Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 55 (2023) 493–501

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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm

Can dating app users’ self-disclosure foster travel intentions? An

appnography approach
Kyrie Eleison Muñoz a, b, Li-Hsin Chen a, *
a
The International Master’s Program of Tourism and Hospitality, National Kaohsiung University of Hospitality and Tourism, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan
b
National University, Manila, Philippines

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study investigates the effect of self-disclosure on travel motivations and intentions among users of dating
Dating applications apps. Data were collected through a year of appnography and 22 in-depth interviews. The findings show that
Self-disclosure dating app users go through three stages of self-disclosure, involving the gradual, reciprocal, and hierarchical
Online to offline relationships
sharing of information within the app. This self-disclosure leads to the development of travel motivations and
Social penetration theory
Appnography
strengthens intentions to travel internationally. The study suggests that dating apps, although not designed for
travel purposes, can be beneficial to the tourism industry. This paper presents appnographic insights and argues
for the increasing importance of online dating apps in the realm of tourism as a platform for creating travel
motivations and intentions through in-app interactions.

1. Introduction
Mobile applications have become increasingly integrated into peo­
ple’s daily lives in recent years. In 2020 alone, smartphone users
downloaded 218 billion applications, marking a 35% increase compared
to previous years (Statista, 2021). Among the most popular applications,
dating apps ranked high, surpassed in popularity only by gaming and
entertainment apps. The use of dating apps has garnered attention both
in popular discourse and academic research, as they revolutionise how
individuals seek and interact with others while providing personal
fulfilment, such as boosting self-esteem and facilitating romantic re­
lationships (Castro & Barrada, 2020). While dating apps have been
extensively studied in the fields of communication and human-computer
interaction (Wu & Trottier, 2022), their potential in the field of tourism
has only recently gained attention, with research indicating that they
can increase mobility and enhance travel experiences (Byron et al.,
2021).
Travellers often use dating apps to connect with locals who can
provide information about their destination (Leurs & Hardy, 2019). The
temporal and geographical flexibility, as well as the functionality and
ease of use, make dating apps more convenient for users to communicate
online and meet offline, compared to other applications, social
networking sites, and dating websites (Jung et al., 2019; Ranzini & Lutz,
2017). Unlike platforms like Facebook or TripAdvisor, where people
follow celebrities or key opinion leaders (KOLs) for information, most
dating app users are seeking meaningful connections, whether it is for
casual hook-ups (LeFebvre, 2018), long-term relationships or friend­
ships (Timmermans & Courtois, 2018), or leisure and entertainment
activities (Kallis, 2020; Timmermans & De Caluwé, 2017). Additionally,
while dating apps typically show potential matches within driving dis­
tance of the user, new features, such as Passport features in Tinder, have
allowed users to interact with profiles from anywhere in the world. This
has enabled dating apps to be used not only by individuals seeking
connections but also to gather information about future travels. This
trend has impacted the tourism industry, leading many tourists to prefer
dating apps over travel-specific apps, which are perceived as less
effective in extending travel experiences (Condie et al., 2018).
The interface and dynamics of dating apps lead users to generally
associate them with an extension of their social lives, enabling them to
meet and connect with others outside their daily environments. This
presents a unique opportunity for tourism researchers to study how in­
dividuals’ online interactions facilitate or lead to offline travel behav­
iours. Previous tourism studies have found a positive relationship
between individuals’ online experiences and offline travel intentions.
However, most of these studies utilised quantitative and cross-sectional
research designs (e.g., Huang et al., 2012; Wong et al., 2020). These
designs may not adequately capture the complex transformations of
users’ social interactions across different stages of virtual engagement.

* Corresponding author. 1 Songhe Road, Siaogang District, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan.

E-mail addresses: kamunoz1@alum.up.edu.ph (K.E. Muñoz), lihsinchen@mail.nkuht.edu.tw (L.-H. Chen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2023.05.020
Received 7 September 2022; Received in revised form 16 May 2023; Accepted 21 May 2023
Available online 31 May 2023
1447-6770/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of CAUTHE - COUNCIL FOR AUSTRALASIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY EDUCATION. All
rights reserved.
K.E. Muñoz and L.-H. Chen
Therefore, scholars have called for more longitudinal studies and
exploration of other factors that may facilitate online-offline transition
behaviours (Huang et al., 2012; Wong et al., 2020). To address these
research gaps, the present study employs appnography as the primary
research method, involving the researcher’s long-term immersion in the
app-based context to obtain emic insights and actively participate in
essential interactions among dating app users. The Social Penetration
Theory is used as the theoretical framework to explore how motivations
and intentions for travelling overseas can be developed through dating
app users’ self-disclosure and information exchanges. This paper posits
that a niche travel market comprises users interacting within the dating
application and can be tapped as potential overseas tourists.
2. Literature review
2.1. Dating apps in tourism and hospitality
Soro (2019) suggests that dating apps have significant implications
for the tourism industry. Although not explicitly designed for tourism,
these apps have facilitated and extended travel and tourism activities
(Condie et al., 2018). For instance, some people use dating apps to
connect with locals and other users in tourist destinations, where they
can interact, socialise, and engage in leisure activities (James et al.,
2019). Tourists may also use dating apps to immerse themselves in the
destination’s culture and share experiences with locals (Brennan, 2020).
Local connections provide authentic access to local knowledge, which is
particularly appealing to contemporary tourists seeking unique tourism
experiences.
Evans (2016) found that tourists use dating apps to seek local con­
nections and self-actualization while conforming to conventional dating
norms like love and belongingness. This phenomenon was possible
because dating apps facilitate intimate encounters that allow users to
meet locals who can help them explore the destination, something that
traditional tourism applications cannot provide. Thus, unlike traditional
social media platforms, which lack the feature of showing other users
within geographical distance, the use of dating apps while travelling is
motivated by a desire for human-to-human interactions, to reduce
feelings of isolation and create social groups, and to alleviate safety
concerns from fellow users whose identities and motivations are simi­
larly constructed as those of the user on holiday (Condie et al., 2018;
Lean & Condie, 2017). Vorobjovas-Pinta and Dalla-Fontana (2018) also
report that dating apps are an essential tool for LGBTQ tourists in a
resort, helping these tourists bridge their sexualities and build social
connections with other tourists at the destination.
A review of the existing research on the use of dating apps for
tourism purposes reveals that this area of knowledge is still in its in­
fancy. The mediated nature of dating apps, which allows users to conceal
their identities and explore different ways of presenting themselves,
poses challenges to exchanging information and interpersonal relations
(Goldenberg, 2019). As a result, online interactions on dating apps may
not be equivalent to in-person social interactions, despite attempting to
replicate these interactions. Previous studies on this topic have yet to
adequately examine the uniqueness of self-disclosure in virtual envi­
ronments, the processes involved, and their influence on behavioural
outcomes prior to actual travel. The current study addresses this gap by
exploring how self-disclosure on dating apps can facilitate online social
interactions at different stages of matching and ultimately lead to the
development of intentions to travel overseas.
2.2. Social Penetration Theory
Social Penetration Theory (SPT) is a sociological framework that
explains how interpersonal relationships are formed through a process
undertaken by individuals for relational benefits and costs through self-
disclosure (Altman & Taylor, 1973; Taylor & Altman, 1987).
Self-disclosure is essential because the reciprocal revelation of
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 55 (2023) 493–501
information between parties is a requisite for obtaining desired out­
comes such as relationships and intimacy (Chaudhry & Loewenstein,
2019; Tang & Wang, 2012). This theory argues that relationships are
formed and developed through a systematic process metaphorically
illustrated using an onion model consisting of several layers or stages that
individuals penetrate using self-disclosed information and some level of
vulnerability (Carpenter & Greene, 2015).
In this onion model, orientation is the outermost layer and pertains to
the stage where individuals disclose only superficial information such as
age, likes, and dislikes. This is because individuals are believed to ex­
ercise more caution as relationships begin. Moving through the spec­
trum, exploratory and affective exchange belongs to the middle layer,
where individuals become less cautious and more casual in self-
disclosing, thereby sharing attitudes, beliefs, and values. Lastly, the
stable exchange is the deepest layer where parties become open and
honest in sharing the most private information (Taylor & Altman, 1987).
Huang et al. (2020) believe that higher degrees of self-disclosure facil­
itate higher intimacy in this stage, allowing individuals to maintain close
friendships and romantic relationships. However, depenetration can also
occur when individuals reduce self-disclosed information to others when
information exchange is triggered by conflicts, stressors, or disinterest
(Carpenter & Greene, 2015; Taylor & Altman, 1987).
SPT has been used in tourism research to explain how travellers
develop their travel behaviours through self-disclosure in digital envi­
ronments. Previous studies have shown that self-disclosure, which in­
volves sharing personal information and engaging in interactions, can
affect spontaneous travel choices (Zhang et al., 2020), travel satisfaction
(Lin et al., 2019; Wong et al., 2019), and behavioural intentions (Huang
et al., 2020; Muñoz, 2022). Conversely, recent literature on
self-disclosure in dating apps has focused merely on the communicative
aspects of self-disclosure, such as the intent to self-disclose (Krämer &
Schäwel, 2020), the differences between online and offline
self-disclosures (Schlosser, 2020), and its influences on outcomes such as
intimacy and satisfaction (Lin et al., 2019; Melumad & Meyer, 2020). As
such, current literature has neglected to investigate the process of how
individuals self-disclose (i.e., categorical, hierarchical) and how such
interactions develop subsequent behavioural intentions within dating
apps despite its relevance in understanding tourist behaviour (Albury &
Byron, 2016).
3. Methods
To the best of our knowledge, previous research has yet to be con­
ducted to understand how information was (self-)disclosed during the
matchmaking process on dating apps and how such interactions devel­
oped travel motivations and intentions. Therefore, qualitative methods
were used to explore the phenomenon. The study relies on diverse data
from Tinder to better understand the participants’ experiences and
characteristics (Haven et al., 2020; Patton, 2015). The techniques
employed were (1) appnography and (2) semi-structured interviews.
Appnography borrows its underpinnings from digital ethnography as
the approach seeks to understand the app-based culture of contempo­
rary dating and sexual relations through online social interaction
(Cousineau et al., 2019). This approach was proposed in response to the
growing dilemma of conducting research in location-based applications
and related mobile technologies. Engaging in appnography enables re­
searchers to immerse themselves within applications to observe pro­
cesses, facilitate interactions, and access information not extended to
non-users. Additionally, appnography allows researchers to navigate
and interact with an immense number of users, their profiles, and con­
versations, which are the nexus and gateway of the phenomenon of
using dating apps for tourism purposes. Thus, we used appnography to
observe and participate in the Tinder matchmaking process. Purposely,
we observed users’ self-disclosing information through photos, texts,
related media, interactions, and conversations. Notes were taken in
observational tables to record salient information.
K.E. Muñoz and L.-H. Chen Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 55 (2023) 493–501

On the other hand, in-depth interviews were used to obtain issue- Table 1
specific insights through conversations with each interviewee (Bry­ Participant information (N = 22).
man, 2015). This approach allows us to ask follow-up and probing ID Sex Age Country/ Length Dating Motivations in
questions to understand better what interviewees perceive on the issue No. Region of Use Apps Using Dating
(Bazeley & Jackson, 2013; Burns & Bush, 2003). Used Apps

1 Male 23 USA 5 Tinder, Relationship

3.1. Data collection months Grindr
2 Female 55 Bahrain 3 Tinder, Trend
months
From April 2020 to April 2021, the lead author collected data on 3 Female 44 Paraguay 2 Tinder, Socialising
Tinder for at least 1 h each day. The lead author’s account was sub­ months Bumble
scribed to the Passport feature for a year to ensure sufficient engagement 4 Female 19 Spain 7 Tinder, Exploring
in the application. We virtually travelled to over 20 locations, including months Her
5 Female 28 UK 4 Tinder, Relationship
Auckland, Bangkok, Barcelona, Berlin, Bonifacio Global City (The
months Hinge
Philippines), Brisbane, Buenos Aires, Dublin, Hong Kong, London, Los 6 Male 27 Thailand 6 Tinder, Acquaintances
Angeles, Mexico City, Milan, New York City, Paris, São Paulo, Singapore months Grindr
City, Sydney, Taipei, and Tokyo. We browsed profiles and made regular 7 Female 32 Australia 3 Tinder, Relationship
and detailed notes reflecting on the matchmaking and interaction months CMB
8 Male 22 Taiwan 2 Tinder, Exploring
processes. months Omi, iPair
Throughout the study, rigorous ethical standards were upheld. The 9 Female 24 France 5 Tinder Trend
lead author’s existing profile was transparently updated to disclose months
sexual orientation, relationship status, and the research-oriented use of 10 Male 18 Singapore 4 Tinder Entertainment
months
the app. Upon matching, the lead author reiterated their role as a
11 Male 35 Hong Kong 1 Tinder Socialising
researcher and the research’s aims, ensuring participant comprehension. month
Confidentiality was assured by omitting details from notes and tran­ 12 Male 41 Japan 1 Tinder, Exploring
scripts that could identify participants, an approach agreed upon by all month Grindr,
parties. These steps enhanced transparency in participant recruitment, Bumble
13 Female 26 USA 3 Tinder, Relationship
fostered rapport between researchers and participants, and fortified the months OkCupid
integrity of the research design and process (Cosineau et al., 2019; 14 Male 24 The 7 Tinder, Relationship
Johnson et al., 2023). Philippines months Bumble,
During the data analysis phase, the lead author matched and inter­ Hinge
15 Male 63 Italy 2 years Tinder Entertainment
acted with 463 users from different countries using the Passport feature.
16 Female 51 Australia 6 Tinder, Acquaintances
From this pool, 22 in-depth interviews were conducted with dating app months CMB
users who consented to participate in the research. As presented in 17 Male 42 Australia 1.5 Tinder, Trend
Table 1, these participants (N = 22) represent a diverse demographic years Bumble,
spread across different countries/regions. The participants’ ages range CMB
18 Female 34 Taiwan 1 year Tinder, Relationship
from 18 to 63 years, with both males and females well-represented. Omi
Their dating app use varied from 1 month to 2 years, and they re­ 19 Male 40 New 7 Tinder, Acquaintances
ported using platforms such as Tinder, Grindr, Bumble, Her, Hinge, Zealand months Bumble,
CMB, Omi, and iPair. Notably, motivations for using dating apps were Hinge
20 Female 57 USA 2 years Tinder Entertainment
also diverse, with some participants seeking relationships while others
21 Female 37 UK 3 Tinder Trend
were exploring, socialising, following trends, seeking entertainment, or months
looking to expand their circle of acquaintances. This diversity of par­ 22 Female 33 Argentina 7 Tinder Socialising
ticipants and their dating app experiences provided a rich data set for months
exploration and analysis.
Due to the context of the study revolving around dating app users
with varying cultural demographics, a semi-structured interview suited Table 2
well (Bazeley & Jackson, 2013). We used a 15-question interview guide Semi-structure interview questions.
as a foundation for the interviews (see Table 2). Follow-up and probing No. Questions
questions were used to understand the interviewees’ perceptions
1 How was your experience in using Tinder?
further. The interviews were conducted online and lasted between 45
2 How was your experience in using its passport feature?
and 60 min. The interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. 3 Why do you use Tinder?
Data saturation was reached, and no new themes nor patterns emerged 4 Why do you use the Passport feature?
from the remaining information. 5 Can you walk me through how you use Tinder?
6 Can you describe to me your profile?
7 What can you say about other people’s profiles?
3.2. Data analysis 8 Can you tell me about your experience in obtaining matches?
9 What do you feel about getting matches?
Thematic analysis was used to generate codes, categories, and 10 Please describe how you interact and communicate with your Tinder matches.
themes related to the research objectives. Following Braun and Clarke 11 What do you usually talk about?
12 Why do you talk about such things?
(2013), the 22 interviews were transcribed, resulting in 126 pages of 13 Can you describe your relationship with your Tinder passport matches?
data to analyse. The interviews were re-read multiple times, and mar­ 14 What are your plans after using Tinder?
ginal notes were used to familiarise ourselves with the data and reflect 15 Will you travel physically to your Tinder passport matches’ home countries?
on themes. The lead author conducted an iterative coding process, and Why? Why not?
then the co-author scrutinised the codebook. This process helped us to
break the texts down and identify thematic patterns. We identified 168
potential codes from the initial coding. Each code was reviewed one by
one and grouped into categories, generating a total of 39 categories.

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K.E. Muñoz and L.-H. Chen
Finally, categories that were repeated from the previous stage, those
with similarities or differences, and quotes or strings of words that
exemplified the research phenomenon were organised into themes.
Finally, four final themes were emerged, named, structured, and refined.
We used the criteria established by Lincoln and Guba (1985) to
confirm data trustworthiness. Through prolonged engagement and
persistent observation, we observed and engaged with fellow Tinder
users for a year. We used our time on the app to familiarise ourselves
with the context of using a dating application and foster trust to collect
the appropriate data. To confirm dependability and conformability, we
have made an audit trail available with a further discussion about how
the data was treated based on the coding scheme above. Thick de­
scriptions were also provided to showcase a nuanced understanding of
the context and establish transferability. Lastly, we used a reflexivity
journal to carefully document our reflections, position, and pre­
conceptions throughout the research process.
4. Results and discussions
This section presents the online travel experiences of dating app
users and demonstrates how these experiences progressively contribute
to the formation of motivations and intentions for future international
travel. Adapting the conventional SPT’s onion model (Carpenter and
Greene, 2015), the social penetration process is summarised and illus­
trated in Fig. 1. In the final stage of self-disclosure, travel intentions are
developed gradually as users reach higher levels of intimacy and trust.
This gradual development allows users to explore the possibility of
travelling together, with intentions becoming more concrete as the
relationship deepens and both parties feel more comfortable sharing
their thoughts and desires about future travel experiences. By empha­
sizing this gradual development of travel intentions in the final stage of
self-disclosure, we provide a comprehensive understanding of how
users’ online interactions on dating apps can lead to the formation of
travel motivations and intentions.
4.1. Pre-matchmaking interactions
The outermost layer presents the starting point of users’ self-
disclosure behaviour. This stage involves impression management
through self-presentation, which deals with how users present them­
selves to fellow users by managing profiles that show personal infor­
mation they deem necessary. Compared with the layers in the original
Fig. 1. Dating app users’ social penetration process.
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 55 (2023) 493–501
SPT, our model merges the orientation and exploratory affective stage as
users have consciously and deliberately self-disclosed superficial to ca­
sual information about themselves through self-presented profiles.
During the pre-match stage, users have yet to interact with each other
directly. They create their own profiles and browse through others’
profiles. Through browsing, they get a chance to swipe right for those
they like or swipe left for those otherwise. Only after mutually swiping
right can users make matches. As Fig. 1 presented, two categories
emerged as a result of self-disclosure before the matchmaking process:
self-presentation and perceived realness.
4.1.1. Self-presentation
This refers to the starting point of users’ self-disclosure behaviour
and the most crucial step among users. Each user constructs an online
self-presentation of themselves by curating profiles to obtain matches
potentially. This phase is essential because users can only rely on such
profiles to make an impression on fellow users by using self-disclosed
information in a virtual environment (Taj, 2016). According to Ward
(2017), profiles typically show information selected by the user to hint
at their personalities. Users would include photos, name, age, location,
as well as their hobbies, activities, and interests in their profiles. While
the dating app offers a list of predetermined themes for this purpose,
users can freely customise their profiles by providing a self-biography.
Based on the observations obtained from appnography, we found
that users treated profiles very carefully and always deliberately chose
the content and information revealed. They also highly emphasise the
information other users show on their profiles. They rarely swipe right
on profiles that do not hint at an identity of a “real person.” They rely on
the profiles’ contents to decide if they will initiate a conversation with
the other. Just like Participant 10 mentioned: “I mean … how can we
talk about anything if they don’t even show their face and put something
about themselves? I would appreciate it if they write something there so
we can have something to talk about. (Male, 18, Singapore)" The
response imply that self-disclosing personal information is a pivotal
aspect in the matchmaking process. After all, a user would never have a
chance to talk and interact with another user who swiped left (disliked)
their profiles (Erevik et al., 2020).
4.1.2. Perceived realness
The mediated nature of dating apps affords users to remain anony­
mous and conceal their true identities. Participant 1 reflected: “Some­
times, people are so unconvincing, you know. He looked so cute in his
profile photo […], but he is nothing close to that in real life. (Male, 23,
USA)" This finding suggests that the authenticity of self-disclosed in­
formation is crucial in successfully negotiating trust as participants
seemingly evaluate the genuineness of the other. According to Jones and
Shah (2016), the perception of realness towards fellow users in the
dating application is a vital factor in evaluating the potential risks from
future interactions. Przepiorka and Berger (2017) also pointed out that
signals of trust and trustworthiness are requisites in social exchanges
such as the matchmaking process on dating apps. In this study, we found
that perceived realness is particularly important for users because
tourists need more sense of security in a place which they are unfamiliar
with.
4.2. Post-matchmaking interactions
Users who mutually swipe right on each other’s profile ends up
matching and begin direct interactions. In this stage, users negotiate
trust, validate realness, and build intimacy through increasing self-
disclosure behaviour. This is comparable to the affective exchange
layer of the original SPT, where relationships begin to form as infor­
mation bantered deepens. Two categories emerge from these events as
the core of dating app users’ social penetration process: information ex­
change and closeness.
K.E. Muñoz and L.-H. Chen
4.2.1. Information exchange
This phase occurs immediately after matching. Dating app users’
conversations revolve around things written on their profiles. Tourists
then begin disclosing deeper information about themselves, such as
hobbies, interests, and preferences. As Participant 13 narrate:
“We ask each other what things we [are] interested in … what food
they like [ …] if they are more of a dog or cat person? If they like Marvel
over DC? Lights on or lights off? Sex or chocolates? Those things. (Fe­
male, 26, USA)"
The SPT can well illustrate this process. Dating app users start from
the most superficial information, such as demographic profiles, down to
the most detailed and intimate communication. Based on the observa­
tions from appnography, we found that users self-disclose in a gradual,
reciprocal, categorical, and hierarchical manner. It is important to note,
however, that these exchanges happen only after matchmaking.
Messaging other users is not possible prior to swiping right. This ties up
to the idea that users would find out and discover things that go beyond
what we have written in the profiles because of the back-and-forth ex­
change of information (Houghton et al., 2018). These kinds of infor­
mation can only be disclosed and communicated better through the
actual in-app conversations users engage in.
4.2.2. Closeness
While exchanging information, users became close and connected.
Participants mentioned that human touch, affection, and connection
were the causes why such closeness developed. Similar to the SPT, they
tend to reciprocate a shared feeling or affection with the other user when
they have sufficient information in the interactions. In the case of dating
apps, however, users build confidence and affection because of formed
during the casual exchanges of information over time (Farci et al.,
2017). They tend to reciprocate a shared feeling of affection with the
other user when they have sufficient information in the interactions they
have received. The participants’ responses clarified how building in­
timacy was also essential during interacting on the dating app. This
phenomenon occurs because post-matchmaking interactions in the app
allow the constant self-discourse creates more robust connections and
mutual empathy (Nikjoo et al., 2021).
4.3. Developing travel intentions
Another theme which emerged in the data analysis explains how
users developed an intention to travel internationally because of the in-
app interactions they have facilitated. The process is illustrated using the
conceptual model proposed on Fig. 2 below. Findings reveal that the
relationships they have built with each other, through constant self-
disclosure, has produced two motivations which eventually enhanced
travel intentions. These are the desire to meet the other person and
enticement towards the other’s country.
Fig. 2. Dating app users’ self-disclosure -travel intention model.
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 55 (2023) 493–501
4.3.1. Desire to meet the other person
Meetups are almost inevitable as dating application users often
decide to meet the other person behind the screen. In the context of this
study, the meetup stage is novel because the Passport feature has
enabled users to meet others abroad. Participants indicated positive
attitudes on the possibility of meeting fellow dating users in the future.
Two categories were identified to give meaning on the purpose of why
users desire to meet their matches. These reasons include 1)
relationship-seeking, and 2) casual meet-up.
4.3.1.1. Relationship-seeking. Corollary to the statements established by
previous literature (see Gatter & Hodkinson, 2016; Newett et al., 2017;
Sumter et al., 2017; Timmermans & De Caluwé, 2017), individuals tend
to use dating applications so that they can seek relationships. This
finding makes sense because dating apps are, after all, an application
created for establishing romantic relationships. Participants tell their
purpose for travelling to the other person’s country to look for a sig­
nificant other: “I am here because I want to meet a partner from abroad
that I can visit and travel to.” (Participant 14, Male, 24, The Philippines).
From our observations when using the dating app, we found that
these relationships were not just limited to romantic ones. Dating app
users also formed friendships inside the application. Parallel to the
findings of Lean and Condie (2017), tourists who use dating apps regard
the dating apps as a venue where users can seek and build digital con­
nections and intimacies. Using the dating app has made seeking both
types of relationships, romantic and friendship, possible among tourists.
Furthermore, such formed friendship has also developed an intention to
travel overseas. According to Participant 5, “[…] of course, how would I
else meet them? Treating them as my close friends already […] and I got
them, haven’t I? That’s how it is […] a dating app, so you really need to
meet. (Female, 28, UK)” Participant 4 also mentioned: “Funny thing, I
already booked a ticket to go there next year. (Female, 19, Spain)”
Dating app users’ intentions to travel were developed after building a
closed relationship caused by the frequency and accuracy of the infor­
mation the other party has provided (Zhang et al., 2020). This finding
complements the claim of Evans (2016) that dating app users give high
importance to making friendships despite the application being built for
dating purposes. Dating app users developed a sense of shared and a
mutual feeling of closeness toward one another. Because of these, a
desire to travel has generated to meet their newly found friends.
4.3.1.2. Casual meetup. Contrary to the findings above, there were also
participants who considered the casualness of meeting their fellow
dating app users. The difference under this category is they do not
necessarily seek a long-term or committed relationship. Participants
would instead prefer to keep it spontaneous and incidental. For them,
they intend to meet the other user for the sake of fulfilling sexual desires
and hooking up. Participant 6 stated: “[…] just like any dating app […]
sometimes if you just feel it, you just go. Just meet them. (Male, 27,
K.E. Muñoz and L.-H. Chen
Thailand)” And Participant 8 mentioned: “No relationship […] just meet
and hook up with them. (Male, 22, Taiwan)”
In this scenario, participants are still willing to travel to other
countries to have sexual intercourse with the people they match. For
them, this is part of the travel experience of engaging in casual activities
for physical validation when on holiday. This finding is similar to the
claim of James et al. (2019) on the interface and features of dating apps,
and the conventional thought of this application as a platform for
hooking up enhances its appeal for dating app users to engage in sexual
activities while away from home. Unlike the preceding category, par­
ticipants who want to hook up do not desire to commit some sort of
relationship with the other. There is no expectation of keeping in touch
after the casual meet-up. Dating app users would simply meet and have
sex, and the interactions end after they have done the deed (LeFebvre,
2018).
4.3.2. Enticement towards the Other’s country
Aside from getting to know other people, dating app users also get to
know the country of their matches. Our appnographic observations
revealed that the exchange of information among users creates an
impression about their home country, which helps shape the intention of
the other to travel. Under this sub-theme, perceptions of destinations
and culture, and new experiences foster dating app users’ intentions to
travel overseas.
4.3.2.1. Destinations and culture. A recurring response was about how
the perceptions of destinations and culture affect one’s intention to
travel. These perceptions were important because the context of the
study is situated in a time of the pandemic, which bars physical travel.
Despite much information about destinations and cultures from online
and electronic sources, dating app users have obtained alternative in­
formation on these from their matches. Such information is seen as
authentic and firsthand to influence the users’ perception of the other’s
country, thereby affecting their intention to travel. Participant 12 has
mentioned: “My goal is to visit the Eiffel Tower … I knew more about it
through my French friend from this [dating app]. (Male, 41, Japan)”
Also, Participant 7 reflected: “Never knew anything about East Asian
culture [until] I met my match from Korea [ …] Probably would know
more about it when I go there. (Female, 32, Australia)”
Participants appear to have confirmed their intention to travel
because they have interacted with other users who are locals in the
destinations they want to explore. Their preconceived notions about a
tourist destination have been reinforced by their matches, who provide
the information they cannot obtain from other sources. These findings
relate to the claim of Leurs and Hardy (2019) about the ability of locals
of destinations to give dating app users access to insider information and
thus extend their tourism experiences.
4.3.2.2. New experiences. Another motivation that drives dating app
users to travel to other users’ countries is obtaining new experiences. In
this category, participants stated that they intend to travel because of
gastronomy, adventure, and entertainment available at the destination.
As Participant 2 mentioned: “People can learn a lot about a nation’s
cuisine […] food intersects and adopts practices from other countries.
(Female, 55, Bahrain)” And, Participant 1 stated: “She told me about
new things to do are out there … Adventure awaits! (Male, 23, USA)”
Participant 11 added: “I also want to try … thrill and action in my tours
… didn’t know sky crawlers exist. (Male, 35, France)”
Participants became familiar with experiences they had never tried
or heard of before. Such information was only made brought out by the
interactions with fellow dating app users. Despite not necessarily
wanting to meet their match, the information others gave them was
enough to shape their decision to travel abroad. This type of information
is seen more powerful than information obtained from other online
travel forums, such as TripAdvisor or Google Maps, because a sense of
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 55 (2023) 493–501
trust had developed during intimate interactions through the dating app.
They were enticed to try these unfamiliar experiences for themselves.
For these participants, dating apps are the platform where they were
acquainted with fresh insights, which subsequently shaped their travel
motivations. These findings agree with previous studies (Kallis, 2020;
Timmermans & De Caluwé, 2017) by showing how dating apps became
a helpful platform for enhancing leisurely experiences. Being acquainted
with information on gastronomy, adventure, and entertainment has
made the participants feel the necessity to travel.
4.4. Barriers to travel intentions
In the previous sections, participants narrated how their interactions
in dating applications can develop into travel intentions. However, there
were emergent findings that suggest several factors which would hinder
the development of such intentions as a result of reservations directed
towards the destination and the other person. This can be explained with
safety and security risks, and ghosting.
4.4.1. Safety and security risks
Over the recent years, tourists have been highly perceptive on risks
and have paid close attention to safety and security (Cui et al., 2016).
Given the study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, par­
ticipants considered the likelihood of an unfavourable outcome arising
from travel. Health authorities globally were at the midst of responding
to this health crisis and governments were implementing localised
lockdowns and quarantines in their jurisdiction which restricts mobility
at the time of studying. This fact has influenced the perceptions of dating
app users with demotivates them to develop intentions to travel.
Participant 4 have mentioned: “Scared about corona, to be honest. I
heard the situation in his place is doing worse than mine.” Participant 4
also said: “My country is already getting vaccines, but I don’t know
about their countries … especially in the far places. I will not go there.”
Cahyanto et al. (2016) claims that tourists’ perceived travel risk and
susceptibility is linked to travel avoidance during a pandemic. This
study’s participants also evaluate risks related to health before intending
to travel. The conditions of destinations other than their domicile have
made users perceive travelling as an activity with higher inherent risks
and lesser feeling of safety and security. This further implies that users
exhibit disinterest in travelling to destinations which are not faring well
in coping with the pandemic. This makes sense as travelling during these
trying times gives off a feeling of fear and anxiety over the unwarranted
transmission of the disease (Uğur & Akbıyık, 2020).
4.4.2. Ghosting
Travel intentions cannot prosper when users do not develop a mutual
feeling of interest between each other as a result of an interruption or
total closing off in the self-disclosure process. Dating app users tend to
“ghost” those who they are not interested with. Ghosting happens when
users deliberately cut each other off and stop communicating without
any sense of closure or reason. According to our appnographic obser­
vations, users ghost others when they feel that there is no point in car­
rying the relationship to the next level. One user mention:
“Oh my, those I don’t feel the vibe with? I just ghost them […] I don’t
need to continue talking to them […] because either I don’t really like
them that much […] or we don’t have common interests anyway to keep
the relationship. I stop replying or unmatch them.” (Participant 10,
Singapore).
This situation can be associated with the depenetration stage in the
SPT where the information and relationship between individuals begin
to disintegrate (Carpenter & Greene, 2015). Intriguingly, participants
consider the importance of self-disclosed information before ghosting
the other as manifested in the excerpt above. This can be associated to
what Licoppe (2020) describes as “topical pressure” on dating applica­
tions. Users consistently put effort in finding topics to sustain the con­
versations and manifest a positive attitude towards relationship
K.E. Muñoz and L.-H. Chen
building. Both users then begin feeling burdened of sustaining the ex­
change of information by pressuring themselves to think of new re­
sponses or topics that would suit their common interest.
Another form of ghosting is by unmatching or removing a user from
one’s list of connections and matches. After all, relationships normally
fragment when behavioural actions call for it especially when users
deem not gaining any positive outcome from the process. In summary,
these two forms of ghosting were seen to be a barrier to travel intentions.
Ghosting a user would not give a chance for users to develop interest in
meeting their online counterpart as the process of self-disclosure will not
escalate towards the penetrative layers of SPT and relationship-building,
but rather move down towards depenetration.
5. Conclusions
Under the guidance of SPT, we examined how continuous and pro­
gressive self-disclosure plays a key role in transforming social in­
teractions online into travel intentions offline among dating application
users. Our findings revealed some theoretical and practical implications.
5.1. Theoretical implications
The increasing popularity of dating applications, coupled with a lack
of research examining how people self-disclose in different match­
making phases to achieve behavioural outcomes, prompted this
research. Using dating app users interacting around the world as the
research subjects, this study advances the SPT by proposing that dating
app users engage in three stages or layers of self-disclosure, comprising
distinct processes and levels of information exchange between users.
This differs from the conventional SPT, which posits that relationships
develop through six layers of self-disclosure (Altman & Taylor, 1973;
Carpenter & Greene, 2015). This adaptation is due to the unique nature
of in-app interactions on dating apps, which allows users to skip certain
layers of the SPT, as interactions remain impossible before matchmaking
(Timmermans & Courtois, 2018).
Furthermore, this study contributes to the investigation of how
dating apps, which are not explicitly designed for travel, continue to
intersect with and coexist in the realm of tourism, despite receiving
limited attention from scholars to date (Byron et al., 2021; Condie et al.,
2018; Frohnholzer, 2021). This study serves as a crucial foundation for
explaining how online social interactions, using social penetration and
self-disclosure, can facilitate offline travel behaviours. Dating app users
rely on self-disclosure to present an extension of themselves through
their profiles, which aids the perception of realness (Melumad & Meyer,
2020), the procedural exchange of information (Leurs & Hardy, 2019),
and closeness among fellow users (Kallis, 2020; Petrychyn et al., 2020).
Going through three stages of self-disclosure, involving the gradual,
reciprocal, categorical, and hierarchical sharing of information within
the app, was seen to have helped develop travel intentions. As such, it is
posited that self-disclosure serves as an antecedent in enhancing offline
travel motivations and intentions. The model shown in Fig. 2 can be used
in future research to investigate tourist behaviours and intentions from
an online-to-offline transition perspective.
Finally, this study employed appnography, an emerging methodol­
ogy in qualitative research and novel in the field of tourism (Cousineau
et al., 2019). Engaging in appnography extended our immersion process,
providing access to the realm of dating apps imbued with meanings that
may be unfamiliar to non-users. This technique enabled us to derive
more interpretive meaning from the data analysis process on
self-disclosure and enhance our reflexivity on personal experiences on
the app (Pink et al., 2016; Postill & Pink, 2012). Appnography allows for
an in-depth understanding of the intricacies of dating app usage and the
development of travel intentions, highlighting its potential as a valuable
methodological tool in tourism research.
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 55 (2023) 493–501
5.2. Practical implications
Findings have shown that travel intentions are developed because of
users’ desire to meet their online counterparts for relationship-seeking
purposes. This suggests that dating applications is a marketplace of a
niche segment of users who will soon travel to meet other people for the
sake of finding friendships, hook-ups, or romantic relationships. As such,
there is an opportunity for tourism and hospitality establishments to
serve as the venues for such meetups. Leisure and entertainment busi­
nesses may offer promotional activities to attract dating app users in
conducting friendly meetups in their establishments. Hotels and res­
taurants can attract romantic dating app users by offering discounts and
complementary rates to trigger the swift and spontaneous travel among
those who want casual meetups. Travel agencies and destination mar­
keting organisations (DMO) may also develop travel packages specif­
ically targeted to dating app users who are actively looking for
friendships, romantic partnerships, or for those merely using the appli­
cation while away on a holiday. By doing so, businesses can transform
these users’ intention into actual offline travel.
Another finding revealed that users develop travel intentions when
they get enticed about another country’s destinations, culture, and new
experiences. Therefore, tourism and hospitality organisations and DMOs
should use dating applications as a platform for marketing and pro­
moting their products. This provides an opportunity to enhance users’
knowledge and stimulate their curiosity with additional information
about destinations that reinforces the insights their online counterparts
have been providing them.
Furthermore, it is important for dating applications to prioritise
safety and security measures by incentivizing users to provide accurate
and truthful information. This can be achieved through initiatives such
as offering additional free swipes to “verified” users and improving the
report function for suspicious accounts. By creating a safer environment,
users will feel more comfortable engaging in ongoing and progressive
self-disclosure, which can enhance the exchange of travel intentions
among users.
5.3. Limitations and future research suggestions
In spite of the significant contributions this study has provided, this
research has some limitations. First, interview participants were pooled
from the own personal matches of the lead author. These matches were
dependent on several factors such as time, proximity while using the
dating app, and mutual matchmaking. While both techniques were
instrumental in providing insight for the study, the samples obtained
may not represent a complete picture of the phenomenon as they were
drawn purposively. Future research could bridge this gap by diversifying
the samples in terms of age, sex, and geographic location. By organising
a research team which will all use dating apps simultaneously, they can
obtain more matches from diverse demographics in multiple locations.
Likewise, a comparative study between individual differences, such as
demographic characteristics or personality traits, can also be examined
to give more meaning to the phenomenon. Future research should also
consider other constructs such as perceptions of health safety, security,
and risk, which may influence the travel intentions.
CRediT author statement
Kyrie Eleison Munoz: Conceptualisation; Methodology; Investiga­
tion; Writing - original draft; Writing - review & editing. Li-Hsin Chen:
Conceptualisation; Methodology; Supervision; Writing - review &
editing.
Declaration of interest statement
None.
K.E. Muñoz and L.-H. Chen
Declaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the
writing process
During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used ChatGPT and
Grammarly to enhance the grammar and readability of the manuscript.
After using these tools, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as
needed and take(s) full responsibility for the content of the publication.
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 55 (2023) 493–501
Kyrie Eleison Muñoz is a researcher at the National Univer­
sity, Philippines and the National Kaohsiung University of
Hospitality and Tourism, Taiwan where he also obtained his
International Master’s degree. As a social scientist, he has
particular interest in conducting research on disadvantaged &
vulnerable groups, consumer behaviour, crisis response,
workforce, and education within the tourism & hospitality
context.
Dr. Li-Hsin Chen, Associate Professor at the National Kaoh­
siung University of Hospitality and Tourism, Taiwan, is distin­
guished for her contributions to hospitality and tourism
management, recognised by multiple awards. Besides incorpo­
rating Lego Serious Play and Design Thinking in teaching, she
holds editorial roles including Associate Editor for the Journal
of Responsible Tourism Management and co-editor of the Rut­
ledge Handbook of Tea Tourism. Her research spans bicycle
tourism, tea and coffee tourism, festival planning, and lever­
ages methodologies such as text-mining and big data analysis.
Her work, leading to numerous publications and projects, re­
flects a commitment to expanding knowledge in the sector.
Further details are available on her ORCID iD page.