578 S. K. Ranjan, S. Sahoo

Fig. 7  Proposed absorber design and absorptivity curve. Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 79.

Fig. 8  Proposed absorber design and absorptivity curve. Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 80.

absorber are 140 × 124 𝜇m2 . Both the design configuration
and absorptivity curve are shown in Fig. 9.
Liu et al.82 employed a straightforward MTMA configura-
tion which consists of a periodic arrangement of graphene
patches placed on top of a dielectric spacer, and this setup is
capped with a metallic back reflector to create a dual-band
terahertz absorber. Based on the outcomes of both simula-
tion and an analytical circuit model, the proposed absorber
is able to achieve complete absorption at frequencies of 0.5
THz and 0.15 THz. The absorption spectra of the structure
are presented in Fig. 10. These spectra are determined using
an equivalent circuit model and are compared with those
obtained through FDTD simulation. The comparison reveals
a high level of agreement between the two sets of results,
confirming the accuracy and effectiveness of the equivalent
circuit model.
Li et al.83 proposed a microwave-based dual-band meta-
material absorber. They performed both experimental and
simulation analysis and confirmed that almost complete
absorption is attained at near 11.15 GHz and 16.01 GHz.
The structure contains a single split-ring resonator whose

13
A Review of Metamaterial‑Based Microwave Absorbers and Sensors 579

Fig. 9  Proposed absorber design and absorptivity curve. Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 81.

Fig. 10  Proposed absorber design and absorptivity curve.82

inner (r2 ) and outer radius (r1 ) are 2.3 mm and 2.7 mm,
respectively. The same width of 0.2 mm is maintained for
both wire thickness and the capacitor gap. The length of
a capacitor positioned at the center of a unit cell (dimen-
sions 25 × 25 mm) is 1.6 mm. The proposed configuration
and absorptivity curve are displayed in Fig. 11.
Multiple‑Band Metamaterial Absorber
Li et al.84 proposed a multiple-band metamaterial absorber
based on an ELC resonator fabricated on two 240 × 240 mm2
planar sheets for dual- and triple-band absorbers by adjust-
ing the scale factor of the ELC unit cell. The ultimate opti-
mized geometry of a single ELC is a = 5 mm, d = 3.6 mm, l
= 5.5 mm, w =0.4 mm, g = 0.2 mm, and the thickness of the
copper film is 0. 035 mm. The fabricated structure acquires
three absorption peaks at 7.44 GHz with 97.8% absorption,
10.37 GHz with 95.9% absorption, and 12.27 GHz with
98.6% absorption, respectively. The proposed configuration
and absorptivity curve are shown in Fig. 12.
Shen et al. 85 proposed a triple-band metamaterial
absorber consisting of three concentric square rings of

13
580 S. K. Ranjan, S. Sahoo

Fig. 11  Proposed absorber design and absorptivity curve. From Ref. 83, reproduced courtesy of the Electromagnetics Academy.

Fig. 12  Proposed absorber design and absorptivity curve. Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 84.

different sized unit cells. The ring dimensions are optimized
at w1 = 84 𝜇m , w2 = 56 𝜇m and w3 = 36 𝜇m . The absorp-
tion spectrum of simulated and experimental response shows
absorption rates of 96.4%, 96.3%, and 96.7% at frequencies
f1 = 0.50 , f2 = 1.03 and f3=1.71 THz, respectively, with
nearly unity absorption peak. The performance of the pro-
posed absorber is quantitatively assessed using the multi-
ple reflections interference theory. The MMA structure and
absorptivity curve are illustrated in Fig. 13.
Bhattacharyya et al.86 proposed a square-shaped closed-
ring resonator-based triple-band polarization-independent
metamaterial absorber with a broad angle of incidence,
operated in airborne and surveillance radar applications,
particularly under C-band and X-band. The dimensions of
the unit cell are a = 18 mm, d1 = 8.37 mm , d2 = 6.4 mm ,
d3 = 4.7 mm , w = 0.25 mm, W1 = 0.35 mm , and
W2 = 0.42 mm , while the copper film is 0.035 mm thick. To
validate the simulation result, the structure was constructed,
and experimental studies were conducted. The experimental
measurement depicts absorptions peak values of 94.98 GHz
at 5.25 GHz, 87.1 GHz at 7.158 GHz, 94.06 GHz at 10.02
GHz, and 87.1 GHz at 10.5 GHz. The proposed configura-
tion and absorptivity curve are shown in Fig. 14.
In conclusion, all the abovementioned and some existing
multi-band metamaterial absorbers possess their own indi-
vidual set of characteristics, advantages and applications as
shown in Table I.

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A Review of Metamaterial‑Based Microwave Absorbers and Sensors 581

Fig. 13  Proposed absorber design and absorptivity curve. Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 85.

Fig. 14  Proposed absorber design and absorptivity curve. Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 86.

Wideband Metamaterial Absorber or broadband structures as a means of breaking the narrow-

The narrowband absorption of the MMA is a great disad-
vantage. To broaden the absorption bandwidth, researchers
have employed several methods including multilayer, multi-
resonant, and single-layer structures. Similar to Jaumann
absorbers, they utilize numerous dielectric layers with metal-
lic patterns and a continuous metallic ground in the multilayer
technique. The multiple dielectric layers create total destruc-
tive interference, and the metamaterial absorber completely
absorbs all incident waves. This technique allows for broad
absorption, but the primary issue is the dielectric thickness. A
large volume of research has been devoted to multi-resonance
band constraint. This has been accomplished in a variety of
ways, such as by developing multi-resonant structures or unit
cells with proper impedance matching at many frequencies.
Ultimately, the final absorption spectrum, which displays
several resonance peaks, may be roughly thought of as the
linear superposition of the various resonance peaks. Differ-
ent structures have been reported using this mechanism. Ding
et al.96 proposed an absorber composed of multilayer metal-
lic-dielectric quadrangular frustum pyramids. The absorber
illustrated in Fig. 15a has a unit cell consisting of 20 metal
patches, each with a width that tapers linearly from top to bot-
tom; between every pair of metal patches is a dielectric patch.

13
582 S. K. Ranjan, S. Sahoo

Table I  Comparison among existing multi-resonant MTMA structures

References Year Substrate Unit cell Resonant frequency (GHz) Absorption (%) Operating band/ Polarization
dimensions application sensitivity
(mm)

84 2011 FR-4 240 × 240 7.46,10.43, 12.23 99.1,94.8,92.5 RCS reduction Up to 60°
and in aircraft
and stealth
technology
86 2013 FR-4 252 × 252 5.258,7.518, 10.02,10.49 94.98,87.1, 94.06,87.1 Radar stealth/C- Up to 60°
and X-bands
87 2020 FR-4 5×5 17.32,21.87,29.43,35.3 99,97.11, 94.71,97.71 5 G application, Insensitive
MIMO antenna
isolation
enhancements
88 2020 FR-4 10 × 10 3.35,5.1,9.5,11.55,16.6 99.59,95.49, 97.5,99.25, 93.89 RCS reduction Up to 60°
and airborne
application
89 2020 FR-4 128 × 128 4.1,6.86,11.3,13.45 97.9,99.1, 99.5,99.95 C-, X-, Ku-bands Insensitive
90 2014 FR-4 252 × 252 4.828,5.556, 8.058 99.3,94.1, 99.5 Airborne and Up to 60°
surveillance
radar/C-band
91 2014 FR-4 230 × 230 3.91,5.16, 7.10,9.16 99.35,98.04, 99.85,99.78 Radar, IR Up to 45°
camouflage,
Imaging/S, C-
and X-bands
92 2015 FR-4 256 × 256 3.4,8.34,9.46,14.44,16.62 98.6,96.6,90.1,97.8,93.1 Airborne radar, Up to 45°
stealth tech-
nology, and
radome/S-, X-,
and Ku-bands
93 2013 FR-4 25 × 25 6.45,7.4,9.1,11.0 97,98,98,98 Not reported Up to 45°
94 2017 FR-4 10 × 10 5.28,7.36,9.52,12.64,16.32 92.03,90.46,95.10,91.65,91.10 Stealth technol- Insensitive
ogy, elec-
tromagnetic
interference
and airborne
radar systems
95 2019 FR-4 12 × 12 3.1,5.5,7.6,10.98 90 EM wave Insensitive
protection
and military
purpose/S-, C-
and X-bands

Figure 15b depicts the distributions of E-field and H-fields at
various frequencies to understand the physics behind the pro-
posed ultra-broadband MA system. It is clear that at a specific
frequency, a particular area of the pyramid experiences reso-
nant localization and electromagnetic field absorption. The
electromagnetic field is confined at the base of the pyramids
at lower frequencies, and due to the increase in frequency, it
progressively climbs to the top side. The absorptivity curves
clarify that the absorption occurs from 8 GHz to 14 GHz over
a wide band range, as depicted in Fig. 15c.
The single-layer structures are another technique for wide
bandwidth formation. Compared to the preceding construc-
tion types, these single-layer structures are thinner and
more compact. The structure is characterized by a dielectric
layer, a metallic ground, and metallic patterns. The metal-
lic designs were refined to achieve polarization-insensitive
wideband absorption. In this context, Barde et al.97 pro-
posed a wideband metamaterial absorber (WBMMA) for
Ku (12–18 GHz) and K (18–27 GHz) bands with average
absorptivity of 98% at frequencies of 16.54 GHz, 20.54
GHz, and 25.81 GHz. The observed and computed absorp-
tion measurements show almost identical results, with little
variation in manufacturing tolerance. Investigation of the
unit cell is performed for both different oblique (up to 45°)
and normal incidence, confirming absorption up to 80% as
depicted in Fig. 16.
To achieve wideband absorption, researchers have typ-
ically employed lumped components such as resistors,

13
A Review of Metamaterial‑Based Microwave Absorbers and Sensors 583

Fig. 15  (a) Proposed metamaterial absorber design.96 (b) Generated Absorption capacity of the proposed absorber. Figure reprinted with
electric and magnetic amplitude distributions at frequencies of 8.3 permission from Ref. 96.
GHz, 10 GHz, and 12 GHz on a unit cell’s center cross section.96 (c)

Fig. 16  Design of the proposed metamaterial absorber and absorptivity curve. Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 97.

capacitors, and diodes, and single resonant structures of
higher order. Ranjan et al.98 designed a unit cell compris-
ing four resistors in a square shape, and the whole struc-
ture is formed using copper as the conducting material
and FR-4 as the dielectric material. The dimensions of
the unit cell are 14 × 14 mm , with thickness of 3.5 mm,
as shown in Fig. 17a. Simulated and fabricated proto-
types are investigated and the results are almost iden-
tical, showing two absorption peaks of 91.56% at 5.25
GHz and 90.48% at 12.50 GHz, respectively, as illustrated
in Fig. 17b, which confirms the utility of the proposed
MMA as a wideband MMA.
In summary, all the abovementioned along with other
existing wideband absorbers, each having a unique set
of traits, benefits, and applications, are illustrated in
Table II.

13
584 S. K. Ranjan, S. Sahoo

Fig. 17  (a) Front view of the proposed MTMA.98 (b) Simulated absorptivity of the proposed structure.98

Table II  Detailed comparison of existing wideband metamaterial absorbers

References Size of unit cell FWHM Band- Frequency range Absorption (%) Use of lumped Application
(mm) bandwidth width (GHz) element
(GHz) (GHz)

96 11 × 11 NA 6 8–14 > 90 No Not reported

97 5 × 1.41 16.39 13.43 14.44–27.87 > 98 No K- and Ku-bands
98 14 × 14 9.44 8.32 4.68–13 90 Yes EMI, stealth technol-
ogy
99 300 × 300 10 11.1 3.1–14.2 > 90 Yes Not reported
100 9×9 7.55 5.98 5.94–11.92 > 98 No X-band
101 10 × 10 11.32 8.76 11.39–20.15 > 80 No Ku-band
102 9×9 NA 10.2 7.92–18.12 > 95 No X- and Ku-bands
103 20 × 20 NA 1.74 1–2.74 > 95 Yes UHF-RFID systems
and 4 G communi-
cations
104 190.4 × 190.4 8.25 5.9 5.3–11.2 > 70 Yes C- and X-bands
105 13 × 13 NA NA 4.96–18.22 > 96 Yes C- ,X- and Ku-bands
106 462 × 343 NA NA 9.05–11.4 > 80 No X-band
110 22 × 22 NA 4 8–12 90 No RADAR applications
111 15 × 15 NA 9.3 8–18 > 90 Conductive ink RCS reduction
112 0.085 × 0.085 NA NA 500–2500 > 80 No X-band
113 18 × 18 NA 6.4 5.6–11.29 > 80 No Radar application
114 9×9 NA 10.78 4.15–14.93 > 80 No Radar

Radar‑Absorbing Material bandwidth, the need to develop stealth technologies for

Since the advent of microwave radar during the Second
World War, these devices have posed the greatest threat
to aircraft due to their ability to identify distant airborne
objects regardless of the time of day or weather. Addition-
ally, since radar technology has advanced over time thanks
to the employment of powerful transmitters with a wide
dodging radar detection has increased. In the military sec-
tor, stealth technology plays a key role due to rapid advance-
ment of material science and electronics. Stealth technol-
ogy’s radio frequency (RF) and microwave components
in this respect are primarily concentrated on lowering the
radar cross section (RCS). Various mechanisms are applied
for RCS reduction (RCSR). Shaping is the main stealth

13
A Review of Metamaterial‑Based Microwave Absorbers and Sensors 585
technique used to lower RCS. Shaped aircraft are stealthier,
but they face many challenges. Even while stealth may be
produced by good aerodynamic design, it is frequency-
dependent, making it difficult to achieve broadband reduc-
tion.107 An interesting solution for RCSR at microwave fre-
quencies is radar absorbers. In the development of stealth
flying systems, research has been focused on wideband
lightweight radar absorbers. The stealth technique conceals
a vehicle or building from radar detection by using radar-
absorbing materials (RAMs). The absorbent material must
be thin and have great absorption properties across a broad
frequency range.108 The considerable trade-off between
thickness and bandwidth, however, poses a significant obsta-
cle to the creation of high-performance radar absorbers.109
Broadband radar absorbers are continuously required for
modern military applications. Therefore, Ali et al.110 pre-
sented a six-band and almost polarization-insensitive MMA
which is formed by a closed circular ring resonator (CCRR)
and metallic ground plane separated by FR-4 dielectric sub-
strate. The operation of the intended absorber, the surface
current, and the distribution of the electric field were exam-
ined and reported for analysis. The proposed metamaterial
absorber yields absorption of 98%, 98%, 91%, 98%, 100%
and 100% at 11.85 GHz, 11.16 GHz, 10.66 GHz, 9.88 GHz,
9.2 GHz and 8.3 GHz, respectively, and can be treated as
a strong option for military radar applications. Figure 18
displays the proposed layout and the curve related to MA
absorptivity.
Huang et al.111 presented a model and experimentally
evaluated a flexible, conformable wideband radar absorber
made out of a layer of nanoflakes constructed from graphene
with a printed patterned structure, a silicon substrate, and a
Fig. 18  Proposed metamaterial absorber design and absorptivity curve. Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 110.
metal backing for a wideband radar absorber which covers
both X- and Ku-band. According to the measured results, a
62% fraction bandwidth, or effective absorption bandwidth,
spanning from 10.4 GHz to 19.7 GHz may be achieved with
only 2 mm thickness. The graph shows the simulated reflec-
tion coefficient (S11 ) and absorption value of the absorber
for various silicone thicknesses, and h = 2 mm allows for
the widest bandwidth to be attained. In this instance, the
optimized absorber is operated under both X- and Ku-bands,
yielding significant absorption (> 90%). The sustained wide-
band absorption shows graphene nanoflake radar absorber’s
potential uses in delivering RCS reduction for objects of
diverse forms. Figure 19 displays the proposed layout as well
as the absorptivity curve.
Wang et al.112 proposed a model which has four rectan-
gular metallic rings, a metallic ground plane, and a polariza-
tion-insensitive terahertz metamaterial absorber, separated
by a dielectric layer. With an average absorption of almost
97%, four different absorption peaks are detected at 0.777
THz, 1.13 THz, 1.53 THz, and 2.06 THz frequencies. The
overlapping of four resonant frequencies is thought to be the
mechanism of the four-band absorber, and the distributions
of the E-field are used to examine the process of absorption.
By altering the size of the corresponding metallic ring, each
absorption peak’s frequency can be flexibly controlled. The
high degree of symmetry of the five-square-ring structure
ensures that the polarization-insensitive absorption feature
still holds true for the five-band case. Applications for the
suggested structure include stealth, imaging, and detection
technologies. Figure 20 shows the preferred layout as well
as the absorptivity curve.
13
586
Fig. 19  Proposed metamaterial absorber design and absorptivity curve.111
Fig. 20  Proposed metamaterial absorber design and absorptivity curve.112
In summary, all the abovementioned along with other
existing wideband and radar absorbers, each with unique set
of traits, benefits, and application, are illustrated in Table II.
Metamaterial as a Sensor
The science of metamaterials has advanced significantly in
recent years. Novel improved characteristics of metamateri-
als have been achieved in the submicron and nanoscale range
due to advancement of design and production of metamateri-
als. Therefore, the interdisciplinary border between sensing
technology and metamaterials research has developed into a
productive area for new scientific and technical advancement.
Due to the significant advancements achieved in research of
13
S. K. Ranjan, S. Sahoo
sensors based on metamaterials, a variety of metamaterial-
based components have been developed for collecting the
details of a substance as well as the circumstance. Metama-
terials can display high field localization and enhancement,
allowing them to be utilized to increase sensor selectivity for
detecting nonlinear chemicals and detect extremely tiny con-
centrations of analytes.115 Conventionally, sensing devices
are used to analyze minor changes based on four criteria.
First, the operating frequency of the sensors must be kept
low to restrict background absorption followed by substrate
absorption. Since typical sensing instruments possess a small
surface area and are therefore more likely to be operated fre-
quently, this presents a substantial difficulty. As a result, it is
essential that the layout of the sensor is kept compact while
also minimizing its working frequency. Second, the sensors
A Review of Metamaterial‑Based Microwave Absorbers and Sensors 587
need to generate a potent, detectable readout signal with a
sharp enough resonance characteristic to precisely follow
the shift in transmission spectra. The third criterion focuses
on the linearity of sensing, which has been shown to cor-
relate with the quality factor of sensors. Fourth on the list
of requirements is the sensitivity of the sensor.116 Micro-
wave sensors are widely used in industrial, biological, and
electrical applications because of their advantages such as
high sensitivity, versatility, affordable production costs, and
straightforward measurement techniques. Based on the operat-
ing frequency of the detecting biomolecule and component,
metamaterial-based sensors are classified into three types:
microwave biosensors, terahertz biosensors, and plasmonic
biosensors. Another classification of metamaterial sensor has
been reported by Ref. 117 which is based on the physical
structure. Lee et al.118 proposed a metamaterial-based micro-
wave sensor based on a split-ring resonator as illustrated in
Fig. 21a and experimentally demonstrated for a biosensing
device at microwave frequency. Streptavidin and biotin were
utilized in this investigation to show the split-ring resona-
tor capacity for biosensing. It is widely known that a very
high affinity coupling system is developed by noncovalent
attachment of these biomaterials. They have been frequently
employed for finding selectivity and sensitivity properties of
biosensors due to their unique and strong chemical attrac-
tion. Because ss-DNA and Au have a strong chemical affinity,
single-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (ss-DNA)-linked biotin
was used to immobilize on the Au surface. The sample surface
was covered with an Au layer. Following immobilization, a
Fig. 21  (a) Surface current directions and capacitances generated
in the SRR: mutual and gap capacitances are denoted by Cmut and
Cs, respectively. Ii and Io stand for the inner and outer rings’ respec-
tive surface currents. The average separation between the inner and
bioprocess was used to bind biotin and streptavidin, as shown
in Fig. 21b. The split-ring resonator (SRR)-based biosensor
operates on variation of resonant frequency which is a useful
microwave characteristic. This is due to the SRR’s basic √ LC
circuit nature, which has a resonant frequency of f0=1∕ LC .
As stated in the formula, the inductance and/or capacitance
variations affect the resonant frequency. Lee et al.119 presented
DNA sensing using a split-ring resonator alone in the micro-
wave regime, demonstrating the viability of employing a sin-
gle element double split-ring resonator as a biosensing device
in Fig. 22a. Figure 22b displays the distributions of induced
surface currents at the resonant frequency as well as the reso-
nance of S21, which has a value of 10.2 dB at 12.35 GHz.
The outer and inner ring boundaries are where the surface
current is concentrated because of the proximity effect and
well-known Maxwellian distribution, as seen in the image.
Terahertz waves, which are located between the micro-
wave and infrared (IR) regions, have assumed a significant
role over the past few decades in the detection of chemical
and biological substances.120 Sensing a sample’s complex
dielectric properties in the terahertz region can directly
reveal the chemical or biological molecular composition by
detecting resonant absorption of molecules or phonon reso-
nance for small-molecule compounds.121,122 As no conspicu-
ous absorption patterns are seen for large biomolecules, the
unmistakable detection and identification of macromolecules
is accomplished by the dielectric changes brought about by
the interaction of biomolecules. However, a considerable
outer rings is denoted as ro. Figure reprinted with permission from
Ref. 118. (b) Resonant frequency for the detection of biotin and
streptavidin binding. Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 118.
13
588 S. K. Ranjan, S. Sahoo

number of the applications that are being considered for tera-
hertz sensing systems require the detection of small amounts
of chemical and biomolecular components involved in secu-
rity application to fundamental instrumentation research. It
is difficult to accomplish this task with traditional terahertz
spectroscopy instruments because of the large gap that exists
between the sensing wavelength and the minute nanometric
scale of the analyte quantity with most applications. In order
to probe the dielectric characteristics of minuscule amounts
of chemical or biological molecules, flexible and sensi-
tive solutions are urgently needed. Recently, Wang et al.123
proposed a model for protein concentration measurement
using a biosensor operated at terahertz frequency. The bio-
sensor was constructed from stainless steel using laser drill-
ing. Maximum refractive index sensitivity of 294.95 GHz/
RIU and a figure of merit of 4.03 are observed from the
simulation results (Fig. 23). A continuous-wave terahertz
spectrometer is used to characterize the sample. According

Fig. 22  (a) Design of a double-sided split-ring resonator (DSRR) g = 0.2 mm between resonator and microstrip line. Figure reprinted
sample used for biosensing with the following dimensions: d = 0.1 with permission from Ref. 119. (b) Results of the DSRR sample sim-
mm between rings, c = 0.18 mm between rings, s = 0.2 mm between ulation with the resonance peak and surface current density distribu-
split-gaps inside rings, a = 0.68 mm between average ring radii, and tion. Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 119.

Fig. 23  (a) The biosensor has a three-dimensional array schematic as well as a cell structure diagram. The structural parameters are
Px = 500 𝜇m,Py = 300 𝜇m , L = 294 𝜇m , H = 60 𝜇m , R = 60 𝜇m.123 (b) Simulated transmission of the biosensor.123

13
A Review of Metamaterial‑Based Microwave Absorbers and Sensors 589
to the experimental findings, the detection sensitivity and
detection limit for the bovine serum albumin (BSA) analyte
solution are 72.81 GHz/ng/mm2 and 0.035 mg/mL, respec-
tively. The advantages of this biosensor are its compact size,
high detection sensitivity, low detection limits, reusability,
ease of fabrication, and affordability. To improve its sen-
sitivity and enable the detection of minute changes in the
dielectric environment, the sensor requires a sharp edge in
its frequency response and a point of extreme electric field
concentration.124 Bhati et al.125 discussed the creation of an
innovative meta-surface with a negative refractive index. It
is composed of a regular decagon pattern made of silver
metal and is placed on top of a quartz substrate. The meta-
surface exhibits exceptional sensitivity, an extremely high
quality factor (QF), and a remarkably high figure of merit
(FOM). These properties are achieved for the purpose of
detecting biological molecules within the terahertz (THz)
part of the electromagnetic spectrum. To investigate the
sensing capabilities of our meta-surface, they examined how
changes in the refractive index of the surrounding dielectric
environment affect the resonant frequencies. Figure 24b dis-
plays the transmission spectra for an analyte thickness (ta)
of 5 𝜇m. Notably, we observed a significant red shift in both
the first resonant frequency (1.13 THz shift) and the second
resonant frequency (1.08 THz shift) as the refractive index
increased from n = 1.2 to n = 1.6. This frequency shift is
understandable because alterations in the refractive index,
effective permittivity, and permeability of the environment
surrounding the meta-surface have a pronounced impact on
its resonant frequencies. The substantial shift in resonant
frequency with changes in the refractive index underscores
the device’s remarkable sensitivity for detecting important
Fig. 24  (a) Schematic diagram of MM structure with analyte on its
top surface. Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 125. (b)
Transmission spectra with an analyte applied on the top of the MM
substances such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) (n =
1.43), royal demolition explosive (RDX) (n = 1.66), and
trinitrotoluene (TNT) (n = 1.76), as well as biological mol-
ecules such as DNA (n = 1.4–1.6) and RNA (n = 1.6–2.0).
Nowadays, metamaterial-based plasmonic biosensors
are used to boost the sensitivity of plasmonic biosensors.
The benefits of adopting metamaterial sensors include
the ability to utilize a large array of geometric shapes and
sensing principles that were previously not possible with
conventional plasmonic biosensors. The characteristics of
surface plasmons are dependent on the refractive index
of the dielectric medium. This unique ability has been
employed in the creation of label-free plasmonic biosensors,
which have emerged as a prominent contemporary
technology for detecting and investigating binding events on
a metal surface between the target analyte and its matching
receptor. Surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) are currently
used in the majority of surface plasmon resonance (SPR)
biosensors. According to their structural characteristics,
biosensors based on metamaterials may be divided into
three classes: two-dimensional, three-dimensional, and two-
dimensional metasurface-based biosensors. The effective
detection of viruses among them has been accomplished
using two-dimensional metasurface biosensors. Although
the application of metamaterial in biosensing is still in
its infancy, it has already been noted that sensitivity has
increased by approximately an order of magnitude,126 and
viruses such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 127
Zika virus,128 avian influenza virus,129 cowpea mosaic virus
(CPMV),130 and protein-primed DNA1 (PRD1)131 have been
detected using metamaterial sensors. The use of plasmonic
biosensors constructed on metamaterials has the potential
structure with different refractive indices (RIs) for analyte thickness
of 5 μm. Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 125.
13
590
to revolutionize the field of label-free point-of-care virus
detection.
Fabrication
MTMAs that operate in the microwave range are mostly
fabricated using the printed circuit board (PCB) technique.
In this process, a certain thickness of copper is deposited
on both sides of photosynthesized board. FR-4 is the most
commonly used material for this kind of board. In this
frequency range, the resonator size lies within a maximum
of mm to minimum of 100 μ m, due to which a photo mask
can be easily printed on the substrate with the help of
a high-resolution printer (Fig. 25a).132 Researchers have
attempted to increase the working range of the MTMA
towards higher frequencies since the initial demonstra-
tion. As the resonance of the absorber is scaled with the
operational wavelength, the resonator size decreases in
the terahertz region, so a high-precision fabrication tech-
nique is needed. In the terahertz range, many interest-
ing and possible applications are studied, and the size of
Fig. 25  (a) Fabricated prototype of MTMA by using PCB fabrication.
Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 132. (b) Optical micros-
copy image of fabricated absorber structure with photolithography
process.133 (c) Focused ion beam (FIB) photograph of Si wafer taken
at 52◦ tilt to show the three-dimensional nature of the funnel shape.
Figure reprinted with permission from Ref. 134. (d) Scanning elec-
13
S. K. Ranjan, S. Sahoo
the resonator is mainly on the order of tens of microns.
For the fabrication of a resonator of this size, the most
effective technique is photolithography, as illustrated in
Fig. 25b. 133 Fabrication in the higher-frequency range
exceeds the capability of the photolithography process,
and hence a higher-resolution technique is required. It has
been shown that focused ion beam (FIB, Fig. 25c)134 and
E-beam lithography (Fig. 25d)135 are the best processes
for fabricating MTMA that operate in the infrared and
visible range. This technique fabricates a structure with
dimensions on the order of tens of nanometers. As photo-
lithography is a flood-exposing parallel process, it exposes
the sample point by point, and therefore it is a much slower
serial process. Hence, this technique is used for small-area
sample fabrication. Fabrication of MTMA with compara-
tively large dimensions allows for flexibility in the design.
As a result, many researchers have introduced the lumped
element-like resistor, diode and capacitor to improve the
performance. After the fabrication has been completed,
the lumped element can be soldered onto the structure as
shown in Fig. 25e. 136 A large-area MTMA is preferred
for various applications at higher infrared frequencies.
tron microscopy (SEM) image of single unit frequency-selective ther-
mal emitter (FTSE) fabricated by e-beam lithography.135 (e) Image of
fabricated prototype by using lumped element.136 (f) SEM image of
a fabricated prototype of a microscale dot array on the doctor-blade
SSQ (silsesquioxane) by R2R (roll-to-roll) NIL (nano-imprint lithog-
raphy).137
A Review of Metamaterial‑Based Microwave Absorbers and Sensors 591
Despite having high resolution, both E-beam and focused
ion beam lithography are time-consuming fabrication pro-
cesses. Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography is suitable
process at a wavelength of 193nm. This is quite similar
to conventional photolithography but it uses shorter-
wavelength deep ultraviolet (UV) light, therefore ena-
bling higher resolution. Nano-imprint lithography (NIL,
Fig. 25f)137 is another technique for large-area fabrication,
based on a reusable mold as displayed in Fig. 11. The mold
creates patterns by mechanically pressing on the substrate
(resist) followed by a subsequent process.
Future Scope
Depending upon several existing capabilities as mentioned
in the study, various goals can be targeted for future study.
Extension of the tuning mechanism at the respective unit
cell or small number of unit cells to explore large regions
is essential for the validation of many metamaterials or
conversion of electromagnetic/optical devices such as
lenses. Limited investigations have been performed regard-
ing spatial tuning of metamaterial for the development of
gradient index lenses. Ultimately, expansion of the tunable
range and application feasibility of reconfigurable meta-
material components will ensure the validity of the design
strategy for solving real-life problems. Another important
field of future advancement is the increase in accessible
tunable materials. Phase change materials are being con-
tinuously developed in the area of new material genera-
tion and refinement of tuning as well as switching circuits.
With the help of these materials, high-speed switchable
metamaterials offer an interesting field of future research
in a commercial context. Various interesting smart materi-
als which respond to environmental stimuli can also be an
important area for future development of metamaterial.
Some conducting polymers can alter their characteristics
under the influence of chemical analytes. Extensive studies
are essential for both electromagnetic fields and materials
science to identify sensing materials and develop meta-
material platforms by connecting various smart devices
in practice. Metamaterial-based sensors can extend the
resolution limit of conventional sensors and must possess
greater sensitivity and higher resolution than conventional
sensors. Further development is essential for advancing
the sensing properties of metamaterial sensors in order to
promote the development of improved sensors. Recently,
metamaterial-based sensing technology has become rela-
tively mature, but for real-world applications such as bio-
sensing, material detection, and food security, metamate-
rial sensors meet several challenging issues: (1) Sensors
still require advancements in sensitivity and resolution
with proper design of metamaterial structures or using
promising dielectric materials. (2) From microfabrication
and nanofabrication technology, the precise preparation
of different metamaterial sensors is essential. (3) In addi-
tion to the realization of metamaterial sensors based on
resonant frequency shift, the combination of the ampli-
tude and phase changes of electromagnetic waves with the
characteristics of metamaterials can generate new types of
metamaterial sensors. (4) Continued exploration is needed
in several fields of metamaterial sensing, such as pressure,
temperature, density, thickness, strain, and position. (5) As
metamaterial sensors are able to detect only one substance
at a time, multichannel metamaterial sensors should be
developed.
Conclusion
Metamaterials possess extraordinary electromagnetic
characteristics to guide electromagnetic waves in specific
ways. In addition, metamaterials can develop powerful
localization and refinement of an electromagnetic field to
formulate an ideal sensing platform with the advantages of
high sensitivity, higher resolution, fast response, and simple
measurement. The review gives a comprehensive overview of
the literature on metamaterial microwave absorbers and their
application in different areas. Various types of absorbers are
discussed, operating in several frequency regions. It is well
established from the literature that the absorption properties
of the MMA are dependent on the unit cell structure, which
plays an important role in defining whether the absorber
is sensitive or insensitive to polarization. Several excellent
choices of substrate possessing perfect absorption for a
particular frequency band are discussed in detail. Various
diverse strategies are also explained for computation and
fabrication of many such absorbers to be operated in a
multiple-band and broadband frequency range. Numerous
resonating structures in each unit cell resonate at various
frequencies. The printed circuit board (PCB) approach is
typically used to create MMA operating in the microwave
frequency range. FR-4 is a common photosensitized
board that is used in this process, and coating of copper
of suitable thickness is performed on either side of it. In
addition, FR-4 dielectric substrate-based absorbers which
have near-perfect absorption can be explored as an antenna
and filtenna. Various important features of metamaterial
sensors including the sensing mechanism and characteristic
parameters and their improvement are also discussed in
this survey. The uniqueness and versatility of metamaterial
sensors are widely accepted. These materials generally
demonstrate excellent properties and the ability to overcome
the limitations of traditional sensing devices.
13
592 S. K. Ranjan, S. Sahoo

Author Contribution SKR—wrote manuscript, prepared all the figures; 15. Y.I. Abdulkarim, L. Deng, M. Karaaslan, Ş Dalgaç, R.H. Mah-
Dr. SS—reviewed the manuscript. mud, F.F. Ozkan Alkurt, F.F. Muhammadshari, H.N. Awl, S.
Huang, and H. Luo, The detection of chemical materials with a
Funding The authors did not receive support from any organization metamaterial-based sensor incorporating oval wing resonators.
for the submitted work. Electronics 9(5): 825 (2020)
16. M.R. Islam, M.T. Islam, B. Bais, S. HAlmalki, H. Alsaif, and
Data Availability Not applicable M.S. Islam, Metamaterial sensor based on rectangular enclosed
adjacent triple circle split ring resonator with good quality factor
Conflict of interest On behalf of all the authors, the corresponding au- for microwave sensing application. Sci. Rep. 12(1): 6792 (2022)
thor states that there is no conflict of interest. 17. G.Verma and K.P. Ray, Design, fabrication and characteristics
of eco-friendly microwave absorbing materials: a review. IETE
Ethical Approval Not applicable. Tech. Rev. 39(4): 756 (2022)
18. G. Tiwari and A. Yadav, A review article on design and tech-
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