Measurements and Instrumentation

Measurements and
instrumentation
Chapter One
Basic Concepts of Measurements
and Instrumentations
Contents
• Introduction to measurement and instrumentation
• Measurement applications
• Measurement units
• Structure of measurement systems
• Examples of measurement systems
• Instrument classifications
• Static and dynamic characteristics
• Calibration
Introduction to Measurements and
Instrumentation
• Measurement is the act of assigning a specific
value to a physical variable detected by a sensor.
• A measurement system includes all the
components necessary for producing a
measurement.
• The term measuring instrument is commonly
used to describe the measurement system.
Measurements Applications
• First application: used in regulating trade,
applying instruments that measure physical
quantities such as length, volume and mass in
terms of standard units.
• Second application area of measuring
instruments is in monitoring functions. Majority
of monitoring functions exist to provide the
information necessary to allow a human being to
control some industrial operation or process.
• Third application is in experimental engineering
analysis using both theoretical and experimental
methods. Accurate measurements are necessary
and require expensive and complicated
equipment.
• Fourth application is in automatic control.
Measurements are considered as an integral part
of automatic control system. Feedback to the
controller is provided by the measurement
system.
The following figure shows functional block diagram of a
simple temperature control system in which the
temperature Ta of a room is maintained at a reference
value Td. The value of the controlled variable Ta, as
determined by a temperature-measuring device, is
compared with the reference value Td, and the difference
e is applied as an error signal to the controller. Then, the
controller controls the heater to modify the room
temperature until Ta = Td.
Measurements Units
• Metric (SI) units
• Imperial units
(A) Fundamental SI units
Measurements Units
(B) Derived SI units (some of these units are
mentioned here)
Structure of Measurement Systems
• Sensing element
This is in contact with the process and usually called
transducer or sensor. It responds to the changes in the
physical variable and deliver an output signal related
to the measured, but of a different form and nature
(e.g., thermocouple, strain gauge,…).
The property of transducer is affected by the variation
of the external physical variable according to unique
relationship.
Structure of Measurement Systems
• Signal conditioning/processing elements
This takes the output of the sensing element and
converts it into a form more suitable for presentation
(e.g., bridges, amplifiers, ADC…)
• Data presentation element
This presents the measured value in a form which can
be easily recognized by the observer (e.g., scale
indicator, chart recorder, electronic display…)
Example of Measurement Systems
Instrument Classifications
Based on power type classification
• Passive instrument (no external power source is
needed). In this instruments, the output is
produced by the quantity being measured.
• Active instrument (requires external power
source) In this instruments, the quantity being
measured simply modulates the magnitude of
some external power source
• An example of a passive instrument is the pressure-
measuring device shown in the figure below. The
pressure of the fluid is translated into a movement of a
pointer against a scale. The energy expended in
moving the pointer is derived entirely from the change
in pressure measured, i.e., there are no other energy
inputs to the system.
• An example of an active instrument is a float-type petrol tank
level indicator as sketched in the figure below. Here, the
change in petrol level moves a potentiometer arm, and the
output signal consists of a proportion of the external voltage
source applied across the two ends of the potentiometer. The
energy in the output signal comes from the external power
source: the primary transducer float system is merely
modulating the value of the voltage from this external power
source.
Based on the type of output signal
• Analog instrument gives an output that varies
continuously as the quantity being measured
(measurand) changes. The output can have an
infinite number of values within the range that the
instrument is designed to measure.
• Digital instrument has an output that varies in
discrete steps and so can only have a finite number
of values.
The Instrument Characteristics
• Static characteristics.
• Dynamic characteristics.
The Instrument Characteristics
• The static characteristics of measuring instruments
are concerned only with the steady state reading
that the instrument settles down to, such as the
accuracy of the reading.
• The dynamic characteristics of a measuring
instrument describe its behavior between the time
a measured quantity changes value and the time
when the instrument output attains a steady value
in response.
Static Characteristics
• Accuracy
• Precision/repeatability
• Resolution
• Range/span
• Sensitivity
• Linearity
• Dead zone/Dead band
• Drift
• Hysteresis
• Accuracy
The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how
close the output reading of the instrument is to the
correct value.
However, in usual practice, it is specified as the
inaccuracy of measurement from the true value by
calculating the absolute and percent error.
Sometimes, it is expressed as a percentage of the full-
scale.
The accuracy of an instrument depends on various
systematic errors.
• Accuracy
- Absolute Error
eA  Yn  X n
Where: Yn= expected value

Xn= measured value (could be μ if the device is suffering
from errors)
Yn  X n
- Percent Error eP  100%
Yn
22
• Example
A pressure gauge with a measurement range of 0 - 10 bar
has an inaccuracy of 1.0% of the full-scale reading.
(a) What is the maximum measurement error expected for
this instrument?
(b) What is the likely measurement error expressed as a
percentage of the output reading if this pressure gauge is
measuring a pressure of 1 bar?
• Solution
(a) The maximum error expected in any measurement
reading is 1.0% of the full scale reading, which is 10 bar for
this particular instrument. Hence, the maximum likely error
is 1.0% × 10 bar = 0.1 bar.
(b) The maximum measurement error is a constant value
related to the full-scale reading of the instrument,
irrespective of the magnitude of the quantity that the
instrument is actually measuring. In this case, the
magnitude of the error is 0.1 bar. Thus, when measuring a
pressure of 1 bar, the maximum possible error of 0.1 bar is
10% of the measurement value.
• Because the maximum measurement error in an
instrument is usually related to the full-scale reading
of the instrument, measuring quantities that are
substantially less than the full-scale reading means
that the possible measurement error is amplified.
• For this reason, it is an important system design
rule that instruments are chosen such that their
range is appropriate to the spread of values being
measured, so that the best possible accuracy is
maintained in instrument readings.
• Precision/Repeatability:
Precision is defined as the ability of the instrument to
reproduce a certain set of readings within a given
accuracy. The precision of the instrument depends on
the factors that cause random errors.
Repeatability is defined as the ability of the instrument
to reproduce a group of measurements of the same
measured quantity, made by the same observer, using
the same instrument, and under the same conditions.
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜇
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∓ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜇
2𝜎
𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 % = × 100
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡)
• Accuracy Versus Precision
• Example
The width of a room is measured 10 times by an ultrasonic
rule and the following measurements are obtained (in
meters): 5.381, 5.379, 5.378, 5.382, 5.380, 5.383, 5.379,
5.377, 5.380, and 5.381. The width of the same room is then
measured by a calibrated steel tape that gives a reading of
5.374 m, which can be taken as the correct value for the
width of the room.
(a) What is the measurement precision of the ultrasonic
rule?
(b) What is the maximum measurement inaccuracy of the
ultrasonic rule?
• Solution
(a) The mean (average) value of the 10 measurements made
with the ultrasonic rule is 5.380 m. The maximum deviation
below this mean value is -0.003 m and the maximum
deviation above the mean value is +0.003 m. Thus, the
precision of the ultrasonic rule can be expressed as ± 0.003 m
(± 3 mm).
(b) The correct value of the room width has been measured as
5.374 m by the calibrated steel rule. All ultrasonic rule
measurements are above this, with the largest value being
5.383 m. This last measurement is the one that exhibits the
largest measurement error. This maximum measurement
error can be calculated as 5.383 - 5.374 = 0.009 m (9 mm).
Thus, the maximum measurement inaccuracy can be
expressed as +9 mm.
• Resolution or Discrimination:
It is defined as the smallest increment in the measured
value that can be detected with certainty by the
instrument. Resolution is also defined as the smallest
change in measured value to which the instrument will
respond. Resolution is normally expressed as a
percentage of input full scale as:
Δ𝐼
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛% = × 100
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
• Range or Span
The range or span of an instrument defines
the minimum and maximum values of a
quantity that the instrument is designed to
measure.
• Static Sensitivity (scale factor or gain):
The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the
change in instrument output that occurs when the
quantity being measured changes by a given amount.
qo
Slop  K 
 qi
Where q0 and qi are the values of output and input
signals respectively.
- If the relationship between input and output is
linear, the sensitivity is constant
- If the relationship between input and output is
nonlinear, the sensitivity varies with the input
value
Example
The following resistance values of a platinum
resistance thermometer were measured at a range of
temperatures. Determine the measurement
sensitivity of the instrument in Ω /°C.
Temperature (C) Resistance (Ω)
200 307
230 314
260 321
290 328
• Linearity:
It is the closeness to which a curve approximates a
straight line. The linearity is one of the most
desirable features of any instrument. However,
linearity is not completely achieved.
• Many instruments are designed to achieve a linear
relationship between the applied static input and
indicated output values. Such a linear static calibration
curve would have the general form
where the curve fit yL(x) provides a predicted output

value based on a linear relation between x and y.
• However, in real systems, truly linear behavior is only
approximately achieved. As a result, measurement
device specifications usually provide a statement as to
the expected linearity of the static calibration curve for
the device.
• The relationship between yL(x) and measured
value y(x) is a measure of the nonlinear behavior
of a system:
• where uL(x) is a measure of the linearity error that

arises in describing the actual system behavior by
the equation. Such behavior is illustrated in the
following figure in which a linear curve has been
fit through a calibration dataset.
• Linearity:
Linearity:
• For a measurement system that is essentially
linear in behaviour, the extent of possible
nonlinearity in a measurement device is often
specified in terms of the maximum expected
linearity error as a percentage of full-scale output
range.
• Dead Zone (Dead Band):
Is the largest change of the measured quantity in
which the instrument does not respond.
• Drift:
Zero drift (bias) is the change in the zero reading of
the instrument due to a change in ambient
conditions.
Sensitivity drift is the amount by which the
instrument’s sensitivity of measurement varies as
ambient conditions change.
• Drift:
Example
A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at 20 oC
and has the following deflection/load characteristic.
Load (kg) 0 1 2 3
Deflection (degrees) 0 20 40 60
It is then used in an environment at 30 oC and the following
deflection/load characteristic is measured.
Load (kg) 0 1 2 3
Deflection (degrees) 5 27 49 71
Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per degrees

Celsius change in ambient temperature.
• Hysteresis:
It is defined as the magnitude of error caused in the
output for a given value of input, when this value is
approached from opposite direction, i.e. from
ascending order and then descending order. This is
caused by backlash, elastic deformation, magnetic
characteristics, and frictional effect.
• Hysteresis:
Hysteresis is usually specified for a measurement
system in terms of the maximum hysteresis error
as a percentage of full-scale output range.
HysteresisMAX
HysteresisMAX %  100
Fullscale
• Hysteresis:
Example: Force Voltage Voltage dev
Find the maximum hysteresis (N) (V) (V)
for the following force 0.0 5.00 5.00
0.1 5.15 5.55
Instrument. Note: the
0.2 5.25 5.65
instrument full-scale is 10 V. 0.3 5.30 5.80
0.4 5.40 6.00
0.5 5.50 6.25
0.6 5.75 6.55
0.7 6.00 6.70
0.8 6.25 6.85
0.9 6.75 6.95
1.0 7.00 7.00
Dynamic Characteristics
• In any linear time-invariant system, the following
general relation can be written between input (qi) and
output (qo) for time t > 0.
𝑑𝑛 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑞𝑜 𝑑2 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎𝑛 𝑛
+ 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛−1
+. . . 𝑎2 2
+ 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚 𝑞𝑖 𝑑𝑚−1 𝑞𝑖 𝑑2 𝑞𝑖 𝑑𝑞𝑖
𝑏𝑚 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑚−1 +. . . . . 𝑏2 2 + 𝑏1 + 𝑏0 𝑞𝑖
Note:
qi is the measured quantity, qo is the output reading,
and a0, a1, a2,…an, b0, b1, b2,…, bm are constants
• For measuring systems, If we limit consideration
only to that of step changes in the measured
quantity, the previous equation reduces to:
𝑑 𝑛 𝑞𝑜 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑞𝑜 𝑑 2 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎𝑛 𝑛
+ 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛−1
+. . . 𝑎2 2
+ 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏0 𝑞𝑖
Zero order 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏0 𝑞𝑖
First order
𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏0 𝑞𝑖
𝑑𝑡
Second order 𝑑 2 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎2 2
+ 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏0 𝑞𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Zero order instrument

𝑏0
𝑞𝑜 = 𝑞𝑖 = 𝐾𝑞𝑖 (𝐾 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. )
𝑎0
First order instrument
𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏0 𝑞𝑖
𝑑𝑡
⇓
𝑄𝑜 (𝑠) 𝐾
= ;
𝑄𝑖 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑠 + 1
𝑎1 𝑏0
𝜏= and 𝐾 =
𝑎0 𝑎0
The solution for this Linear 1st order DE consists of the homogeneous
(Natural) solution and the particular solution (forced).  is the time for
the instrument to reach 63% of its final value.
• Second order instrument
𝑑 2 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎2 2 + 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏0 𝑞𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑄0 (𝑠) 𝑏0 𝑄0 (𝑠) 𝐾
Thus 𝑄𝑖 (𝑠)
=
𝑎2 𝑆 2 +𝑎1 𝑆+𝑎0
, 𝑜𝑟
𝑄𝑖 (𝑠)
= 1 2 2𝜁
𝑆 + 𝜔 𝑠+1
𝜔2
𝑏0 𝑎0 𝑎1
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐾 = ,𝜔 = ,𝜁 =
𝑎0 𝑎2 2 𝑎0 𝑎2
K: static sensitivity
: undamped natural frequency
𝜁: damping ratio.
• Second order transducers
1. Delay time (td)

2. Rise time (tr)
3. Peak time (tp)
4. Maximum overshoot (MP)
5. Settling time (ts)
Calibration
Calibration is the process that guarantees accuracy
in a measurement, and makes the measurement
and its process traceable to appropriate standards.
• The standard device with which comparison is
made is called the standard instrument.
• The instrument which is unknown and is to be
calibrated is called the test instrument.
Reasons for Calibration
• With a new instrument
• When a specified time period is elapsed
• When a specified usage or operating hours has
elapsed
• When an instrument has had a shock or vibration
which potentially may have put it out of
calibration
• Sudden changes in weather
• Whenever observations appear questionable
Frequency of Calibration
• Frequency of calibration is usually set to 1 year.
• However, this can be changed to suit the criticality
of the application.
• In some cases, the device can be calibrated every
time a measurement is carried out.
• This depends on the rate of drift of the device and
the acceptable error.
Method of Calibration
Source and Measure functions are the two
methods used for calibration.
• In the source function, a calibrated source of
signal, standard, (voltage, current….) is injected
into the system under calibration.
• In the measure function the same signal is
injected into the system under calibration and the
standard.
Source Function Method
Standard Device to be Output

(source) calibrated display
Two point calibration

facility User adjusts device
until output equal to
standard
Measure Function Method
Source (value Standard (measure Output
unknown function) display
exactly;
neither
standard nor
calibrated) Device to be Output
calibrated display
Two point calibration

facility User adjusts device
until output equal to
display on the standard
References
• Alan Morris “Electric Measurement and
Instrumentation: Theory and Application”, 3rd
edition, Academic Press, 2021

Measurements and Instrumentation

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Measurements and Instrumentation

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Measurements and

Where: Yn= expected value

where the curve fit yL(x) provides a predicted output

• where uL(x) is a measure of the linearity error that

Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per degrees

Zero order instrument

1. Delay time (td)

Standard Device to be Output

Two point calibration

Two point calibration

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